Influence of the Bible on English Language

The
literary influence of the Bible has been tremendous, all pervasive and perennial. In
fact, the Bible has been providing the English men of letters spiritual themes and
also modulated their literary style. It has gifted ample vocabulary, most beautiful
quotations, maxims and phrases. The whole range of English language and literature
is much indebted to the Bible for its dignity and richness.

The influence of the Bible on English has been both thematic and stylistic; that is, it has provided
the English men of letters Scriptural themes and has also modulated their literary style. Thus
Bunyan and Oscar Wilde imitated the simple, rhythmical, repetitive style of the Bible. Further,
ideas, sentiments, and even phrases have been frequently drawn upon from the Bible for use in
writings of both religious and secular nature. Ruskin, particularly, was fond of packing his
writings to the brim with biblical quotations which came to him with amazing facility. Many
phrases from the Bible have become a part and parcel of the English language. They are often
used in writing and conversation by those who have never read a page of the Bible. Such phrases
as ‘clear as crystal,’ ‘arose as one man,’ ‘The sweat of his face,’ and ‘a broken reed’ are
instances of this point.

The first English translation of the Bible was done in the 14th century by John Wycliffe. William
Tyndale took English translation to a whole new level by doing an excellent translation of the
Bible creating modern English. The Tyndale Bible generally refers to the body of biblical
translations by William Tyndale (c. 1494–1536), credited with being the first English translation
to work directly from Hebrew and Greek texts. The Coverdale Bible, compiled by Myles
Coverdale and published in 1535, was the first complete Modern English translation of the Bible,
and the first complete printed translation into English. The Authorized Version of the Bible was
published in 1611. It was the work of forty-seven scholars nominated by James I, over whom
Bishop Lancelot Andrews presided.

Many proverbs and phrases, which are in common use in modern English, are the gifts of the
Bible. Quotations from the Bible are given profusely. English language has been enriched by the
Bible so much that a proper assessment is practically impossible. Some illustrations of Biblical
phrases are given below: ‘arose as one man’, ‘broken reed’, ‘a law unto themselves’, ‘the man of
sin’, ‘moth and rust’, ‘clear as crystal’, ‘the eleventh hour’, ‘city of refuse’, ‘whited sepulcher’,
‘wash one’s hands off’ and many other familiar scriptural phrases and allusions. From Tyndale
we owe ‘long-suffering’, ‘peacemaker’, ‘stumbling block’, ‘the fatted calf’, ‘filthy lucre’, ‘mercy
seat’, ‘day spring’ and ‘scapegoat’. From Coverdale we have ‘tender mercy’, ‘loving-kindness’,
‘valley of the shadow of death’, ‘avenges of blood’ etc. Many such Biblical phrases and idioms
are current in modern English without even knowing its source.

Right from Chaucer to the present day the influence of the Bible is clearly discernible in poetry.
Even Chaucer drew the material for some of his tales from the Bible. Spenser’s Fairy Queen is
also steeped in Biblical references. Milton’s Paradise Lost is Biblical while the metaphysical
poets were interested in Biblical allusion. In the twentieth century the poetry of T.S.Eliot, Yeats,
and Dylan Thomas is full of the Biblical references. Technically the Biblical influence can be
seen in the use of ‘th’ such as in ‘hath’, ‘loveth’, ‘hateth’, ‘giveth’ etc in place of ‘has’, ‘haves’,
‘gives’ etc as a poetical style. Again, we find old past tenses in ‘gat’, ‘clave’, ‘brake’ instead of
‘got’, ‘clove’, ‘broke’ in poetry mastered by Tennyson, Morris, Coleridge etc. Instead of using
‘s’ ending in verbs we have: ‘He prayeth best who loveth best/All things both great and small’-
Ancient Mariners.

On the analogy of the scriptural ‘holy of holies’ which contains a Hebrew manner of expressing
the superlatives, we get in modern English similar phrases such as: ‘In my heart of hearts’, ‘the
place of all places’, ‘a friend of friends’, ‘the pearl of pearls’, ‘a prince of princes’ etc.

Further, scriptural proper names are often used as appellatives to designate types of character. As
for example, ‘to raise Cain’ meaning to make a determined angry fuss; ‘David and Jonathan’
means ‘any pair of devoted friends’.

Biblical usage has revived some of the lost words into full life. Such words are like ‘damsel’ for
young women, ‘raiment and apparel’ for dress, ‘firmament’, as a poetical synonym for ‘sky’.

Ever since the publication of the first translation of the Bible by Wycliffe to the publication of
the Authorized Version in 1611, its influence on English literature and language has been
constant and steady. The modern world has seen many changes; but it has, so far, seen no
movement that has shaken the supremacy of the greatest of English books, ‘The Bible’.

French Influence on English

The French influence on English language started its course with the Norman Conquest of 1066
AD. William of Normandy defeated England in the Battle of Hastings and the governance of
England fell into the hands of the French. The ruling class influenced not just the socio-political
aspects of England but also its language. The French influence was found in both vocabulary and
grammar of English.

After the victory in the Norman Conquest (1066) the French became the masters of England.
The new conditions brought about by the Norman Conquest, however, opened the door for a
great and abundant influx of foreign words. The knowledge of French gave access not only to the
rich literature of the continent but also to the high administrative positions.

French Influence in the Middle Ages

The Normans left intact the two old words king and queen, but gave to English nearly all words
relating to government and to the highest administration. Examples of these words are crown,
state, government, reign, realm, sovereign, minister, chancellor, power, country, authority,
parliament, Council, counsel, people, nation etc.

Feudalism was introduced into England by the Normans, and along with it there came such
feudal words as feudal, fief, vassal liege, prince, peer, duke, duchess, baron, count, countess,
viscount. But surprisingly enough, the English words lord and lady continued to exist with
honour.
The French upper classes took into their hands the management of military affairs with the
result that a host of military words came from France. Some of these military words are war,
Peace, arms, armour: lance, banner, ensign, assault, siege, soldier officer, Sergeant, lieutenant,
navy, admiral, troops etc.

The Normans also greatly influenced the English law which was naturally in their hands.
Consequently many law terms now in use in England are of Norman-French origin, such as
justice, judge. Jury, court, suit, sue plaintiff, defendant, plea, plead, to Summon, session,
attorney, crime, felony, traitor, damages, property, exile, penalty, prison, bill, act, tax etc.

Like the law the religion, specially its higher offices, was controlled by The Norman rulers. The
consequence was that the following religious terms found their way into English: religion,
saviour, trinity, angel, clergy parish, abbey, friar, saint, sacrifice, altar, prayer, sermon, homily,
virgin, service, baptism, miracle, preach, pray etc. Words like rule, lesson, save, tempt, flame,
order, nature etc. which are now secular words came from French as purely religious words.

The French also introduced the whole gamut of words pertaining to moral ideas from virtue to
vice: duty, conscience, grace, charity, cruel, chaste, covet, desire, lecher, jealous, pity,
discipline, mercy and others.

Beside these words belonging to the special spheres, there were introduced many words which
are of general meaning and which throw a flood of light on the reciprocal relations between the
Normans and the English. These words are sir, and madam, master, mistress, with their contrast
servant; command, obey, order rich, poor, money, interest, cash, rent etc.

The living animals – ox, sheep, calf, swine, deer-continued to bear their native names, the flesh
of those animals as used for food was denoted by French words, beef, mutton, veal, pork, bacon,
venison. The point is explained by the fact that the English servants were in charge of the
animals when alive, but when killed they were eaten by their French masters. The similar
significance perhaps informs such words as butler, buttery, bottle, dinner, banquet, feasts roast,
toast, pasty, soup, sausage, jelly etc.

There are a good number of French words which relate to pleasures, enjoyment, pastimes and
fashions. Among the words relating to pleasures and enjoyment we note such words as joy,
pleasure, delight, ease, comfort, flowers and fruits. The words relating to pastimes are chase,
cards, dice and many words. The French words relating to fashions are apparel, dress, costume,
garment, tailor, mason, furniture, table, chair, carpenter etc.

Many words relating to art and architecture were taken from French, e.g., art, beauty, colour,
design, arch, tower, pillar, vault, choir, chapel, palace, mansion, and castle.

French influence in the 17th Century

The accession of Charles II, who had long lived at the French court, on the English throne in
1660, intensified the French influence on English, because it ushered a period of exceptionally
close contact between the English and the French in matters of literature and social intercourse.
French words borrowed during this time (i.e. 17th century) are dragoon, parole, reprimand,
ballet, burlesque, chagrin champagne, coquette, liaison, par excellence, naive, rapport, forte,
muslin, soup, group, penchant etc.

French influence in the 18th Century

The eighteenth century was again rich in French loan-words of all kinds including military terms.
The following is the list of the French words adopted in the 18th century: guillotine régimé,
corps, manoeuvre, espionage, depot, fusillade, salon, bureau, canteen, critique, coterie, nuance,
belles-letters, brochure, picnic, etiquette, ennui, police, coup.

Literature and art: resumé, littérateur, cliché, Renaissance, baton, matinée, motif, macabre etc.

Food: restaurant, menu, chef, sauté, fondant, gratin etc.

Diplomatic: attaché, prestige, impasse, chargé dè affairs, débácle, raison dêtre, rapprochement
etc.

Dress: rosette, fichu, profile, crépe, néglige, beret, etc.

French influence in the 20th Century

The process of borrowings from French has continued even in the 20th century. The two World
Wars in which England and France were allies have helped much the process of French
borrowings in the present century. Among the 20th century borrowings we may mention such
words as garage, vers libre, fuselage, hangar, limousine, and camouflage etc.

Conclusion

Thus, starting with Norman period, the French culture and manner, society and values continued
to cast charm on English minds throughout 17th, 18th, 19th, 2oth century and event the later ages
to come.