FLORICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Part I: Background and Introduction

Neil Anderson

Horticulture is the fastest growing segment of
agriculture within the United States. An array of
floral products provides market diversity for the
floriculture industry. These include flowering potted
plants, foliage plants, cut flowers, cut foliage, annual
bedding and garden plants, and herbaceous biennials
and perennials. In 2003, the wholesale value of U.S.
floricultural crops was $5.07 billion for 11,913
growers with sales greater than $10,000 and 929
million ft2 in production. For growers with sales
greater than $100,000, the crop total was $4.76
billion. While this crop category is in the top five
"crops" surveyed by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, it contains multiple commodity groups
with hundreds of plant species. The largest
floriculture commodity is bedding and garden plants
at $2.42 billion (51%), followed by potted flowering
plants at $829 million (17.4%), potted foliage at $623
million (13.1%), herbaceous perennials at $620
million (13.0%), cut flowers at $425 million (8.9%),
propagative material at $351 million (7.4%), and cut
foliage or greens at $109 million (2.3%).
The diverse number of crops produced requires each
employee in the distribution channel, including
breeder and producer companies, distributors,
propagators, pre-finish and finish growers, and
retailers, to be trained in maximizing crop growth
potential and quality. Knowledgeable
implementation of optimal post-harvest care and
handling treatments ensure maximum product shelf
life for the retailer and maximum performance for the
consumer. Keeping up-to-date with the latest
production techniques ensures sales of top-quality
plants which will maximize earning potential.
Knowledgeable manipulation of the growing
environment is required to maximize floriculture
production and profit, as well as to continue the
tradition of grower excellence in the Midwest. Refer
to the Plant Propagation, Container Production, Pest
Management, Insect Management, Disease
Management and Water Management in this manual
for additional information.

This industry enhances the lives of every citizen by

providing color and interest to indoor and outdoor
environments. Flower power and convenience are
two important features of floricultural crops,
particularly annual bedding plants. In Minnesota,
annual, perennial, groundcover, herb, vegetable, and
potted flowering plant production is valued at a
wholesale value of nearly $86 million and it
continues to grow! More than 250 Minnesota
commercial companies produce these crops in
approximately 13 million ft2 of greenhouse space
consisting of glass, fiberglass, rigid plastic, and film
plastic greenhouses, plus shade houses. In the near
future, the industry estimates that the sales of annuals
and perennials will increase by 30%. Part of this
anticipated growth will arise from the many new
crops entering the market each year, as well as the
extended summer sales opportunity for bedding
plants beyond the traditional Mother's Day to
Memorial Day sales period.

43.1-1 1106
 FLORICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
Part II: Greenhouse Production and Management
Terry Ferris
Flower Induction, Initiation and Development in
Floriculture Crops
Growers always strive to have healthy, vigorous
foliage on greenhouse crops, cut flowers and most
bedding plants. Growers also need to ensure the
timely presence of flowers on flowering crops.
However, before a plant can flower, the plant must
reach a physiological readiness, and then, either reach
plant maturity or receive an environmental stimulus
to induce the plant to flower. Once induced to
flower, flower parts are initiated at the tip of the
meristem. The initiated parts then develop by
enlarging and taking on qualitative changes such as
color and fragrance. Floral induction and initiation
are controlled by one set of conditions while floral
development may be controlled by the same or by
different set of conditions. Several different floral
control mechanisms exist in the plant world.
Growers need to know what controls flowering in
order to schedule the production of a crop. Growers
should consult supplier brochures, industry
colleagues, or the scientific literature to identify
specific mechanisms. Floral control mechanisms or
plant conditions are described as follows:
Age of Plant or Number of leaves – In some plant
species, the age of the plant, or more specifically, the
number of leaves formed, controls when the
induction and initiation of flowering will occur. For
example, Cyclamen start initiating flowers after
seven or eight leaves are formed. Easter Lilies start
flowering after 86 to 93 leaves have formed and Corn
will flower after 22 leaves have formed.
Specific Temperatures – For many plants, a specific
temperature range is required for floral induction and
initiation. For example, Cineraria initiates buds after
four weeks at 45-55o F and Calceolarias need six
weeks at 50o F to flower.
Vernalization – Some floricultural crops require an
exposure to cool temperatures for extended periods of
time to either initiate flower buds or to promote floral
development. In nature, this temperature is generally
between 32o F and 50o F. Growers use a temperature
43.2-1
between 35o F and 48o F. For example, perennials
such as Asclepias tuberosa and Astilbe need twelve
weeks of cold to break dormancy and flower.
Hydrangeas and Azaleas require six weeks of cold to
develop flowers. Tulips and Narcissus initiate
flowers during the warm summer, however, they
need a cold treatment to promote rooting, shoot
elongation and subsequent floral development.
Light Intensity and/or Accumulated Light – Light
intensity controls floral induction and initiation in
some species. African Violets need a minimum of
500 foot-candles for flowering. Zonal Geraniums
will not flower when light intensity is too low.
Daylength – Plants measure the length of the light
and dark periods of the day through phytochrome
pigment which absorbs red and far-red light. This
phenomenon is referred to as Photoperiodism.
Darkness also affects phytochrome in a similar
manner that far-red light does. It is actually the
length of the darkness that is most important in
controlling the phytochrome response. The common
photoperiodic response groups include the following:
1. Obligate Long-day Plants
Obligate Long-day plants flower only when the
length of the day is greater than some critical
minimum time, which is usually 12 hours.
Examples include Wave Petunias, Lobelia and
Gazania. Many of these plants bloom naturally in
the summer.
2. Obligate Short-day Plants
Obligate Short-day plants flower only when the
length of day is shorter than some critical
maximum which is usually 12 hours. Many of
these bloom naturally in the fall and include
Poinsettia, Chrysanthemum and Kalanchoe.
3. Day-neutral Plants
Day-neutral plants are plants whose floral
induction and initiation are not controlled by day
length. Examples include Roses, Impatiens,
Nicotiana and Centrathus.
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4. Facultative Long-day Plants
Facultative Long-day plants flower faster or have
more flowers under long-days. Flowering is not
specifically controlled by photoperiod, but is
influenced by it. Examples include Petunias,
Pansy, Dianthus and Sunflowers.
5. Facultative Short-day Plants
Facultative Short-day plants flower faster or have
more flowers under short-days. Flowering is not
specifically controlled by photoperiod, but is
influenced by it. Examples include Zinnia,
Cosmos and Rieger Begonias.
Growers need to be aware of conditions that control
floral induction and initiation as well as those that
influence floral development. The two processes
may require different conditions.
Greenhouse Structures
The short growing season in the upper mid-west
limits year-round outdoor production of many
floriculture crops. Therefore, greenhouse production
is an essential part of many commercial floricultural
operations. The greenhouse structure that a grower
selects will be influenced by the initial capital
available and the cultural requirements of the crops to
be grown. Structural components of greenhouses are
described below and pictured in Figure l.
Rafters – Rafters provide vertical support and can be
part of a triangular truss or they can be arched as in
quonset-type greenhouses. Spacing of the rafters
influences the strength of the structure. Rafters are
generally spaced on two- to four-foot centers. Very
wide greenhouses require reinforced rafter and truss
construction.
End Walls – End Walls on the north side of a
greenhouse may be of solid, non-transparent
construction for added strength and energy
conservation.
Side Posts and Columns – Side posts and columns
establish the height of the greenhouse and provide
vertical support. Older greenhouses had eight- to
nine-foot sidewalls, while newer greenhouses are
frequently 10 to 12 feet or more tall. Taller
greenhouses allow for a layer of hanging baskets that
are high enough above the crop below to avoid
excessive shading of that crop.
Side Walls – Side walls may be constructed with
vents at the eave. To provide additional air
43.2-2
exchange, the side walls may be constructed of
inflatable poly tubes with an inflation fan connected
to a thermostat that will inflate the tubes, or deflate
and collapse the tubes to let in fresh outside air
depending upon the temperature.
Purlins – Purlins run horizontally from rafter to rafter
and provide additional support. These may be
especially important in high wind and heavy snow
load areas.
Ridge – The Ridge refers to the peak of the
greenhouse where the two sides of the roof meet.
Round roofs would not have a distinct Ridge.
Eave – The Eave of a greenhouse is where the
sidewall meets the roof. When the Eave of one
greenhouse is common with an adjacent greenhouse,
the Eave area is referred to as the Gutter.
Greenhouses are built with a slight drop from one end
wall to the opposite end wall to allow gravity to
facilitate the runoff of water down the Gutters. This
water can be collected in underground storage tanks
and used for irrigation or on the cooling pads.
Span – The Span of a greenhouse is the width, or
distance from one Eave to the next Eave, both being
under one Ridge.
Figure 1. Basic structure components of a
greenhouse: A. Ridge, B. Rafter, C. End
Wall, D. Side Post, E. Side Wall, F.
Purlin, G. Eave/Gutter.
Some structural modifications exist to enhance
greenhouse ventilation. Ventilation is the exchanging
of inside air with outside air and is essential to
control temperature and humidity within the
greenhouse. Historically, ridge vents and side vents
0510
have been used for this purpose. Growers have
increasingly been adopting the use of inflatable
sidewalls and roof designs that completely open the
roof in order to allow for better ventilation and air
exchange.
There are many greenhouse designs, and there are
advantages and disadvantages of each. Lean-to
greenhouses are seldom used commercially due to
difficulty in integrating automation. They also have
limited space and they have problems with proper
environmental control. The three most common
types of commercial greenhouses are described
below:
1. Single Quonset or Hoop House
Quonset or hoop houses are frequently
constructed of aluminum framing and are one of
the most economical and long lasting greenhouse
structures (Figure 2). However, they have limited
vertical headroom, especially along the side walls,
which can limit growing space, and reduce space
utilization efficiency. When covered with a
double layer of poly, they have good energy
efficiency, in part due to the lack of seams in the
poly covering. This creates a tight greenhouse
that traps humidity, which condenses on the inside
of the roof. Condensation dripping from the roof
onto plants below can cause favorable condition
for the development of diseases. To prevent this
dripping, anti-condensation products can be
sprayed to the inside of the covering. Or the roof
.
design can be changed to create more of a peak
that is not as flat as the top of an arch, which will
Figure 3. Free-standing Gable Greenhouse.
cause condensation droplets to roll down the side
walls.
3. Gutter Connected or Ridge and Furrow
Figure 2. Quonset or Hoop House. W. Width, L.
Length, H. Height.
43.2-3
2. Free-standing Gable Greenhouse
Free-standing Gable greenhouses are framed
using steel, aluminum or wood. Steel provides
the strongest support and wood the weakest
support. Any wood used should be treated to
prevent decay under the expected humid
conditions. Copper napthanate and other wood
preservative products approved for use around
plants can be obtained through a greenhouse
supply company. Gabled greenhouses can be
covered with almost any type of covering as
described below. A series of free-standing
greenhouses allows a grower to run different
environmental conditions in each house and,
therefore, grow a wide variety of crops that
require different growing conditions. Separate
houses also allow for isolation of crops for insect
and disease management. Connecting the
greenhouses to a common work area or
Headhouse can facilitate their use in cold
climates (Figure 3).
Gutter connected or ridge and furrow greenhouses
are two or more Gable greenhouses placed side by
side (Figure 4). This arrangement can provide
very efficient growing spaces as automation of
equipment is easily accommodated in the large
open spaces inside. There are a limited number of
side walls exposed to the outside which reduces
total energy loss. Temporary inside walls can be
created by attaching poly to the inside of the
gutter and dropping it to the floor. This
accommodates growing crops with different
cultural requirements.
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Figure 4. Gutter Connected or Ridge and Furrow
Greenhouses.
Greenhouse Coverings or Glazings
Glazings or covering materials for greenhouses vary
in light transmission, heat retention, longevity and
cost. A grower needs to consider cultural
requirements of a crop when selecting a glazing
material to use. High light requiring crops like Roses
and Geraniums may perform better under a glazing
that lets in high light levels. Bedding plants tolerate a
wider range of light intensities. A greenhouse with
numerous structural support pieces will also have
lower light levels due shading, compared to a
greenhouse with fewer support structures.
Commonly used greenhouse coverings are described
below.
Glass – Glass transmits high levels of light, but the
number of sash bars needed to support the panes
cause shadows, thereby reducing the overall light
transmission. Heat loss is also relatively high due to
the high conductance of heat through the glass, as
well as the seepage of heat around the sash bars.
Glass houses are expensive compared to alternatives,
but they do have the advantage that they can last for
over 30 years.
Polyethylene Film – Polyethylene film is almost
always used as two layers with 0.5 to 4.0 inches of air
space between the layers to serve as an insulating
dead air space. A small squirrel-cage fan is mounted
inside the greenhouse to inflate the space between the
two plastic layers. The outer layer should be the
stronger layer of six mil polyethylene, while the inner
layer only needs to be four-mil polyethylene.
Ultra-violet (UV) light can break down the
polyethylene causing it to yellow and turn cloudy,
which reduces its light transmission. Therefore, all
polyethylene used for covering year-around
production greenhouses, has a UV inhibitor
incorporated into it. Without this inhibitor, the
polyethylene film would last for only one heating
season, rather than four years. The latest technology
43.2-4
in polyethylene production uses the co-extrusion
process. Three liquid resins are extruded
simultaneously creating a single layer of film with
three different chemistries across it. In the present
tri-extruded films, the inner core may contain an anti-
fog surfactant, a UV-inhibitor or an infra-red (IR)
blocking chemical. These additions are designed to
add extra properties to the film. The anti-fog should
reduce condensation build-up on the interior of the
film. UV-inhibitors slow down the rate of UV break-
down of the film, while the IR blocking agents help
to keep heat in the greenhouse by trapping in infrared
radiation.
Fiberglass-reinforced Plastic (FRP) – Fiberglass-
reinforced Plastic is not as popular today as it once
was due to its susceptibility to breakdown by UV
light, resulting in a ten-year maximum life span. The
stronger corrugated sheets are used on the roof and
the weaker flat sheets are used on the side walls.
Light transmission is about equal to that of glass, but
the light is more diffused resulting in less shadows.
Heat retention is only slightly better than glass. The
bi-wall products discussed below have become good
replacements for fiberglass products.
Double Layer Rigid Acrylic Panels – Double Layer
Rigid Acrylic Panels are known for their high light
transmission, long life of over 30 years, and 60%
energy savings compared to glass. It is flammable
which does deter some growers from installing it.
Anti-condensate coatings are available for this
product.
Double Layer Rigid Polycarbonate Panels – Double
Layer Rigid Polycarbonate Panels have the same
60% energy savings as the Acrylic Panels. However,
the Polycarbonate product has been more popular for
commercial greenhouses due to its lower price, flame
resistance, and greater resistance to hail damage.
Polycarbonate does turn yellow due to UV
breakdown, therefore, it has a shorter life expectancy
of approximately ten years. Polycarbonate is
available in flat and corrugated single layer sheets
although energy conscious growers have preferred
the double layer panels.
Temperature Control In the Greenhouse
Environment
Growers must constantly evaluate the internal
environmental conditions within the greenhouse in
order to achieve a desired rate and type of plant
growth. When any one of the five environmental
factors for plant growth is limiting, growth will be
0510
compromised. Growers must monitor and adjust the
environment to optimize all aspects of the
environment for each crop including temperature,
light, water, gases and nutrition.
Uniform light, temperature and humidity across the
greenhouse will promote uniform growth and
development of the crops being grown. Under
normal conditions, warm air will rise and it is
common for the temperature at floor lever to be 10 to
15o F cooler than the temperature at the eave. This
stratification of temperature is an important
consideration when monitoring and controlling the
temperature. Temperature sensors should be placed
at plant level as that is the level where the
temperature will influence the growth of the plants.
Day and Night Temperatures – Plants are adapted to
optimize growth under the natural outdoor
environment of warmer days and cooler nights.
Warm days maximize photo synthesis while cooler
nights minimize respiration. The result is a
maximization of dry matter accumulation and the
growth of the plant. Growers mimic this temperature
by using an average of five to ten degrees F warmer
day temperature than night temperatures in the
greenhouse.
Average Daily Temperature – The average daily
temperature is calculated by adding the day
temperature to the night temperature and dividing by
two. Typically, the higher the average daily
temperature the faster the growth rate of plants.
Optimizing Temperatures for Specific Crops – The
rate at which a plant develops or grows can be
quantified by calculating the rate of leaf unfolding on
the plant. Each crop will have an optimal
temperature for leaf unfolding, which is generally
between 54o F and 86o F. Temperatures outside of
this range will decrease the rate of development. For
example, Poinsettias grown at an average daily
temperature of 68o F will unfold one new leaf per
day. The leaf unfolding rate models for several
commercial floriculture crops are available in the
scientific literature. Growers can monitor the leaf
unfolding rates for a specific crop and make
comparisons from year to year to assist in accurate
timing of the crop for target market dates.
Controlling Flowering with Temperature – Floral
induction and initiation is specifically controlled by
temperature for some floriculture crops. For
example, Freesias and many Primulas require
43.2-5
temperatures to be below 70o F. Temperature can
also influence the rate of floral development or even
the number of flowers present in crop species that
have alternative floral induction and initiation control
mechanisms, other than temperature. Temperatures
above 80o F or below 54o F frequently decrease the
number or flowers initiated in crops. Snapdragons,
Zonal Geraniums and Fuchsias all become less
floriferous as the temperature increases above 80oF.
It is important, therefore, for growers to know what
controls floral induction and initiation in each crop
and use that information concurrently with
determining temperatures for leaf unfolding rates.
Effect of Temperature on Root Growth – The
temperature of the root zone of a plant will greatly
influence the growth rate of the crop. Growing plants
with a warmer root zone temperature than air
temperature can maximize plant growth while
conserving energy for greenhouse heating. The root
zone can be warmed by sun exposure directly to the
soil, or by root zone heating. Locating heating pipes
or hot water heating tubes under the greenhouse
benches or installing hot water hearing tubes under
the greenhouse benches, or installing hot water
heating tubes in the greenhouse floor are common
methods to deliver heat more directly to the root
zone.
Controlling Plant Height with Temperature – The
height of a plant is determined by the number of
nodes present and the length of the internodes. The
elongation and length of the internodes is controlled
by the difference (DIF) between the day and night
temperature. DIF is calculated as follows:
DIF = Day Temperature – Night Temperature
Positive DIF values result in long internodes.
Negative DIF values result in shorter internodes.
Maintaining one constant temperature throughout the
day and night, which equals a zero DIF will result in
plants that will generally be 70% shorter than if the
plants were grown at a + 10 DIF (68o F Day – 58o F
Night). This response has been documented for a
wide variety of floriculture crops, including bedding
plants. DIF and growth retardants limit cell
elongation and division by influencing the plant
hormone Gibberellic Acid (GA) synthesis in plants.
The temperatures during the first three to four hours
after sunrise are responsible for determining about
70% of the elongation that takes place due to warm
day temperatures. Therefore, by dropping the
0510
temperature five to ten degrees below the night
temperature for the first three to four hours of
daylight, 70% of the negative DIF or shortening of
the internodes will be achieved. The negative DIF
effect can be used as a non-chemical means of
controlling plant height. The morning temperature
drop is easier and more practical to maintain than
keeping the day temperatures cooler for the entire
day in the greenhouse. The three- to four-hour
morning temperature drop does not affect the overall
growth rate of the crop as would an entire day of
cooling. The morning temperature drop is also more
energy efficient than maintaining a warmer night
temperature.
Negative DIF environments can result in some side
effects. Many plants will show downward curling or
bending of the leaves or petioles. Seedlings may
show chlorosis. However, DIF is a daily response,
therefore, if the environment is changed to a positive
DIF for a few days prior to shipping the crop, these
side effects will usually be reversed.
Light intensity and Daylength will affect how a plant
will respond to DIF. The higher the light intensity,
the more responsive the plant is to DIF. Plants are
also more responsive during short days. This
explains why differences in the effectiveness of DIF
are apparent at different times of the year.
Humidity in the Greenhouse
Warm air holds more moisture than cooler air.
Therefore, as temperature stratifications occur in the
greenhouse, humidity stratifications also occur.
Temperature and humidity stratifications create non-
uniform growth within a crop, they are energy
inefficient, and these conditions can create disease
problems. Inside corners of the greenhouse are dead
zones where temperature and humidity levels can
become undesirable, thereby creating ideal conditions
for diseases to develop. When the sun sets, the leaf
surfaces become cooler as the sun is no longer
warming the leaf. But, the leaves continue to radiate
heat into the cooler night air. Moisture in the warm
humid air potentially condenses on the cooler leaf
surface, thereby creating a moist environment on the
leaf for fungal and bacterial development. Mixing
the air within the greenhouse with Horizontal Air
Flow (HAF) fans will help mix the air layers and
minimize temperature and humidity stratifications.
HAF is a common strategy to promote uniform
growth and minimize disease potential.
43.2-6
Condensation on the leaf surface can also be reduced
by lowering the humidity level. Opening ridge vents
to bring in cooler drier air, and allowing warmer
humid air to rise up and out of the greenhouse, will
lower the humidity level in the greenhouse.
Greenhouses with computerized environmental
control systems can use “heat and vent” cycles called
Purging to expel the humid air. Growers will heat
the air two to five degrees warmer than the desired
set temperature and simultaneously open the ridge
vents for two to five minutes. The computerized
environmental control system can monitor
temperature and humidity levels and predict when
condensation will occur, and then implement the
purge automatically. Propagation facilities need to
maintain higher humidity levels. Mist systems or fog
systems are installed to deposit very small water
droplets into the air to achieve higher humidity
levels.
Lighting in the Greenhouse
Light is an energy source for plants. Plants contain
light absorbing chemicals called pigments. Different
pigments absorb different wavelengths or colors of
light. The chlorophyll pigment absorbs red and blue
wavelengths of light which are involved in
photosynthesis. It is critical that adequate light be
available to all plants to ensure optimal
photosynthetic rates for leaf and flower development
as well as dry matter accumulation. Please see
Chapter 13, Plant Growth and Development for
additional information.
Insufficient Light – Lack of sufficient light can be a
limiting factor for plant growth in a greenhouse
environment, especially in the winter. Plants
growing under low light conditions may exhibit slow
growth rates, chlorosis, small new leaves, stretching
of the internodes, delayed flowering, and aborted
flowers. While light intensities may reach as high as
10,000 foot-candles (2,000 µmol/m2/sec) at noon
during a clear day in June, light intensities as low as
500 foot-candles (100 µmol/m2/sec) are common in
greenhouses during cloudy days in December. Most
plants are light saturated for maximum
photosynthetic rates 2,000 to 3,000 foot-candles (400
to 600 µmol/m2/sec. When natural lighting is less
than 2,000 to 3,000 foot-candles, artificial lights that
have adequate red and blue light qualities can
enhance the photosynthetic productivity of plants.
Lamps that provide 300 to 600 foot-candles (40 to 80
µmol/m2/sec), such as high pressure sodium vapor
lamps of metal halide lamps, are used 16 to 24 hours
per day.
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Excess Light – In the summer when light intensities
far exceed 2,000 to 3,000 foot-candles, a large
portion of the light reaching the leaves is wasted.
The excessive light can cause photo-oxidation
resulting in the destruction of chlorophyll and the
bleaching of the leaves. High light can also promote
excessive transpiration or evaporative loss of water
from the leaves, which results in wilting and drying
of the leaves. This can be prevented by hanging
mesh shade cloth from eave to eave, or by applying a
whitewash to the greenhouse covering. A 30% to
50% shade is commonly used.
Controlling Daylength for Floral Induction and
Initiation – Daylength is the length of the light and
dark periods in a growing situation. Daylength can
be a controlling factor for flower induction and
initiation for many plants. Plants that are
photoperiodic can be induced to flower with one
photoperiodic Daylength, and the opposite Daylength
will keep them vegetative. Plants should grow
vegetatively to a desired size prior to inducing and
initiating flowers on the crop.
Long Day (LD) light regimes can be created by: (1)
using natural long days, or (2) using Night-
interruption Lighting (NI). NI is created by
exposing plants to at least 10 to 15 foot-candles of
light via incandescent or high intensity lights from
10:00 PM to 2:00 AM. This makes the plant react to
short dark periods which provides the same effect as
long days. Growers can put the lights on a timer or
have the lights controlled through a computerized
environmental control system.
Short Day (SD) light regimes can be created by: (1)
using natural short days, or (2) during natural long
days, create Short Days by covering plants with
Blackout Cloth. The Blackout Cloth must hang to
the ground so no light reaches the plants. If the
Blackout Cloth covers from gutter to gutter in a
greenhouse, the fans should run to prevent heat
buildup under the Blackout Cloth. High temperatures
under the Blackout Cloth can cause hard growth,
chlorosis, malformed flowers, delayed flowering, and
bud abortion. Opening the Blackout Cloth from
11:00 PM to 2:00 AM may also help prevent heat
accumulation under the Blackout Cloth during high
temperature periods in the summer. Blackout Cloth
is sometimes pulled during natural Short Days to
prevent stray light from reaching the crop during
required dark periods. There are many reported cases
where stray light from security lights or automobile
traffic shine into the production green houses and
43.2-7
cause delayed and/or inhibited floral initiation and
development in Poinsettias.
Controlling Gases in the Greenhouse
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – The closed environment of
the greenhouse creates a unique opportunity to
monitor and modify carbon dioxide levels during
crop production. During the winter when the
greenhouse is closed all day, CO2 levels may drop
below the ambient concentrations of 300 to 360 ppm
due to plants using the CO2 for photosynthesis, and
due to no fresh air coming into the greenhouse to
replenish the CO2. CO2 can become a limiting factor
for plant growth under these conditions. CO2
injection into the greenhouse, referred to as CO2
fertilization, can enhance and hasten vegetative plant
growth and flowering. Plant growth can be enhanced
by increasing CO2 up to 1200 to 1500 ppm during
closed greenhouse conditions.
Ethylene (C2H4) – Ethylene is a water soluble gas and
a natural occurring plant hormone which is produced
in fruits, seeds, flowers, stems, leaves and roots.
Ethylene controls a multitude of plant responses as
described below. When fuel sources of high purity
are combusted in the presence of adequate oxygen,
only CO2 and water vapor are produced, however,
this type of complete combustion rarely exists. By-
products of incomplete combustion include ethylene
gas which can be injurious to plants.
Plants exposed to external ethylene sources such as
exhaust from vehicles or improperly vented heaters,
will frequently exhibit the Triple Pea Response,
which consists of:
1. Dwarfing.
2. Stem Thickening.
3. Epinasty.
Epinasty is the curling of stems, petioles and leaves.
External ethylene can also cause bud abortion,
ripening of fruit, and senescence of plant parts.
Concentrations of 0.1 ppm for 24 hours can injure a
plant. Exposure to ten ppm for a few hours can kill a
plant.
Air samples can be sent to a testing lab for ethylene
detection. Heaters should always be vented to the
outside and have adequate venting for complete
combustion. Avoid running motors that run on
carbon based fuels in the production area.
Irrigation of Greenhouse Crops
Water Quality – It is important to know the chemical
content of the water used for greenhouse irrigation
0510
regardless of its source. Soil testing labs will also
analyze water samples.
A water quality test should include a soluble salts
test which is measured with an Electrical
Conductivity (EC) meter and is reported in
mmho/cm. It measures all electrically charged ions
dissolved in the water. The more dissolved solids in
the water, the greater the electrical conductivity
which equals a higher soluble salt reading. The
upper acceptable EC level of irrigation water for
seedlings is 0.75 mmho/cm and for older crops is 1.5
mmho/cm. Salts from irrigation water can
accumulate in the growing medium and cause plant
injury if they are excessively high. Monitoring
soluble salts should be a routine part of any fertility
program for containerized or container-grown plants.
The alkalinity of irrigation water is critical in
controlling medium pH. Alkalinity is the
Milliequivalents of carbonate and bicarbonate per
liter of water. It is reported as Milliequivalents per
liter of water (Me/L) of equivalent of calcium
carbonate. Low levels of alkalinity, 1.0 to 1.5 Me/l
are desirable for irrigation water. At this level, the
effects on growing medium pH are manageable.
When the water alkalinity is greater than 1.5 Me/L,
the growing medium pH begins to rise. As water is
applied to the medium, the carbonates and
bicarbonates in the alkaline water combine with the
hydrogen ions (H+) in the medium. This chemical
reaction forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) which breads
down into water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
The H+ ions extracted from the medium by alkaline
water, results in a rise in the medium pH, since pH is
a measurement of H+ ion concentration.
When the growing medium volume is small, as in a
plug tray, alkaline water can increase the medium
pH very quickly, even in a matter of a few days, as
there is not much medium to buffer the reactions.
Cumulative quantities of carbonate and bicarbonate
can increase in the medium over time with
consecutive irrigations of crops. If the length of the
crop cycle is short as such as with a three- to four-
week Marigold crop, the cumulative affect may not
be a significant. If, however, the crop cycle is longer,
for example a 12-week Chrysanthemum crop, the
cumulative affect may be quite significant and may
warrant some method of intervention or control.
How tolerant a crop is to increased pH levels will
also vary by plant species. Some crops will tolerate
43.2-8
wide pH ranges while many grow best at pH levels
below 6.0.
To counter the potential affects of cumulative
alkalinity on medium pH, growers may utilize the
following procedures.
1. Use acidic residue fertilizers.
2. Use less lime in the preplant pH adjustment and
fertilizer program.
3. Use acid injection in the irrigation lines.
4. Use a reverse osmosis filtering system.
Injection of nitric acid, phosphoric acid or sulfuric
acid into the irrigation lines is done with a
commercial fertilizer injector to bring the water pH
down to a 5.8 pH. At a pH of 5.8, bicarbonates are
bicarbonates are broken down to water and carbon
dioxide. The amount of acid needed to lower the
alkalinity is dependant on the original and desired
alkalinity, and the pH of the water. North Carolina
State University has an alkalinity calculator on the
internet at www.floricultureinfo.com. Click on
Floriculture Software.
High alkalinity is often accompanied by high
Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) in the water.
Water hardness, reported as Milliequivalents per
liter of water (Me/L) of equivalent calcium
carbonate, is a measure of combined Ca and Mg in
the water. It is important to recognize that alkalinity
and hardness are not identical. An imbalance in the
Ca and Mg levels can result in nutrient deficiencies
of one or both of the nutrients. A Ca:Mg ratio of 3 to
5 Ca:1 Mg should be maintained.
It is wise to have a water test done every few years
and during unusual water events such as drought or
flooding periods as they can alter water quality. For
additional information please refer to Chapter 28,
Irrigation Management.
Under Watering – When water is not applied
frequently or in adequate quantities, the plants will
have a hardened appearance. Under watering reduces
photosynthesis and overall growth. In addition, the
elongation of young cells is reduced, resulting in
smaller leaves and shorter stem internodes. In severe
cases, wilting, marginal leaf burn, dry patches on the
leaves and death may result.
0510
Over Watering – Applying water too frequently or in
excessive quantities will keep the soil pores filled
with water which reduces oxygen availability to the
roots resulting in a weaken root system. High water
content in the growing medium may produce large
leaves, but they will be soft and succulent, which
makes them susceptible to high temperatures and
high light stress. Over watered plants can wilt due to
lack of oxygen in the growing medium. They can
also have excessively long internodes, chlorotic
lower leaves, soft growth, and are more susceptible to
nutrient deficiencies. It is important to let the
growing medium dry to 40% to 60% of its original
weight before re-watering. This will allow oxygen to
reenter the medium, as oxygen is required for root
development. It takes much longer for a plant to
recover from over watering that from under watering.
Therefore, it is better to error on the side of growing
plants slightly dry.
Best Management Irrigation Practices – Best
Management Practices (BMP) for greenhouse
irrigation includes, but is not limited to the following:
1. Use a Well Drained Growing Medium
For additional information, please see the
Growing Media section of this chapter and also
Chapter 41, Container Production.
2. Water Thoroughly
The root zone should be entirely wetted each time
a plant is watered. Recommendations include
creating a 10% leachate with each irrigation to
ensure saturation, and to minimize soluble salt
accumulation. Many alternative irrigation
techniques are available to ensure thorough
watering, yet minimize water run-off.
3. Water Just Prior to a Moisture Stress Level
Never wait to irrigate until the plant wilts. All
plant species differ in their water requirements.
Signs that a plant is approaching water stress
include loss of luster of the leaf surface. Plus, a
subtle change in leaf color occurs, becoming a
bluer or grayer shade of green. The color of the
growing medium may also be used to evaluate the
irritation status. Pear-based media and most other
media, become lighter tan as the medium dries.
The weight of the growing medium can also be
used to gage irrigation requirements. Allow
plants to dry down to 40% to 60% of its original
water weight before re-watering. Using the
“Finger Test” on container crops can also be used.
Insert the pointer finger into the medium and
43.2-9
when it is dry to a dept of the middle knuckle, it is
time to irrigate.
4. Select the Proper Time of Day to Irrigate
Irrigate so that the plants are turgid and remain
turgid during the heat of the day, which is usually
from 11:00 AM to 2:00 PM. Avoid irrigating at a
time which would leave the plants wet over night.
5. Keep the Leaves as Dry as Possible
A film of water on the leaf surface creates an
environment conducive to disease development,
especially when going into the cooler, darker
evening and night hours. Irrigation systems that
minimize leaf wetting will help control diseases.
Water early in the day so the leaves have time to
dry before darkness to minimize disease
development.
6. Adjust Irrigation Relative to the Environment
Adjust the frequency of irrigation as changes in
the environment occur. This includes light
intensity, temperature, air movement and
humidity. Many irrigation systems are integrated
with computerized environmental control systems
that automatically monitor environmental
conditions and adjust the irrigation accordingly.
Conditions that increase the plant’s use and
transpiration of water will require the frequency
of irrigation to increase; the reverse is also true.
For example, with four to five consecutive days of
cloudy weather, plants may not need to be
watered at all, depending on temperature. Over
watering during cloudy weather can lead to soft
growth plus physiological and pathological
problems.
Growing Media for Greenhouse Crops
A growing medium for container greenhouse crops
requires a good water holding capacity as well a good
aeration and drainage. For information on water
holding capacity, porosity and characteristics of
container growing media, please refer to Chapter 41,
Container Production. In addition, specific attributes
of media components for greenhouse production are
discussed below.
Peat – Sphagnum peat and Hypnum peat are the most
commonly used types of peat in the greenhouse. The
high water holding capacity of peat is created by the
many small capillary pores created by many small
peat particles. Peat increases water holding capacity.
Good drainage and gas exchange occurs in peat only
if it is a very coarse peat, therefore, peat with large
0510
particles is preferable to finely ground peat.
Sphagnum peat is more coarse and has a lower pH
than Hypnum peat. The pH of Sphagnum peat ranges
between 3.0 and 4.6, therefore, dolomitic lime is
generally added to peat-based media to raise the pH
to 5.8 to 6.2. Peat particles are naturally
hydrophobic, however, adding a wetting agent and/or
using warm water will aid in wetting the peat.
Composted Bark – Composted softwood bark and
hardwood bark are good organic media components
that are less expensive than peat. Thermophyllic
micro-organisms sufficiently heat the composting
bark and render it essentially pasteurized. The large
particle size of bark chips promotes good drainage.
A bark-based medium is drier compared to a peat-
based medium. If a grower over waters a bark-based
medium it is not as critical as it would be in a peat-
based medium. Bark media may tie up some
chemicals including growth regulators and pesticides
that are applied as drenches. Avoid chemical
drenching these products when bark is a major
component in the medium.
Coir – Coir is derived from ground coconut husks
and has the consistency of a fibrous semi-coarse peat.
It is functions similar to peat and it can be used as an
equivalent substitute for peat or as an addition to
peat. It is slightly better aerated than peat and it wets
more readily than peat. It has a pH of 4.9 to 6.8.
Plants grown in coir have enhanced rooting compared
to other media. This may be due to natural hormones
found in the coir. Therefore, coir has become a
popular component in rooting media.
Perlite – Perlite is derived from a volcanic mineral
that is heated and popped like popcorn into puffy,
white porous particles. The large particle size
provides good medium aeration and drainage. It
holds up well and does not affect the pH of a
medium. Perlite may release some fluoride which
can cause tip burn on monocot plants. As a
precautionary measure, limit the use of perlite in
media used for monocots such as Lilies and
Cholophytum. Perlite has been used successfully in
long term crops including many foliage plants.
Vermiculite – Vermiculite is derived from a mica-
like mineral and is heated and popped like popcorn to
form light weight, golden, layered particles.
Vermiculite is graded according to particle size with
the Germination Grade being relatively fine
compared to regular Horticultural Grade in which the
particles are much larger. Vermiculite holds water
43.2-10
well and is used in propagation media for that
purpose. It does compact over time, therefore, it
should be used on short term crops like bedding
plants rather than in longer term crops. Vermiculite
has no affect on medium pH.
Sand – Sand can be very fine textured or it can
consist of larger particle sizes. Only sand with large
particles size will improve aeration and drainage and
it must be used at over 25% of the medium volume.
It is heavy, therefore it has limited use in greenhouse
crops which need to be transported to market. The
added weight can increase shipping cost and be a
disadvantage in handling. Sand particles have very
little water holding capacity and sand can increase
medium pH.
Rice Hulls – Composted rice hulls are another
alternative organic medium component. They can
vary from large full rice hulls to a finely ground
product. Coarse rice hulls enhance the aeration of a
medium and finely ground rice hulls enhance the
water holding capacity of a medium. It is wise to re-
evaluate watering practices when first starting to
grow in a medium containing rice hulls. Rice hulls
have a minimal impact on medium pH.
Rockwool – Rockwool is derived from basalt rock
that is pulverized, heated and spun into fibers like
cotton candy. Slabs of Rockwool are used in
hydroponic production, whereas granular Rockwool
is used in container production. Rockwool has no
impact on medium pH or Cation Exchange Capacity.
It has good water holding capacity, therefore, it is
added to crops that require frequent irrigation such as
hanging baskets. A 1 Peat:1 Rockwool mixture
makes an excellent growing medium.
Preferred properties of a growing medium for
greenhouse crops include the following:
1. Well drained and well aerated, but still have good
water holding capacity.
2. Bulk density of 0.4 to 0.6 g/cm2.
3 A pH of 5.4 to 6.2 for Soilless media, and 6.2 to
6.5 for soil-based media.
4. A minimum of 15% to 20% air by volume for
container crops.
5. High nutrient holding capacity of 6 to 15
Me/100cc.
0510
6. Pre-plant slow-release phosphorus fertilizer
incorporated to promote early root development.
7. Dolomitic lime incorporated to adjust pH.
8. Micro-nutrients incorporated to supply minor
nutrients for the crop duration.
9. A wetting agent to counter the hydrophobic nature
of peat.
Growers are almost exclusively using Soilless media
for greenhouse crops. Various combinations of the
above described components are prepared by
individual growers, or they purchase pre-mixed
media which are also adjusted to each grower’s
specific growing conditions and crops.
The depth of the container that a crop will be grown
in, and the moisture preferences of the crop, greatly
influence the type of growing medium that should be
used. If grown in open benches or beds, cut flower
beds require a growing medium of seven inches.
Containers for Greenhouse Production
The bedding plant industry has used the 1020 Flat as
the industry standard for many years. It is a flat that
is 22 inches wide by 21 inches long. A sheet of
bedding plant cell packs that fits into a flat is referred
to as an insert. The inserts are composed of a series
of individual packs with a various number of cells per
pack. The inserts are specified by a set of four
numbers: the first two numbers specify the number of
packs per flat and the second two numbers specify
the number of cells per pack. For example, a 1206
flat has 12 packs per flat with 6 cells per pack; a 3201
flat has 32 detachable packs with a single cell
composing the pack. There are some suppliers
experimenting with smaller cell sizes to increase the
number of plants produced per square foot of bench
space. This is an economically based incentive, not
one based on plant growth. To offset the smaller cell
dimensions, deeper cells are used so the root volume
remains somewhat constant. Deeper cells and
containers provide better drainage and are often use
as part of a water management strategy.
Many floriculture products are grown in 2.5-inch, 4-
inch, 5-inch and 8-inch containers which are moved
by using plastic molded shuttles or carrying trays.
Larger specimens and hanging baskets of 10-inch or
12-inch diameter or larger are also common in the
trade. Containers in the retail setting must be labeled
43.2-11
according to dimension and volume in both U.S. and
metric terms. For additional information, please refer
to Chapter 48, Marketing, Merchandising and Sales.
Plastic has been the dominate container material in
the industry. Recycling programs should be used to
minimize the contribution of plastics in the stream of
waste products. New types of biodegradable
container materials are becoming more available on
the market in response to industry pressure for more
“green’ and sustainable alternatives to plastic.
Germination and Development of Plugs
The germination of seeds in plug trays, where each
seed is placed and grown in its own cell, has
revolutionized the bedding plant and vegetable
transplant industries. Plug production is divided into
four stages from germination to transplanting for the
ease of specifying optimal levels of environmental
and growing medium factors during production.
Optimal environmental conditions and growing
medium requirements change as the plant transitions
from one stage of development to the next (Table 1).
Production Stage 1 is frequently accomplished in
growth chambers or tight greenhouses where
humidity levels are high and temperatures are warmer
than most growing temperatures. Light and fertility
requirements increase as seedlings develop, while the
temperature and moisture requirements decrease over
the same time period. The overall strategy in
producing quality plugs is to develop a strong root
system, while restricting shoot growth. In addition to
the environmental condition, the type of fertilizer
influences the type of plant growth achieved. High
NH4 and excessive P will promote shoot growth and
excessive stem elongation, while high NO3 and Ca,
and moderate P, will promote root development and
maintain a toned plug. Negative DIF and growth
regulators are also effective in controlling plant
height of many plug species.
Plugs should be transplanted into a moist medium as
soon as possible once they reach an appropriate size
and before they become root-bound. Plugs held too
long in the plug tray will have delayed growth after
transplanting. Several references are available for
achieving optimal growing conditions during plug
production for individual plant species.
Seed Enhancements
Plug growers have encouraged seed companies to
develop seed enhancements to improve the percent
germination in order to achieve a consistent 100%
0510
Table 1. Plant development as influenced by environmental factors and growing medium requirements during the
four stages of plug production.

Plant Development Stages

1 2 3 4

Seed Imbibes Stem and Growth and Plants Ready

Plant Development Water, Cotyledons Development for
Stage Description Radical Emerge of True Transplanting,
→→→→→→→→ Emerges Leaves Shipping or
Bedding

Factors Affecting
↓ Plant Growth ↓ Optimum Condition of Environmental Factors and Growing Medium Requirements

Moisture High High to Moderate Low

Moderate

Temperature 70 to 80o F 65 to 78o F 62 to 70o F 60 to 68o F

Light Low Low High High

1500 Ft-c. 1500 Ft-c. >1500 Ft-c. >1500 Ft-c.

Fertility Not 50 to 75 50 to 100 100 to 150

Applicable ppm NO3 ppm NO3 ppm NO3

stand of vigorous seedlings and for the precise
placement of the seed in the planting medium. A full
seedling stand is important for sales as well as for
efficiency in automated transplanting. Enhanced
seed is frequently more costly and growers should
evaluate the benefits against the higher cost given
specific production goals.
Seed Hydration – Seed hydration treatments promote
water uptake by the seeds to start the early
physiological events of germination. The seed is then
re-dried prior to shipping to the grower. Pre-
hydration, priming, matri-conditioning, and pre-
germination, all use hydration to increase the rate of
germination and uniformity of the seedling stand. In
pre-germination, the germination process is allowed
to progress to the point that the radicle, or young
root, starts to protrude from the seed. Hydrated seeds
are more delicate and have a more limited shelf life
than regular seed because the metabolic events
leading to germination have been initiated.
Therefore, hydrated seed needs to be used within a
short time of purchase. Seed suppliers will
recommend proper handling and storage procedures
for the seed purchased.
Pelletized Seed – Mechanical seeders are used to
precisely drop seeds into plug cells. The ability of
the seeder to pick up the seed and place it as close to
the center of the cell is difficult with some raw seeds

43.2-12 0510
due to the shape, size or other seed characteristic.
For example, Begonia seeds are extremely small,
tomato seed has a layer of fuzz that causes it to stick
to surfaces, and Marigold seeds are very long with a
papus tail. Therefore, tomato seed is de-fuzzed and
Marigold seed is de-tailed prior to sale. Pelletizing is
a process that adds a substance to the outside of small
or irregular shaped seeds that will make them larger
and more round in shape for easier seeding. Species
that have small, fine textured seedlings such as
Lobelia, Alyssum and Portulaca, are multiple seeded.
Pelletizing three to four seeds together into one pellet
greatly improves the consistency of multiple seeding.
Pellets vary in composition, so growers may need to
adjust misting rates during germination to ensure
water imbibition into the seed.
Seed Coating – Seed coatings are substances applied
to the outside of the seed to enhance seed
performance. These substances include fungicides,
insecticides and micronutrients. Film coatings are a
thin layer natural or synthetic polymers applied as a
liquid to the outside of the seed. They frequently
have a colorant that enhances the visibility of the
seed during sowing. Some films will smooth the
outside texture or decrease the static electricity on the
outside of the seed which facilitates the seed flowing
through the seeding equipment. It is possible to have
several layers of film coatings on a seed, each with a
different benefit. Insecticides or fungicides can be
included in film coatings.
Growth Regulators for Floriculture Crops
Plant growth regulators or PGR’s, are used to block,
interfere, modify or enhance plant responses that are
normally controlled by natural plant hormones.
Understanding how the main five categories of
natural occurring plant hormones impact plant
growth is necessary when selecting the appropriate
PGR for a specific use. Plant hormones are naturally
found in a plant, whereas, PGR’s refer to materials
applied externally to the plant. Plant hormones may
also be PGR’s. The five naturally occurring Plant
Hormones are described below.
Auxin – A major role of auxin is to promote growth
through cell enlargement. Stem tips and associated
expanding leaves are primary locations for auxin
synthesis. Auxins are translocated down the stem.
Auxin is involved in tropistic growth movements
including the downward growth of roots, the upward
growth of shoots, and the bending of the plant
towards light. Auxin is inactivated by blue light,
therefore, the auxin concentration on the lighter side
43.2-13
of the plant decreases compared to the darker side of
the stem. Hence, the stem cells on the dark side have
more auxin and elongate more than those on the
lighter side. This results in non-uniform growth of
the cells within the stem and the bending of the stem
towards the light. When seedlings are grown under
low light, the high auxin concentrations cause rapid
stem elongation. As the seedlings are moved into
higher light intensities, the light destroys the auxin
and the rate of elongation slows.
Auxin also inhibits the growth of lateral or axillary
buds. This is known as Apical Dominance. Auxin
is synthesized in the apical stem tip and in the newly
formed unexpanded leaves and is translocated
downward in the phloem to other plant parts
including the axillary buds. High auxin
concentrations in the axillary buds inhibits the buds
from growing. Cytokinin, another plant hormone, is
synthesized in the roots and moves through the xylem
to other plants parts including the axillary buds.
Cytokinins promote the growth of axillary buds.
Therefore, the balance of auxin to cytokinins in the
axillary buds determines if the buds will grow. When
a plant’s terminal branch is pinched, which removes
the apical stem tip and the young unexpanded leaves,
the natural source of auxin is also removed.
Consequently the auxin concentration in the axillary
buds goes down, while the cytokinin concentration
remains constant and hence, the balance of auxin to
cytokinin in the axillary buds is altered and buds are
promoted to grow. .
Auxin also initiates the formation of adventitious
roots. Commercial rooting hormone products contain
the natural auxin Indoleacetic Acid (IAA), or the
synthetic auxins including Indolebutyric Acid (IBA),
Naphthaleneacetic Acid (NAA). These products can
be applied to the base of cuttings as a thin film of
powder. They can also be dissolved in alcohol and
diluted with water to a final concentration between
200 to 5,000 ppm, and then cuttings can be dipped or
soaked in the solution. This method enhances the
permeability of the solution into woody stem tissue.
Gibberellic Acid – There are many formulations of
Gibberellic Acid (GA) in plants. Gibberellic acid
promotes plant growth by stimulating cell division
and enlargement. Internode elongation is attributed
to Gibberellic acid. Pillar Geraniums are frequently
sprayed with Gibberellic acid to promote internode
elongation which creates a taller plant.
Soaking seeds in Gibberellic acid enhances
germination in some species. It also promotes floral
development in some herbaceous species.
0510
Commercially this has been used on Cyclamen,
Spathiphyllum and Statice to reduce the time to
flower.
Cold temperatures promote the development of
Gibberellic acid in plants. During the winter,
Gibberellic acid is formed in the tulip bulb which
then elongates the floral stem in the spring.
Commercially, Gibberellic acid is used to substitute
for the cold requirement needed to break bud
dormancy in some woody species. For example,
dormant Azalea buds can be stimulated to grow by
applying a series of Gibberellic acid sprays to replace
the cold treatment normally needed to overcome
dormancy. Pro-Gibb is a liquid formulation of
Gibberellic acid and Gibb-Tab is a tablet formulation,
both are used as Plant Growth Regulators (PGR’s).
Cytokinins – Cytokinins promote cell division and
stimulate shoot formation in plants. Cytokinins also
delay leaf senescence and reduce leaf yellowing in
cut-flowers including cut Asiatic lilies and potted
Easter lilies. Synthetic cytokinins, such as Accell
and Promalin, are formulations of benzyladenine and
are used as Plant Growth Regulators (PGR’s).
Abscisic Acid – Abscisic Acid (ABA) is involved in
dormancy, abscission and stomatal closing in plants.
It is starting to be used commercially to control these
plant functions.
Ethylene – Ethylene (C2H4) is a water-soluble gas
that is naturally produced by all plants. There are
desirable and undesirable plant responses to ethylene.
Ethylene is known as the “Ripening Hormone” as it
promotes ripening of fruits as well as senescence of
flowers and other plant parts. Ripe fruits and plants
under stress release increased levels of ethylene.
Injured plants and plants bending and swaying in the
wind also release ethylene as a “wound response”.
Ethylene released from moving plant parts causes a
stem thickening and dwarfing response. This is
noticeable in un-staked trees in the nursery as well as
in plants on the edges of greenhouse benches where
the leaves are constantly rubbed or touched.
Avoiding the deleterious effects of ethylene is a
major concern in floriculture. Ethylene can cause
leaf, bud and flower abscission, epinasty, early
flower senescence, and leaf yellowing. Ethylene
build-up exposure during shipping is of great
concern. Shipping or storing floriculture products
with fruits should always be avoided. The exhaust
from vehicles is another major source of ethylene that
43.2-14
needs to be avoided. Diseased bulbs and dead leaf
litter can also release significant levels of ethylene.
Plants stored or shipped in boxes and/or plant sleeves
can accumulate ethylene in the shipping packaging
resulting in severe plant injury. Examples of
deleterious post-harvest exposure to ethylene include:
flower bud abscission in Thanksgiving Cactus and
Hibiscus, epinasty of Poinsettia petioles, flower
closing in Kalanchoe, and leaf yellowing and flower
shattering in Geraniums. Proper ventilation,
avoidance of repining or senescencing plant material,
cooler temperatures, and the use of potassium
permanganate filters are possible means to limit
ethylene damage during shipping.
Silver thiosulfate (STS) and Ethyl-Bloc are
compounds that inhibit ethylene synthesis in the
plant. STS can be sprayed on Geranium blossoms
when they show 25% color. STS can also be used in
the holding water of cut flowers to extend vase life.
Ethyl-Bloc is a gaseous compound that is also used in
cut flower post harvest applications by wholesalers
and retailers to block ethylene production.
Ironically, ethylene also produces several beneficial
effects on plants, of which several are used
commercially. Ethylene in its gaseous form is hard
to apply, however, Ethephon, a liquid form is sold as
Ethrel and Florel. Upon spraying these products on a
plant, ethylene is produced inside the plant tissue.
Uses of Ethephon include the following:
1. Promote flowering in Bromeleaceae.
2. Abort early flowers on New Guinea Impatiens.
3. Defoliate Hydrangeas prior to cooling.
4. Manage height control in bedding plants.
5. Increase the number and uniformity of branching
on herbaceous crops.
Many growers pinch Poinsettias, Mums or
Geraniums, and then 24 hours later, spray with
Ethephon to improve the branching of the crop.
Growth Retardants
Growth Retardants are chemicals used to decrease
internode elongation on a wide range of floriculture
crops to create a tighter plant with an improved visual
plant form or structure. Many are anti-gibberellic
acid agents. Growth retardants do not decrease the
number of leaves, they decrease the internode length.
0510
Therefore, the primary response is reduced plant
height. Several Beneficial side-effects have been
documented with growth retardants including:
1. Greener leaves or increased chlorophyll.
2. Thicker epidermal layers.
3. Increased resistance to insects.
4. Lower transpiration rates.
5. Increased drought tolerance.
6. Increased frost tolerance.
7. More rapid flowering in some species.
8. More toned plant growth.
Growth retardants and other PGR’s should be applied
to dry leaves of non-stressed plants. Some products
are not as effective under high temperatures,
therefore, morning or late afternoon applications may
be more effective. Applying sprays under conditions
that allow the plant to stay wet longer will also aid in
the uptake of many products. These conditions occur
during higher humidity periods, cloudy weather, low
air movement and cooler temperatures. Drench
applications to the growing medium are frequently
effective, however, composted bark ties up some
growth retardants, therefore, if the medium contains
bark, a spray application should be used. When
applying a spray, uniformly wet the plant just to the
point of runoff. The volume of product required for a
drench versus a spray may vary considerably and can
substantially affect the ultimate cost of application.
Apply growth retardants prior to the stretching of the
plant. Plants growing under cooler conditions require
less growth retardants than similar plants under
warmer conditions. Northern growers generally use
fewer applications and lower concentrations
compared to southern growers. Likewise, a northern
grower may experience different crop responses from
year to year based on differing natural weather
conditions.
Although several growth retardants are available on
the market, five of the most common are described
below. Not all growth retardants are effective on all
plants. Read and follow the label, and check for
use on specific plants and for appropriate
concentrations for the intended use.
43.2-15
B-Nine – B-Nine (Daminozide, B-9) is only applied
as a spray as it is very mobile in the plant after
application. It is applied at 1,200 to 5,000 ppm from
either a Liquid or Wettable Powder formulation. B-
Nine requires 12 to 24 hours to be absorbed into the
plant, therefore, it is important not to wet the leaves
again for 24 hours after application. B-Nine is
effective on a wide range of plants, however, it has
little to no effect on Impatiens, Coleus, Pansy,
Snapdragons, Geraniums and Lilies.
Cycocel – Cycocel (Chlormequat, CCC) is available
as a liquid and can be either sprayed on a plant, or
used as a growing medium drench. Spraying is
generally less expensive. Cycocel is commonly used
to control plant height of Poinsettias, Geraniums and
many bedding plants. Sprays can result in yellow
blotches or chlorotic margins on the leaves 24 hours
after application. This is temporary and the plant will
grow out of it. This condition is known as “Cycocel
Burn”, but it should not be a long term issue.
Combinations of Cycocel and B-Nine have a
synergistic effect and can be tank-mixed for more
effective control than either product would provide
alone.
A-Rest – A-Rest (Ancymidol) is a liquid that can be
applied as a spray or drench depending on the crop.
A-Rest is one of the more effective growth retardants
on monocot plants. Dipping hybrid or Easter lily
bulbs in A-Rest for 30 minutes after the cold
treatment, but prior to planting, works well to control
stem elongation in potted plants. A-Rest sprays can
cause phytotoxicity resulting in necrotic spots on the
leaves. This is more likely to occur when the
temperature is above 70o F. Poinsettias have shown
sensitivity to A-Rest.
Bonzi – Bonzi (Paclobutrazol) is very active at low
concentrations in almost all plant species. Bonzi is
only translocated in the xylem, not in the phloem.
Therefore, the product only moves upward in the
plant. Drenches are effective as are sprays that apply
the product to the stem rather than the leaf tissue.
Growers need to be careful not to over-apply Bonzi
as excessive concentrations result in long term
recovery times to normal growth. Bonzi as a drench
on plugs at the time of seeding for long term height
control is being experimented with.
Sumagic – Sumagic (Uniconazole), like Bonzi,
belongs to the chemical group classified as triazoles.
Triazoles are very active in almost all plant species.
0510
Sumagic can be applied as a spray, drench or a dip
for cuttings or bulbs.
Other PGR’s – Off-Shoot-O and Atrimmec are
chemicals that terminate shoot growth and can,
therefore, be use as chemical pinching agents. The
growth of the terminal shoot is inhibited, which then
causes the lateral buds behind the terminal to grow
because the Apical Dominance has been removed.
Post Production Handling
Shelf Life refers to the post production period for
containerized or container-grown plants, and Vase
Life refers to the post production period for cut
flowers. The retention of product quality and
ultimate longevity of a product in the post production
setting is directly correlated to the chain of conditions
extending from early production, through harvest,
and to holding, shipping, and retail sales. Healthy
plants will hold up better in post production.
Therefore, providing optimum light, temperature,
fertility, water and CO2 during production is the first
step in maintaining quality throughout the sales
period.
A compact plant habit is less susceptible to
mechanical damage during movement through the
market channels. Negative DIF and/or PGR’s are
tools available to growers to develop compact plants
in addition to cultivar selection, and to cultural
management through environmental control. Plants
that are toned at the end of the production period are
also less susceptible to temperature, water and
mechanical stresses during shipping and marketing.
Toning is achieved by providing less than adequate
light, water, heat and/or fertilizer at the end of
production to create a temporary reversible stress on
the plants. The industry refers to this process as
hardening off. Reducing or even stopping
fertilization for one to two weeks prior to shipping,
frequently improves the quality and shelf life of a
plant for the consumer. During production, frequent
watering keeps the internal water content of the plant
high, resulting in “soft growth”. Soft plants wilt
readily when exposed to the stress of drying winds,
high temperatures, high light intensity, and
insufficient watering, all of which can occur during
shipping and retail display. Reduced watering during
the last few weeks of production, will develop harder,
more toned plant growth which will have a greater
tolerance to environmental and mechanical stress
during post production. Lowering the temperature by
five to ten degrees F after the flower buds are visible,
will also tone plants and this practice is used for
43.2-16
bedding plants and flowering potted plants. Low
temperature toning is not used on foliage plants.
Toning with low light conditioning is restricted to
foliage plants and is essential in ensuring foliage will
adapt to lower light conditions experienced in the
consumer setting. Lowering the light intensity for six
weeks to six months, depending on size and plant
species, at the end of foliage production greatly
reduces chlorosis and leaf drop in post production
settings.
Shipping – Plants should be moist, but not wet at the
time of shipping. Excessive moisture creates a
humid environment which encourages the
development of Botrytis in the confined conditions of
closed boxes, sleeves, trucks and coolers. Ethylene
can also cause post production injury. Symptoms
include leaf chlorosis, bud and flower abscission,
epinasty and potential overall plant decline. Ethylene
build-up can occur due to normal plant release of
ethylene in confined areas. Bending and bruising of
foliage during Sleeving and handling will release
ethylene, as will decaying plant parts, exposure to
ripe fruits, and exhaust from vehicles and engines.
All precautions should be taken to minimize exposure
to ethylene. Minimizing the time a plant is in a
sleeve is also important. Sleeved Poinsettias generate
significant ethylene and, therefore, experience
epinastic leaves, chlorosis and droopy bracts if kept
in the sleeve more than a few hours. Venting and
providing adequate air circulation in the shipping
containers and storage rooms will help control
ethylene build-up. STS as a spray and Ethyl-Bloc as
a gaseous treatment applied prior to shipping can
minimize ethylene evolution from plants. Ethylene
production and the plant’s sensitivity to ethylene will
decrease as temperature decreases. Maintaining
temperatures as low as tolerated by the plant without
causing injury during shipping has multiple benefits.
Low temperatures will limit ethylene damage and
decrease respiration rates, which conserves the
carbohydrates in the plant. Most bedding plants and
potted flowering plants can be shipped at
temperatures in the range of 40o to 60o F. Cold-
sensitive plants such as foliage plants and Poinsettias
should not shipped at temperatures below 50o F.
Darkness and low light during shipping can cause
chlorosis, leaf drop, floral bud abortion, and
stretching of plant parts. Unfortunately, providing
light during shipping is generally not possible.
Typically, green plants can tolerate seven days of
darkness and bedding plants tolerate approximately
two days of darkness provided precautions are taken
to control the temperature.
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Vase Life of Cut Flowers – Vase life of cut flowers is
dependent on many variables. The time of day for
harvesting cut flowers can greatly influence the
longevity of some species. Flowers accumulate
carbohydrates during the day via photosynthesis and
then during the night, carbohydrates are consumed
through respiration. Therefore, a flower harvested in
late afternoon will frequently have greater
carbohydrate reserves and have a longer vase life
than one harvested in the morning. Immediately after
harvest, cut flowers should be cooled to remove the
field heat from the plants.
The market chain is the chain of life for fresh
flowers. It includes the time from producer to
wholesaler to retailer to consumer. Keeping flowers
cool throughout the chain of life is essential to extend
vase life longevity. Storage and shipping
temperatures of 35o to 40o F are appropriate for most
cut flowers. Sensitive tropical flowers, including the
Orchids, should not be held below 50o F or they will
show petal browning. Cut flowers are shipped in
cardboard boxes lined with foam, plastic sheeting
and/or newspaper for insulation . The boxes should
have holes in the sides for ventilation to prevent
ethylene build-up in the box.
When flowers arrive at a storage facility or retailer’s
cooler, the flowers should be hydrated and placed in
preservative as soon as possible. Hydration, the
uptake of water into the stem and flower head, is
promoted by maintaining a pH of 5.2 to 5.8 in the
holding solution. This pH closely equates to the pH
of the cell fluid in the plant. Citric acid is used to
acidify the holding solution. Warm water at 70o to
110o F will also aid in hydration.
Flowers that have been held dry for any length of
time will need to have the stems re-cut to remove any
potential air blockage at the base of the stem. The
xylem vessels in the stem are like a series of straws.
When water evaporates from the xylem cells at the
base of a cut stem, air replaces the water column.
The capillary action is interrupted and the water
molecules are sufficiently large so they cannot move
around the air in the xylem resulting in a lack of
water uptake and subsequent premature death of the
flower. Remove one to two inches of stem tissue to
eliminate the blockage. Cut the stem at an angle to
ensure that the cut surface does not rest flat on the
bottom of the holding container as this would prevent
water uptake.
Vase life decline can be caused by following
conditions:
43.2-17
1. High transpiration rates resulting in excessive
water loss.
2. Plugging of vascular tissue by air, bacteria, or
chemicals exuded by the plants.
3. Presence of disease organisms including
Botrytis.
4. Insufficient carbohydrate supply to support
respiration.
5. Exposure to ethylene.
Commercial floral preservatives have been developed
to combat these potential problems. The four major
ingredients in a preservative are as follows:
1. Acidifier – Maintains cell fluid pH for normal
metabolic functions and promotes hydration.
2. Carbohydrate – Sucrose or fructose that serves as
a substrate for respiration.
3. Fungicide or Bactericide – Prevents stem
plugging from diseases.
4. Respiration Inhibitor – minimizes respiration
rates.
Floral preservatives should be used in all steps
throughout the chain of life including having the
consumer add it to their holding water.
Good sanitation practices during post production
handling and shipping will help reduce incidence of
ethylene and disease exposure. Refrigerator holding
containers should be sanitized at least once per week.
Plant debris should always be removed immediately
from the storage area.
Crop Scheduling
Scheduling a crop is the most fundamental part of a
production program. Creating a road map for
production will aid in ordering supplies, optimizing
space utilization in the greenhouse, fine tuning
environmental conditions, meeting target market
dates, plus predicting and optimizing production
numbers and profits. One of the main goals in
scheduling should be to increase the number of crop
turns in the operation. This refers to the number
consecutive crops produced in the same production
area in a given period of time.
0510
Creating a production schedule or plan requires a
grower to develop a detailed schedule for the major
crops produced. To facilitate implementation of all
the schedules when there are a large number of
varieties or minor crops involved, it is preferred to
schedule no more than five scenarios per greenhouse
turn or per grower. Compare growth and
development requirements across the crops to be
grown and group them by similarities.
The schedule or plan should include specific
environmental conditions that are required to achieve
the steps in plant growth and development. This
would include temperature, photoperiod, light
intensity and irrigation. The schedule should also
include timing of germination and propagation, plus
transplanting, fertilization, and container sizes.
expenses are those that are directly incurred by
growing a specific crop including propagules,
containers, growing medium, fertilizer and all other
expenses. Comparing the total expenses to the actual
revenue will determine the profitability of each
specific crop.
Successful growers will know which crops are more
profitable and will eliminate crops that operate at a
loss. Minimizing the dumpage or percent loss of
specific crops is also important to the bottom line,
and this must be tracked for each crop. An
acceptable loss factor within the industry is no
greater than four percent for most corps. Good
record keeping will facilitate management of
expenses and realization of profitability.

Once the schedule or production plan is established,

the second step is to monitor and record the actual
implementation steps as well as environmental
conditions for plant development. This will comprise
the actual production record. A comparison of the
actual, to the planned schedule will aid the grower in
meeting the required market date. As individual
crops fall behind in development during production,
the grower can adjust temperature and/or other
environmental conditions to get the crop caught up to
the schedule.

Poor optimization of space utilization reduces

profitability. Growing young plants at the highest
density possible for the longest period of time and
then finishing plants at a low density for short periods
of time, will increase space optimization. Reviewing
the production schedule and records will provide
guidance in optimizing timing and quality of the crop
in subsequent years. Successful strategies can be
duplicated and alternative strategies can be developed
to overcome problems that did occur.

Financial records are equally important to develop

and maintain in order to improve future business
practices. A cost analysis should be done for each
crop by determining the expenses and revenue
allocated to each crop. Fixed expenses should be
determined and allocated on a per-square-foot-of-
bench area, and assessed to the crop based on the
number of weeks it occupied that space. Empty
bench space must also be accounted for and expensed
to some crop when using this strategy. Variable

43.2-18 0510