‘Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 Parental Involvement in Students’ Mathematics Learning at Upper Primary Level Khin Hnin Nweand Ei Mon Phyo Abstract The main purpose of this study was to identify the effects of parental involvement in students’ mathematics learning at Upper Primary Level. Data were collected through questionnaires and semi-structured interview. In this study, total number of 384 Grade Four students (170 males and 214 females) and their respective parents from Yangon Region and Thantwe Township were participated. Significant differences were found in parental involvement and students’ mathematics interest according to region. Then, the ANOVA results indicated that the higher level of parental involvement was significantly. different from moderate and low involvement in mathematics achievement and interest. Pearson correlation revealed that all categories, except parent-school communication concerning students’ school problem, were positively significantly correlated with students’ mathematics achievement. Next, regression analysis showed that parents’ educational values and interest was only the strong predictor for students’ mathematics achievement. Concerning with parents’ demographic factors, socioeconomic status was associated with students’ mathematics achievement. But, number of siblings was negatively associated with students’ mathematics achievement. Another factor of mothers’ education level was also the predictor for students’ mathematics achievement. Key words: parental involvement, academic achievement, interest . Introduction In the 21* century, education plays a vital role in nation development. In Myanmar, the process of education is concerned with the major stakeholders; parents, teachers and students. Therefore, the roles of parents, teachers, and students are needed to consider for promoting nation’s education. The success or failure of the education process depends on the interaction of these three groups and the changing roles they play in, or are assigned by the society in which they live. Among them, parents’ role is the most importance in children’s education as the child acquires initial education and socialization from parents and other significant persons in the family. Needless to say that if parents are actively involved in these areas, there is likelihood that it will stimulate children’s interest in school and positivelyUniversities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 influence academic achievement. Moreover, children are more likely to be successful learners of any subject when they actively support their learning. Therefore, families are one of the critical social settings in which children develop and learn (Bronfenbrenner, 2000; fruka and Barbarin, 2008, cited in Berger, 2010). It has also been increasingly recognized in the fields of education and psychology that parents have significant impacts on students’ learning and developmental processes. As Epstein (2001) writes, “no topic about school improvement has created more rhetoric than parental involvement”. Next interest is that parental involvement is considered as one of the most important factors in school guidance program. In other words, to promote the students’ learning, it is necessary to promote the involvement of their parents. Parents often want to be more involved in their children’s education but are uncertain how to do so. To meet these needs, it is important to have a clear understanding of what benefits or hinders one’s educational attainment. Purposes of the Study The primary purpose of this study is to identify the effects of parental involvement in students’ mathematics learning at upper primary level. Then, to examine whether there would be differences in level of parental involvement between Yangon Region and Thantwe Township is of next interest. Scope and Procedure A study on the effect of parental involvement in Grade Four students’ mathematics learning was conducted by survey method with survey questionnaires. In this study, in addition to parents’ demographic factors, parental involvement factors include (1) family rules reflecting parental home supervision, (2) parent-school partnership concerning children’s education (3) parent participation in extracurricular activities with children, (4) parent-school communication concerning student’s school problem, and (5) parents’ educational values and interest. Students’ mathematics learning was examined by Mathematics Interest Measure and Mathematics Achievement test; Mathematics Interest Measure is adapted from Gabrielle. M. Snow’s Math Interest Measures (2011) and Mathematics Assessment: A Practical Handbook, NCTM, (2001, cited in Little-Kaumo & Fritz, 2001) and mathematics achievement was examined by curriculum based mathematics achievement test. In this study, a total of 384 Grade Four students from 2 high schools, 2 middle schools and 3 primary schools of Yangon Region and ThantweUniversities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 113 Township were selected. Then, follow up program of qualitative study was teacher interview. Definitions of the Key Terms — Parental involvement is generally referred to as parents’ participation in their children’s education with the purpose of promoting their academic and social success (Fishel & Ramirez, 2005). Parental involvement was defined as monitoring and helping with homework; attending school conferences and functions; and providing a supportive learning environment at home (Gianzero, 1999). 1cademic achievement generally refers to a child’s performance in academic areas (¢.g., reading or language arts, math, science, and history) (71Fed. Reg, at 46662, Department of Education, cited in NICHI). Interest is % motivatidnal -variable that is linked with educational - attainment in that students are more likely to engage in an academic activity, pay more attention, and generate higher performances if they are interested in the topic (Schunk et al., 2008, cited in Snow, 2011). Review of Related Literature In recent years, there had been an increasing number of studies focusing on parental involvement in their children's education. Studies on parental practices and behaviors have noted that parental involvement in children’s schooling has a positive influence on academic performance (Anguiano, 2004; Chao, 1996; Falbo, Lein, & Amador, 2001; Hong & Ho, 2005, cited in You & Nguyen, 2011). While a number of studies have revealed that parental involvement positively affects student academic achievement (Hardway & Fuligni, 2006, Hubbard, 1999; Sohn & Wang, 2006, cited in You & Nguyen, 2011), others have indicated that the role of parental involvement has negative associations (McNeal, 1999; Muller, 1998, cited in You & Nguyen, 2011). Although much research attests to the positive effects of parental involvement on students’ academic sucéess, the success of parental involvement on students’ academic outcomes have been differential depending on which aspects of parental involvement were investigated and which academic outcomes were studied. Therefore, understanding the complexity of the relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic achievement requires the consideration of. several factors between parental involvement and students’ academic achievement on a particular subject. Next, these mix findings might be due in part to the lack of a clear operational4 Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 definition of parental involvement (Fan & Chen, 2001). Parental involvement is generally referred to as parents’ participation in their children’s education with the purpose of promoting their academic and social success (Fishel & Ramirez, 2005). Although researchers have indicated the significance of parental involvement in children's learning, few studies have examined this relationship for specific subject. Parental involvement has been documented as positively impacting students’ mathematics proficiency and achievement (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005; Sirvani, 2007b, cited in Fan & Williams, 2009) as well as performance on standardized tests and academic assessments (Desimone, 1999; Domina, 2005; Jeynes, 2005, cited in Fan & Williams, 2009). Most of these studies have examined the adolescents. Ideally, parents must begin their involvement when their children are in pre-school and continue their involvement throughout middle and high school. Thus, more research is needed regarding the best ways for families to support their children at each grade level. Parents often want to more involve in their children’s education but are uncertain how to do so, Concerning with parental involvement, teachers have the responsibility to provide guidance and support in promoting parental involvement. Therefore, how parents will participate in their children’s schooling and how students will gain benefits are necessary to foster the students’ potential. According to these facts, investigating the effects’ of parental involvement became a necessary component for learning a particular subject especially for mathematics learning. Methodology This research conducted in October 2011. As an initial phase of this study, the pilot testing was carried out in December, 2011. For the pilot study, 40 Grade Four students from B.E.M.S (8), North Oakkalapa and their respective parents were selected. Based on the results of the pilot study, the weaknesses of wording and questions which were inappropriate and incomplete responses were modified. After modifying the questionnaires, these questionnaires were personally distributed to students and parents from selected schools on the second week of December 2011. Then, the data were analyzed by SPSS version 16 for quantitative data and summarizing qualitative data. Then, the respective teachers of some children were interviewed in order to valid the data.Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 M5 Participants Grade Four students from Yangon Region and Thantwe Township were selected as the subjects of this study by using random sampling technique. Total number of 384 students and respective parents were selected as the sample of this study. Among them, 196 (86 males and 110 females) students were selected from schools of Yangon Region such as B.E.H.S (Satkalay), T.T.C (Hlaing), and B.E.P.S (7) Dhala, and 188 (84 males and 104 females) students were selected from schools of Thantwe Township such as B.E.M.S (1) Myoma, B.E.M.S (2) Ngakyawdaung, B. S (Nandawpyin), and B.E.P.S (Dwayarwaddy). Therefore, this study was made up of 44% males and 56% females. Instruments In order to get necessary information for the study, two questionnaires were constructed; one for Grade Four students and the other for respective parents. Students’ mathematics learning was examined by Mathematics Interest Measure and Mathematics achievement test. Mathematics Interest Measure was adapted and revised to Myanmar version from Gabrielle, M. Snow’s Math Interest Measures (2011) and from Mathematics Assessment: A Practical Handbook, NCTM (2001, cited in Little-Kaumo & Fritz, 2001). Then, the table of specifications was drawn for parental involvement questionnaire. The initial drafts of these two questionnaires were checked by the supervisor. Again they were reviewed by eight teacher educators. According to these experts’ suggestions and indications, the drafts were improved. Questionnaire for students is comprised with three sections; personal information such as name of the child, his/her grade, name of the school, number of sibling, and guardian, are in section A, the items of students interest in mathematics are in section B, and mathematics achievement test is in section C. To be specifically, Mathematics Interest Measure includes 29 items (e.g., Mathematics is interesting. Mathematics is difficult for me. 1 am good at mathematics. I play mathematics related computer games outside of school.). Questionnaire for parents includes two sections. Name of the parent or guardian, the name of the child, parent’s education level and jobs, age of parents, are in section A, and parental involvement inventory in section B. In parental involvement inventory, 27 items are included; 5 items for family rules (e.g., Identifying a regular study time.), 4 items for parent-school partnership116 Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 concerning students’ education (e.g., Providing the classroom requirements.), 3 items for parent participation in extracurricular activities with children (e.g., Solving quizzes and puzzles with the child.), 4 items for parent-school communication concerning student’s school’ problem (e.g., School contacted. parent about poor performance.), and 11 items for parent's educational values and interests (e.g., Explaining the importance of mathematics.). The scale reported satisfactory internal consistency with a range of Cronbach’s alpha 0.52 to 0.82. The semi-structured interview was used in this study because they allow for standardized but in-depth probing of an elaboration on the original response. It also enables one to follow a line of inquiry (Punch, 2001). The questions were prepared in advanced based on the theme being investigated (e.g. background of the child’s family, parents’ attitudes towards mathematics, the child's mathematics interest, etc.). Findings Descriptive statistics showed that 86% of students reported the high level of mathematics interest (M = 2.59, SD = 0.31) on three point scale. It means that most Grade Four students are interested in mathematics and they are on average “happy” in mathematics leaning (See Table 1). _ Table 1 Percentage of Means and Standard Deviations of Students’ Mathematics Interest and Parental Involvement variables Variables M M% SD 1. Mathematics Interest 2.59 86% 0.31 2. Family rules reflecting parental home supervision 2.66 88% 0.41 3. Parent-school partnership 1.76 58% 0.56 4. Parent’s participation in extracurricular activities _ 2.28 76% 0.53 5. Parent-school communication concerning a student's school problem SEE ee oni 6, Parent’s educational values and interest 2:59 86% 0.38 Note: M = Mean M% = Percentage of Mean SD = Standard DeviationUniversities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 7 Next, parental involvement variables were rated on a three point scale: family rules reflecting parental home supervision, parent-school partnership, parents’ participation in extracurricular activities with children, parent-school communication concerning student’s school problems, and _parent’s educational values and interest. Among these various aspects of parental involvement variables, the mean score of parents for family rules is the highest (M = 2.66, SD = 0.41). In terms of family rules, the majority of the families reported certain types of family rules. Question 1 tended to know the family rules for study hour and 88% of parents reported that they set the study hour for their child. Question 2 tended to know if parents set an appropriate study place for the child and 86% reported that they set an appropriate study place for their child. Question 4 asked the parents how often they check their child’s homework. 89% of parents reported that they always check their child’s homework. Question 27 tended to know if the parents manage their child’s watching television habit. 87% of parents reported that they always manage their child’s watching television habits. Next, the second highest mean (M = 2.59, SD = 0.38) was found in parents’ educational values and interest, indicating that they were on average “always” involved. In terms of parent’s educational values and interest, Question 7 asked the parents if: they encourage accomplishing homework and 96% of parents reported that they always encourage their child to complete homework. Question 20 tended to know whether the parents support their child’s learning in other ways although they do not have the opportunity to teach themselves. 82% reported in supporting the children’s education in other ways. Question 22 asked the parents how often they discuss their child’s mathematics lessons und activities taught at school. For this question, 81% of parents reported that they always discuss the school activities and lessons with their child. Question 5 tended to know how often they help their child’s homework and 87% of parents reported that they always help their child in doing homework. In the other two Be communication variables, the mean scores of parent-school partnership was 1.76 (58%), indicating — that communication took place sometimes, and the mean scores of parent-school communication concerning student’s school problems was 1.48 (49%), it means that communication concerning student’s school problem did not take place often.8 Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 The result also revealed that the mean score of parent participation in extracurricular activities was 2.28 (76%). Therefore, it can easily be seen that parent participation in extracurricular activities with their child took place sometimes. Descriptive analyses revealed the differences in means and standard deviations of parental involvement, students’ mathematics achievement and interest by region (See Table 2). Table2 Means and Standard Deviations for Parental !nvolvement, Mathematics Achievement, and Interest by Region “varahle—teion | Thantwe Yangon Parental Involvement 2.34 : 2.22 2 (0.33) (0.32) Mathematics 26.7 25.22 Achievement (10.57) (10.04) Mathematics Interest 2.67 Bae (0.28) (0.32) Note: Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations. Next, to.obtain more detailed information on the difference of parental involvement, mathematics achievement, and interest by region, independent sample t-test was conducted and it became apparent that Yangon and Thantwe differed significantly at 0.05 level in parental involvement and students’ mathematics interest (See Table 3). Table 3. The Results of Independent Sample t-test on Parental Involvement, Mathematics Achievement and Interest by Region Variables t af sig. scene | Parental Involvement 3.84* 379.28 .000 143 Mathematics 1.40 382 -161 1.43 Achievement | Mathematies Interests 4.68* 379 000 127 Note: *The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 119 According to results, it can be said that parental involvement level and students’ mathematics interest of Thantwe Township is higher than Yangon Region, In order to find out the differences among parental involvement levels, the full sample was split into three categories: high, moderate, and low. Then, descriptive analysis was computed for students’ mathematics achievement and interest (See Table 4). Table 4 Means and Standard Deviations for Mathematics Achievement by Parental Involvement Level Variable PI Level | High | Moderate | Low . 29.81 26.65 16.82 Mathematics Achievement 5 (8.18) (9.89) | (10.42) 2.72 2.6 22 Mathematics Interest (0.28) (0.27) (0.43) Note: Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations. PI = Parental Involvement Next, in order to find out the difference in mathematics achievement according to parental involvement levels, one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted. The ANOVA result showed that there was a significant difference in academic achievement of students at the 0.05 level (See Table 5). Table 5 ANOVA Table of Mean Comparison for Mathematics Achievement by Parental Involvement Level Mathematics Achievement Sum of Squares 2347.55'9|24.79* 94.68 Between Groups Within Groups Total Note: *The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. 4695.10 36075.64 40770.74120 Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 To obtain more detailed information of a particular group, Games- Howell test was conducted and it become apparent that significant differences were found among the three levels of parental involvement at the 0.05 level (See Table 6). Table6 The Results of Games-Howell Multiple Comparison for Mathematics Achievement by Parental Involvement Level (1) Parental © (J) Parental Mean Difference | Sig. eee De -y) (tailed) High Moderate BLT Cy 04 Low 13.0 (**) 00 Moderate High -3.17(*) 04 Low 91832) .00 Low High -13.0(**) .00 Moderate -9.83 (**) .00 Note: *The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. **The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level. Then, one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to find out the differences among the levels of parental involvement, regarding the students’ interest in mathematics (See Table 7). Table7 | ANOVA Table of Mean Comparison for Mathematics Interest by Parental Involvement Level Mathematics Interest! Bee a | Mean Square | F | sig. Between Groups | 2.71 | 2 135) 1539*| .00 Within Groups 33.50 | 381 09 Total 3620 | 383 Note: *The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 121 ANOVA result showed that there was a significant difference among the three groups of parental involvement at the 0.05 level. After that, to find out which particular group had greatest difference, Tukey’ HSD test was conducted and significant differences were found between each level (See Table 8). Table 8 The Results of Tukey HSD Multiple Comparison for Mathematics Interest by Parental Involvement Level ® (J) Mean Difference Parental Involvement parental Involvement (-J) Sig Level Level Moderate 12 (*) 2 High - Low rages) 00 High -12 (*) 02 Moderate Low. 2 00 High = 231(38)) 00 Low Moderate -.21 (**) 00 Note: *The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. **The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level. According to the results, the students with high parental involvement had significant difference in mathematics achievement and interest from students with moderate and low parental involvement level. Similarly, students with moderate parental involvement level had significant difference from students with low parental involvement. To find out the relationship between parental involvement variables and mathematics learning of students, Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were conducted. Table 9 indicated the relationship among parental involvement variables, mathematics achievement, and mathematics interest. The results in Table 9 showed that there were significant relationships between mathematics achievement of students and each scale of parental involvement predictors, except the variable of parent-school communication122 Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 concerning students’ school problem. Interestingly, parents’ educational values and interest had the strongest correlations with mathematics achievement and mathematics interest with coefficients of r = 0.41 and r = 0.29 respectively. It had medium effects but significant relationship with students’ mathematics achievement and mathematics interest. Next, students’ mathematics achievement and mathematics interest were positively significantly correlated with each other. It means that, in general, students who are interested in mathematics attain higher scores on the mathematics achievement test than students who are not interested in mathematics. Then, family rules reflecting parental home supervision had positive significant relationship with both mathematics achievement and mathematics interest with coefficients of r = 0.34 and r = 0.24 respectively. Considering parent-school communication variables, parent-school partnership had weak effect on both mathematics achievement and interests but communication concerning student’s school problem had no effect on mathematics learning. Next, in order to explore the effects of different categories of parental involvement on students’ mathematics achievement, simultaneous multiple regression analysis predicting mathematics achievement was conducted (See Table 10). The regression model analyzing the effects of parental involvement was significant in predicting students’ mathematics achievement at F (5, 378) = 16.36, p < .001. The results demonstrated that 18% of variance in students” mathematics achievement was explained by various aspects of parental involvement variables. More specifically, the result showed that parents’ educational values and interest in mathematics positively predicted students’ mathematics achievement (B = .37, p < .001). Then, the model can be defined as in the following equation. MA = -3.37 + 9.97 PEVI Note: MA = Students’ Mathematics Achievement PEVI = Parents’ Educational Values and Interest 7 According to the regression analysis summary, it can be meaningfully interpreted that parents’ educational values and interest was only the significant predictor of students’ mathematics achievement.Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 123 Table 9 Intercorrelations among Parental Involvement Variables and Students’ Mathematics Learning Variables 1 2 Mathematics Achievement 1 Mathematics Interest ee mel Family rules reflecting parental home supervision 134%") 2488) 1 Parent-school partnership concerning children’s education +15%*| 208") -33** (11 Participation in extracurricular activities .22**) .18**| .46** | 28**) 1 Parent-school communication problem concerning students’ school 03 | .22**) 18** | .43**) 19°") ] Parent’s educational values and interest -41**| 29%*) 69%* | 39**! 60**) 26**| 1 Note: **correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Table 10 Simultaneous Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for Parental Involvement Variables Predicting Students’ ~~ Mathematics Achievement ts Mathematics Achievement ai a B |std. Error] 6 Constant -3.37 el 1.Family : tules reflecting parental home 281 1.65 al supervision 2.Parent-school partnership concerning 31 1.01 02 children’s education 3.Participation in extracurricular activities -.83 11S -.04 4,Parent-school communication concerning | _ 1.74 1.08 -.08 students’ school problem 5.Parent’s educational values and interest 9.97 1994 sles7eee Note: ***p < 0.001124 Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 Table 11 Intercorrelations among Parents’ Demographic Factors and Students’ Mathematics Achievement E Variables 1 zZ 3 4 5 1. Mathematics 1 Tee Achievement SiESicisccovomic Scien] (core | aia | | 3. No. of Sibling =24e* 221" [1 4. Father's Education aoe 7or* | -15** [1 5, Mother's Education | .38** |.74** [-20** | .74** | 1 Note: **correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Table 11 showed that parents’ demégraphic factors and students’ mathematics achievement were significantly correlated with each other. The results also revealed that both father’s education level and mother’s education level had positive relationship with student’s mathematics achievement, but it can be found that mother’s education level was more correlated with student’s mathematics achievement. Next, simultaneous multiple regression analysis was conducted to find the associations between family demographic factors and students’ mathematics achievement. In this study, family demographic factors means socioeconomic status (SES), number of sibling (NS), father’s education (FE), and mother’s education (ME). The results revealed that regression model predicting students’ mathematics achievement was significant with F (4, 365) = 21.00, p < .001 and 18% of variance in students’ mathematics achievement can be predicted from family demographic factors.Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 125 Table 12 Simultaneous Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for Parents’ Demographic Factors Predicting Students’ Mathematics Achievement Predictors B Std. Error B Constant 3.47 1. Socioeconomic Status 0.97 23" 2. No. of Sibling 0.41 .14** 3. Father’s Education 0.75 65 4. Mother's Education 0.81 21** Note: **p < 0.01 The result showed that socioeconomic status and mother’s education were significantly related to students’ mathematics achievement. But, number of sibling was negatively related to students’ mathematics achievement. The resultant model can therefore be defined as in the following equation concerning with family demographic factors. MA = 32.51 + 2.98 SES — 1.18 NS + 2.14 ME Where; MA = Mathematics Achievement SES = Socioeconomic Status NS = = Number of Siblings ME = Mother’s Education In this study, it can be meaningfully interpreted that socioeconomic level has a strong relationship with the mathematics achievement of Grade Four students. Specifically, parents of higher socioeconomic status support their children to get high scores in mathematics. This finding supports the Berliner’s (2006) meta-analysis that found that poverty is negatively related to school achievement. But, number of siblings had negative effects on students’ mathematics achievement. This may be said that as the number of sibling increases, parents’ involvement in students’ learning decreases and leads to weak in achievement. : The result also revealed that mother’s education level was one of the strong predictors of students’ mathematics achievement. This may be due to120 Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 the fact that educated mothers were abreast with their children’s school performance, had more contacts with their teachers, and were more likely to have provided intervention, should there have been the need in order to supervise their children’s educational success (Steveson, 1996, cited in Phyu Phyu Khaing, 2011). Findings of Qualitative Study On summarizing, according to the responses of teachers, family involvement, particularly parental support and participation were key factors for students’ excellence in mathematics. It can be clearly observed that primary school students who do not get parents’ supports were weak in mathematics. Another factor that should be noticed from teachers’ responses is that supportive parents often take all necessary measures within their means to ensure their children succeed academically including sending them for tuition. Therefore, all of the parents should know that the responsibility of educating children should not be left alone for school and should support their children’s learning with appropriate ways as much as they can. Conclusion Besides the home-based activities, there is the need to force parent- school partnership for the purpose of enhancing children’s learning. All of the parents should know that the responsibility of educating the child should not be left to school alone. In fact, parenting practices and parental involvement practices require training. As the present study has further confirmed a significant relationship between parental involvement and mathematics achievement of students, everything possible should be done by the school system to encourage the parents to become involved. Although it may be difficult task, the benefit for the child is too large. Therefore, in our developing country, Myanmar, there is the need for policy makers to implement an appropriate intervention program for parents so that they may become interested and value mathematics education. As a result, they may become involved in their child’s mathematics learning and this leads their child’s progress in mathematics learning.Universities Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6, No. 6 127 References Berger, E. H. (1987). Parents as Partners in Education: The School and Home Working Together. (2 ed.). US: Merrill Publishing Company. Berger, E. H. (2010). Parents As Partners in Education. (4" ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill. Berliner, D. C. (2006). Our impoverished view of educational research, Teachers College Record. 108(6), 949-995, Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving Schools. Boulder, CO: Westview. Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. 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