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Full download Ruppel’s Manual of Pulmonary Function Testing 11th Edition file pdf all chapter on 2024
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Advanced
Summary
Case studies
Self-assessment questions
Entry-level
Advanced
Summary
Case studies
Self-assessment questions
Entry-level
Advanced
8
Flow-sensing spirometers
Peak flowmeters
Body plethysmographs
Breathing valves
Summary
Self-assessment questions
Entry-level
Advanced
Path of workflow
Summary
Case studies
Self-assessment questions
Entry-level
Advanced
9
Pulmonary function testing interpretation, “bringing it all together”
Interpretation algorithm
Summary
Case studies
Self-assessment questions
Entry-level
Advanced
Chapter 2, Spirometry
Glossary
10
Index
11
Inside Front Cover
12
v Venous
Mixed venous
BTPS Body temperature and pressure saturated with water vapor
ATPS Ambient temperature and pressure saturated with water
vapor
STPD 0°C, 760 mm Hg, dry
Lung Volumes
VC Vital capacity
IC Inspiratory capacity
IRV Inspiratory reserve volume
ERV Expiratory reserve volume
FRC Functional residual capacity
RV Residual volume
TLC Total lung capacity
RV/TLC (%) Residual volume to total lung capacity ratio expressed
as a percentage
VTG Thoracic gas volume
VT Tidal volume
VA Alveolar volume
VD Dead space volume
VL Lung volume
13
Dead space ventilation per minute (BTPS)
fb, f Respiratory rate per minute, breathing frequency
VD/VT Dead space to tidal volume ratio
P100, P0.1 Pressure in the first 100 msec of an occluded breath,
occlusion pressure
Spirometry
FVC Forced vital capacity with maximal expiratory effort
FIVC Forced inspiratory vital capacity with maximal inspiratory
effort
FEVT Forced expiratory volume for a specific interval T
FEVT/FVC%, FEVT% Forced expiratory volume to forced vital
capacity ratio expressed as a percentage
FEFx Forced expiratory flow related to some specific portion of the
FVC, denoted as subscript X, referring to the volume of FVC
already exhaled at the time of measurement
FEF25%–75% Forced expiratory flow during the middle half of the FVC
(formerly the MMF)
FEF50%/FIF50% Forced expiratory flow to forced inspiratory flow at
50% of VC expressed as a ratio or a percentage
FET Forced expiratory time
PEF Peak expiratory flow
MEFV Maximal expiratory flow-volume curve
MIFV Maximal inspiratory flow-volume curve
PEFV Partial expiratory flow-volume curve
Forced expiratory flow related to the actual volume of the
lungs denoted by subscript X, referring to the lung volume
remaining when measurement is made
14
MVVX Maximal voluntary ventilation as the volume of air expired
in a specified interval, denoted by subscript X (formerly MBC)
Pulmonary Mechanics
C Compliance, volume change per unit of pressure change
Cdyn Dynamic compliance, measured during breathing
*
Where two symbols are given, both are commonly used.
15
Copyright
16
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing.
As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the
authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury
and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of
any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
17
testing / Gregg L. Ruppel. 10th ed. c2013. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016048605 | ISBN 9780323356251 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Pulmonary function tests–Handbooks, manuals,
etc.
Classification: LCC RC734.P84 R86 2017 | DDC 616.2/40754–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016048605
18
Contributors/Reviewers
Contributors
19
Foreword
This text began as a series of notes for respiratory therapy students
who were interested in learning to perform pulmonary function
tests. In the 1970s, a great deal of time was devoted not only to
performing the physiologic measurements but also to manually
measuring graphic recordings and calculating the results. Much has
changed over the past 40 years in regard to performing pulmonary
function studies. Most notably, microprocessors have supplanted
the drudgery of measuring and calculating, so that the results of
complicated tests are available almost as soon as the patient has
completed the maneuver. While this permits the person conducting
the test to concentrate on acceptability and repeatability, it may
allow the tester to give minimal attention to the physiology
responsible for the patient’s symptoms. With few exceptions, the
physician treating the patient no longer performs the test but relies
on a technologist to make the measurements that will determine a
course of therapy or whether additional studies might be needed.
Understanding respiratory physiology has taken a back seat to
learning how to navigate sophisticated computer software.
Previous editions of the Manual have attempted to bridge the gap
between making standardized physiologic measurements of lung
function and interpreting the results of those tests to answer the
clinical question being asked. This latest edition continues with that
intent by updating the content and expanding the best practices as
new techniques become available. The new material is directed at
helping those interested in lung function testing learn not only how
to do each test but also why a specific test is important. More than
ever, this requires individuals who have a solid understanding of
20
respiratory physiology and the clinical skills to deal with
symptomatic patients in the testing environment. Well-prepared
technologists are more likely to avoid misclassification of disease
states and to relate the results of pulmonary function tests to
important patient outcomes. This edition of the Manual aspires to
contribute to that preparation.
Carl D. Mottram, RRT, RPFT, FAARC, took responsibility as the
author/editor beginning with the tenth edition. He has continued in
this role to significantly expand and improve the eleventh edition.
There is no one better qualified to continue improving the content
and the format of the text. The Manual should continue to be a
useful resource for students of lung function testing, whether they
are therapists, technologists, or physicians.
Gregg L. Ruppel, MEd, RRT, RPFT, FAARC, Division of Pulmonary,
Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis,
Missouri
21
Preface
The primary functions of the lung are oxygenation of mixed venous
blood and removal of carbon dioxide. Gas exchange depends on the
integrity of the entire cardiopulmonary system, including airways,
pulmonary blood vessels, alveoli, respiratory muscles, and
respiratory control mechanisms. A few pulmonary function tests
assess individual parts of the cardiopulmonary system. However,
most lung function tests measure the status of the lungs’
components in an overlapping way.
This eleventh edition describes the most common pulmonary
function tests, their techniques, and the pathophysiology that may
be evaluated by each test. Topics covered include the following:
• Basic tests of lung function, including spirometry, lung volume
measurements (i.e., body plethysmography, nitrogen washout
and helium dilution), diffusing capacity, and blood gas analysis
• Ventilation and ventilatory control, cardiopulmonary exercise
tests, and pediatric and infant pulmonary function testing
• Specialized test regimens that focus on exhaled nitric oxide
measurements, forced oscillation techniques, metabolic studies,
disability determination, and preoperative evaluation
• Bronchial challenge tests that assist the clinician in characterizing
the hyperreactivity of the airways
• Pulmonary function testing equipment, quality assurance, and
reference values and interpretation
Distinctive features
The eleventh edition includes many of the features from the
22
previous editions:
• Learning objectives for entry-level and advanced practitioners are
again included at the beginning of each chapter.
• Each test section includes criteria for acceptability and
repeatability, as well as interpretive strategies with criteria that
are organized to help those who perform pulmonary function
tests adhere to recognized standards.
• Most of the testing criteria are based on the American Thoracic
Society (ATS) and European Respiratory Society (ERS)
statements, with a few based on the clinical practice guidelines of
the American Association for Respiratory Care.
• The interpretive strategies are presented as a series of questions
that can be used as a starting point for test interpretation. In this
edition, we included a flowchart process for systematically
interpreting the basic lung function tests.
• Case Studies with real-life patient scenarios, questions, and
discussion topics are included at the end of the chapters.
• How To boxes populate specific testing chapters. These are a step-
by-step guide to performing function tests. When possible, we’ve
provided illustrations. These procedures take the guesswork out
of performing an accurate test.
• The Evolve Learning Resources feature updated Case Studies in
PPT format so instructors can utilize them during class
discussions. Clinical Scenario slides, organized by disease
process, provide an in-depth case analysis with figures and charts
noting lab values and treatment options. Instructors and student
study groups can use these to supplement their own clinical
experiences.
As in previous editions, each chapter includes self-assessment
questions. The questions in this edition are divided into entry-level
and advanced categories. The answers may be found in Appendix
A. A selected bibliography at the end of each chapter is arranged
according to topics within the chapter, including standards and
guidelines.
23
users of previous editions, as well as new developments in
pulmonary function testing.
• Updated references and American Thoracic Society and European
Respiratory Society Standards. The test criteria are based largely
on these standards/recommendations.
• Chapter 4 includes additional discussion on the multiple breath
nitrogen washout tests and the lung clearance index.
• Chapter 7 reviews the new ATS-ERS standards for Field Testing.
In this section we discuss the update of the 6-minute walk test
and both the incremental and endurance shuttle walk tests.
Chapter 12 incorporates the new Clinical and Laboratory
Standards Institute’s quality management system model and its
application in pulmonary diagnostic testing.
Evolve ancillaries
Evolve is an interactive learning environment designed to work in
coordination with Ruppel’s Manual of Pulmonary Function Testing,
eleventh edition. For the student, our Evolve Learning Resources
include:
24
• Practice Tests to help students apply the knowledge learned
within the text
• Conversion and Correction Factors
• Helpful Equations
• Reference Tables
• Sample Calculations
For the instructor, our Evolve Learning Resources include:
• PowerPoint presentations of Case Studies and Clinical Scenarios
• Test Bank containing approximately 600 questions
• Electronic image collection consisting of images from the textbook
Instructors may use Evolve to provide an Internet-based course
component that reinforces and expands the concepts presented in
class. Evolve may be used to publish the class syllabus, outlines,
and lecture notes; set up virtual office hours and e-mail
communication; share important dates and information through the
online class calendar; and encourage student participation through
chat rooms and discussion boards. Evolve allows instructors to post
examinations and manage their grade books online. For more
information, visit http://evolve.elsevier.com or contact an Elsevier
sales representative.
25
Acknowledgments
Carl D. Mottram, RRT, RPFT, FAARC
I would like to acknowledge a few key colleagues and friends who
have contributed to my professional success. First, I had the honor
of being educated and mentored by Drs. Fred Helmholtz and
Robert (Bob) Hyatt, both of whom have passed since the tenth
edition. Dr. Helmholtz, along with colleagues, assisted in the
development of the G-suit during World War II and the nitrogen
washout test for measuring lung volumes. After retirement he
continued to have a significant impact on pulmonary medicine
through a variety of professional activities, including spending a
month teaching the respiratory therapy students basic pulmonary
physiology. Dr. Helmholtz was also very active in the NBRC and
AARC, championing the field of respiratory care.
Dr. Hyatt hired me into the pulmonary function laboratory. He
was a soft-spoken, very intelligent man with a commanding
presence when I first met him. He was the first to describe the flow-
volume curve, a discovery that revolutionized the interpretation of
spirometry and had a profound impact on patient care, yet he was
very humble about this fact. I was told the story of a colleague
describing his first encounter of meeting Dr. Hyatt. He queried, “So
you invented the flow-volume curve?” Dr. Hyatt replied, “No, it
was there. I just found it.”
Both these gentlemen were giants in the field of pulmonary
diagnostic testing who shared their passion and knowledge about
respiratory physiology with me during my early and mid-career
development, and contemporary mentors Drs. Paul Scanlon, David
Driscoll, Bruce Staats, and Ken Beck treated me as an equal and
26
helped me understand pulmonary physiology through their
tutelage. Mr. Jeff Ward, Mayo Clinic’s former RT program director,
started me on my professional journey with the mindset of inquiry
and yearning for knowledge. Susan Blonshine, Gregg Ruppel, Jack
Wanger, and I “grew up” together. We supported each other
professionally as champions of quality pulmonary diagnostic
testing. I continue to be honored that Gregg has entrusted me with
the Manual and hopefully, I’ll be able to continue to enhance this
classic text. I would like to thank contributors to this edition—
Susan Blonshine, Dr. David A. Kaminsky, and Katrina M. Hynes—
for their excellent subject contributions. I would also like to thank
the 45 staff members of the Mayo Clinic Pulmonary Function
Laboratories—a laboratory of 24 procedure rooms that meet, yet
more often exceed, the expectations of the 150 to 250 patients each
day that walk through our doors. None of my professional or
educational activities would be possible without their unsurpassed
dedication to Mayo’s primary value “the needs of the patient come
first.” Finally, I would like to acknowledge my family for their love
and support.
27
28
CHAPTER 1
Indications for
Pulmonary
Function Testing
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Pulmonary Function Tests
Airway Function Tests
Lung Volume and Ventilation Tests
Diffusing Capacity Tests
Blood Gases and Gas Exchange Tests
Cardiopulmonary Exercise Tests
Metabolic Measurements
Indications for Pulmonary Function Testing
Spirometry
Lung Volumes
Diffusing Capacity
Blood Gases
Exercise Tests
Patterns of Impaired Pulmonary Function
Obstructive Airway Diseases
29
Restrictive Lung Disease
Diseases of the Chest Wall and Pleura
Neuromuscular Disorders
Congestive Heart Failure
Lung Transplantation
Preliminaries to Patient Testing
Before Patient Testing
Patient Preparation (Pre-Test Instructions)
Withholding Medications
Smoking Cessation
Other Patient Preparation Issues
Anthropometric Measurements
Physical Assessment
Pulmonary History
Test Performance and Sequence
Technologist-Driven Protocols
Patient Instruction
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
30
1. Identify three indications for exercise testing.
2. Name at least two diseases in which air trapping may occur.
3. Describe the use of a technologist-adapted protocol for
pulmonary function studies.
KEY TERMS
β2 agonist
body plethysmograph
bronchial challenge
capnography
diffusing capacity (Dlco)
edema
forced vital capacity (FVC)
hypercapnia
hyperventilation
hypoventilation
maximal expiratory flow volume (MEFV)
maximal midexpiratory flow rate (MMFR)
maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV)
oximetry
pulse oximetry
resting energy expenditure (REE)
spirometry
vital capacity (VC)
31
Adequate patient preparation, physical assessment, and pulmonary
history help the tests provide answers to clinical questions. The
importance of patient instruction in obtaining valid data is
discussed. These topics are developed more fully in subsequent
chapters.
Box 1.1
Categories of Pulmonary Function Tests
A. Airway function
1. Simple spirometry
a. VC, expiratory reserve volume (ERV), inspiratory capacity
(IC)
2. Forced vital capacity maneuver
a. FVC, FEV1, FEF, PEF
(1) Prebronchodilator and postbronchodilator
(2) Pre-bronchochallenge and post-bronchochallenge
b. MEFV curves
(1) Prebronchodilator and postbronchodilator
(2) Pre-bronchochallenge and post-bronchochallenge
3. Maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV)
4. Maximal inspiratory/expiratory pressures (MIP/MEP)
32
5. Airway resistance (Raw) and compliance (CL)
B. Lung volumes and ventilation
1. Functional residual capacity (FRC)
a. Open-circuit (N2 washout)
b. Closed-circuit/rebreathing (He dilution)
c. Thoracic gas volume (VTG)
2. Total lung capacity (TLC), residual volume (RV), RV/TLC ratio
3. Minute ventilation, alveolar ventilation, and dead space
4. Distribution of ventilation
a. Multiple-breath N2
b. He equilibration
c. Single-breath techniques
C. Dlco tests
1. Single-breath (breath holding)
2. Steady state
3. Other techniques
D. Blood gases and gas exchange tests
1. Blood gas analysis and blood oximetry
a. Shunt studies
2. Pulse oximetry
3. Capnography
E. Cardiopulmonary exercise tests
1. Simple noninvasive tests
2. Tests with exhaled gas analyses
3. Tests with blood gas analyses
4. Tests with flow volume loops
5. Tests with direct laryngoscopy
F. Metabolic measurements
1. Resting energy expenditure (REE)
2. Substrate utilization
33
FIG. 1.1 Sample pulmonary function test report.
Lung function tests are grouped by category in the left
column. The post-drug columns are blank because the
patient was not retested after the bronchodilator. LLN,
Lower limit of normal.
34
vital capacity (VC). This test simply measures the largest volume of
air that can be moved into or out of the lungs. In the mid-1800s, a
surgeon named Hutchinson developed a simple water-sealed
spirometer that allowed measurement of what he named vital
capacity, or “vital breath,” as he noted its relationship to survival.
Hutchinson popularized the concept of using VC to assess lung
function and named several other lung compartments that are still
used today. He observed that VC was related to the standing height
of the patient. He also developed tables to estimate the expected VC
for a healthy patient. The VC was usually graphed on chart paper,
which allowed subdivisions of the VC to be identified (see Chapter
2).
PF Tip 1.1
Pulmonary function data are usually grouped into categories (Fig.
1.1). The patient’s demographic data (age, height, gender, race,
weight) are usually at the top of the report. The PFT data are
presented in several columns. These columns show the predicted
(expected) values, the lower limit of normal (LLN) or upper limit of
normal (ULN), measured values obtained during testing, and the
percent of predicted values for each test (actual/predicted × 100). Be
sure to identify which column is actual and which is predicted.
35
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