MATH 122: Calculus I

The Derivative of a Function

Ralph A. Twum, PhD

Second Semester, 2022

Department of Mathematics
University of Ghana

1
Outline

1 The Derivative of a Function

2 Rules of Differentiation

3 Higher Order Derivatives

4 Differentiation of Implicit Functions

5 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

6 Logarithmic Differentiation

2
The Derivative of a Function
In this chapter, we will discuss how to find the derivative of a
function.
The process of finding the derivative of a function is known as
differentiation.
We start with a motivating example.

3
Suppose a person is traveling from a point A to another point B,
several kilometers away.
We can find the average velocity of the person:
∆S
V =
∆T
This gives an approximation of how fast the person traveled over
the length of the journey, but we don’t know how fast the person is
traveling at each point in time.

4
Instantaneous Velocity

What we do is reduce the interval of time to improve our

approximation of the velocity. We keep reducing the interval to 0,
which requires limits.

5
Definition 1
If f (x) is a continuous function, we define the derivative of f at x
to be the limit
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim
h→0 h
where the limit exists.

6
Definition 1
If f (x) is a continuous function, we define the derivative of f at x
to be the limit
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim
h→0 h
where the limit exists.
We can denote the derivative of f at x by the following:
df d
f ′ (x), , [f (x)] or Dx (f ).
dx dx

6
Note
The derivative of a function f (x) gives the gradient/slope of the
function at x. This is also the slope of the tangent line to the
function f (x) at x.

7
Note
The derivative of a function f (x) gives the gradient/slope of the
function at x. This is also the slope of the tangent line to the
function f (x) at x.
Example 2
Let us consider the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 . Using the
definition of the derivative, we have the following:

7
Example 3
f (x + h) − f (x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h) − x2
2
= lim
h→0 h
(x + h + x)(x + h − x)
= lim
h→0 h
(2x + h) ⋅ h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 2x + h = 2x
h→0

So for f (x) = x2 , f ′ (x) = 2x.

8
Note
We can formulate the definition of the derivative in other ways, for
instance:

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim .
x→a x−a

9
Example 4
Use the definition of the derivative to find the derivative of the
function f (x) = 1/x.

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
1 1
−
= lim x+h x
h→0 h
x − (x + h) 1 −h
= lim ⋅ = lim
h→0 (x + h)x h h→0 (x)(x + h)h
−1 −1
= lim = 2
h→0 x(x + h) x

10
Example 5
Suppose f (x) = x2 + x. Use the definition of the derivative to find
f ′ (1).

11
Example 5
Suppose f (x) = x2 + x. Use the definition of the derivative to find
f ′ (1).

f (1 + h) − f (1)
f ′ (1) = lim
h→0 h
[(1 + h)2 + (1 + h)] − (12 + 1)
= lim
h→0 h
2
1 + 2h + h + 1 + h − 2
= lim
h→0 h
3h + h 2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim[3 + h] = 3
h→0

11
Theorem 6
If f ′ (a) exists, then f is continuous at x = a.

12
Theorem 6
If f ′ (a) exists, then f is continuous at x = a.
Proof.
Suppose f is differentiable at x = a. Then
f (x) − f (a)
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a) x≠a
x−a
f (x) − f (a)
lim f (x) = lim f (a) + lim ⋅ lim(x − a)
x→a x→a x→a x−a x→a
′
= f (a) + f (a) ⋅ 0 = f (a).

Note that the converse is not true.

12
Example 7
Use the definition of the derivative1 to find the derivative of the
following functions:

1 f (x) = 2/x x−1

3 k(x) =
√ x+1
2 g(x) = x
1
4 f (x) = 1 +
x

Example 8
1
Given f (t) = , find f ′ (4).
t−1
1
also called differentiating from first principles
13
Rules of Differentiation
Rules for Finding Derivatives

We can use the definition of the derivative to establish rules for

finding derivatives of common functions.

14
Rules for Finding Derivatives

We can use the definition of the derivative to establish rules for

finding derivatives of common functions.
Theorem 9
d
1 [k] = 0
dx
d n
2 For n ∈ Z, [x ] = nxn−1
dx
d
3 [k ⋅ f (x)] = k ⋅ f ′ (x)
dx

14
Theorem 10
d d d
4 [(f + g)(x)] = [f (x)] + [g(x)].
dx dx dx

We can express this as

(f + g)′ (x) = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x).
d d d
5 [(f − g)(x)] = [f (x)] − [g(x)]
dx dx dx

15
Example 11
Using the rules of differentiation, find the derivative of each of the
functions given by y = f (x):

1 y = −3x−4 5 y = x2 − 1
α
2 y= 3 6 y = (x + 1)(x − 1)
x
3 y = 3x4 + x3 7 y = (x2 + 2)(x + 1).
4 y = 2x−6 + x−1

16
Product Rule

Theorem 12
Suppose f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions. Then

(f ⋅ g)′ (x) = f ′ (x) ⋅ g(x) + f (x) ⋅ g ′ (x)

We can also state the product rule2 as follows: If u(x) and v(x)
are differentiable functions, then
d du dv
(uv) = v + u .
dx dx dx

2
also called the Leibniz rule
17
Quotient Rule

Theorem 13
Suppose f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions. Then
f ′ f ′ (x) ⋅ g(x) − f (x) ⋅ g ′ (x)
( ) (x) =
g [g(x)]2

We can also state the quotient rule as follows: If u(x) and v(x) are
differentiable functions, then
d u v du dv
dx − u dx
( )= .
dx v v2

18
Differentiation of Composite Functions

Consider the composite function (f ○ g)(x). Recall that this is

evaluated as f (g(x)). Then the following statement is true:

(f ○ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) ⋅ g ′ (x) .

3
this is known as the chain rule
19
Differentiation of Composite Functions

Consider the composite function (f ○ g)(x). Recall that this is

evaluated as f (g(x)). Then the following statement is true:

(f ○ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) ⋅ g ′ (x) .

We can express the above statement3 in another form: Suppose we

represent g(x) by u, and f (g(x)) by y, then

y = f (u)
dy dy du
= ⋅ .
dx du dx
3
this is known as the chain rule
19
Proof.
f (g(x)) − f (g(a))
(f ○ g)′ (a) = lim
x→a x−a
f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)
= lim [ ⋅ ]
x→a g(x) − g(a) x−a
f (g(x)) − f (g(a)) g(x) − g(a)
= lim ⋅ lim
x→a g(x) − g(a) x→a x−a
= f ′ (g(a)) ⋅ g ′ (a)

20
Generalized Power Rule
We can apply the chain rule to develop the generalized power rule:
if f (x) is a differentiable function, then
d
[f (x)]n = n[f (x)]n−1 ⋅ f ′ (x).
dx

Example 14
Given f (x) = (3 − 2x)5 , we have
d
[(3 − 2x)5 ] = [(3 − 2x)5 ]′ ⋅ (3 − 2x)′
dx
= 5(3 − 2x)4 ⋅ (−2)
= −10(3 − 2x)4

21
Examples

Find the derivative of each of the following functions:

x+1 3 3 g(t) = (t − 1)2 (t2 + 1)

1 y=( )
x−1 (3t − 2)3
h(t) = [ ]
f (x) = (x2 − x + 1)−7
4
2 t+5

22
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

dy
Let y = sin x. Then = cos x.
dx

23
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

dy
Let y = sin x. Then = cos x.
dx
Proof.
d sin(x + h) − sin x
[sin x] = lim
dx h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h − sin x cos x sin h
= lim [ + ]
h→0 h h

23
Proof.
d cos h − 1 sin h
[sin x] = lim sin x ( ) + lim cos x
dx h→0 h h→0 h
cos h − 1 sin h
= sin x lim ( ) + cos x lim
h→0 h h→0 h

= sin x ⋅ 0 + cos x ⋅ 1
= cos x

d
Similarly [cos x] = − sin x.
dx

24
Example 15
d
Show that (tan x) = sec2 x.
dx
Note

sin(kx) ≠ sink (x).

25
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Consider the function y = ex (sometimes denoted y = exp(x)).

Then
d x
(e ) = ex
dx
By the chain rule, we can also show that, if y = exp(f (x)),
then
dy
= exp(f (x)) ⋅ f ′ (x)
dx

26
For instance, given g(x) = ex
2
+x , we have
g ′ (x) = (2x + 1)ex +x .
2

For the logarithmic function y = ln x, we find its derivative as

follows:
Since eln x = x
eln x ⋅ (ln x)′ = x′ = 1
∴ x ⋅ (ln x)′ = 1
1
So (ln x)′ = .
x
d 1
We conclude that (ln x) = .
dx x

27
Examples

Find the derivative of each of the following functions

1 y = (2x2 + 4)7 6 g(x) = (x2 + 1)(x − 1)2

2 y = sin(t2 + t) 7 y = sin4 (3x2 )
3 y = sin(2x) ln s
8 h(s) =
4 y = sin x cos x 1 + es
5 f (t) = ln(t2 − 1) 9 g(t) = t3 et .

28
Higher Order Derivatives
Higher Order Derivatives

If f (x) is a differentiable function, then we can apply the derivative

operator to obtain f ′ (x).
We can apply the derivative operator again to f ′ (x) to obtain the
second derivative of f (x), denoted f ′′ (x). Therefore
d d
f ′′ (x) = [ f] .
dx dx
d2 f
We can denote the second derivative by .
dx2

29
 d3 f
Similarly, f ′′′ (x) = .
dx3
To make the notation of writing higher derivatives easier, we denote
the nth derivative of f (x) by f (n) (x). Therefore
dn f
f (n) (x) = .
dxn

30
 d3 f
Similarly, f ′′′ (x) = .
dx3
To make the notation of writing higher derivatives easier, we denote
the nth derivative of f (x) by f (n) (x). Therefore
dn f
f (n) (x) = .
dxn

Example 16
Let f (x) = x5 . Then f (1) (x) = 5x4 , f (2) (x) = 20x3 , f (3) (x) = 60x2 ,
f (4) (x) = 120x, f (5) (x) = 120, and f (n) (x) = 0 for n ≥ 6.

30
Example 17
d2 y
1 Let y = sin(x3 ). Find .
dx2
16
2 The displacement of an object is given by s(t) = t2 + , t > 0.
t
Find the acceleration of the object.
3 The displacement of an object is given by
1
s = (t4 − 14t3 + 60t2 ). Find the velocity of the object when its
10
acceleration is 0.
4 Suppose that g(t) = at2 + bt + c, and that g(1) = 5, g ′ (1) = 3,
and g ′′ (1) = −4. Find a, b, and c.

31
Differentiation of Implicit Functions
Implicit Differentiation

Consider the equation x2 + y 2 = 36.

32
It is difficult to explicitly express y as a function of x.4

4
it is not a function of x – for each value of y there are 2 values of x. However the derivative still
exists.
33
It is difficult to explicitly express y as a function of x.4
However, we still want to find the derivative of y with respect to x.
dy
We differentiate the equation and solve for . This technique is
dx
called implicit differentiation.

4
it is not a function of x – for each value of y there are 2 values of x. However the derivative still
exists.
33
Applying this to the equation, we obtain

x2 + y 2 = 36
d 2 d d
[x ] + [y 2 ] = [36]
dx dx dx
d 2 d
2x + [y ] ⋅ [y] = 0
dy dx
dy
2x + 2y ⋅ =0
dx
dy
2y = −2x
dx
dy x
=−
dx y

34
Example 18
Find the derivative of each of the following implicit functions:
1 4x2 y − 3y = x3 − 1
2 y 2 − x2 = 1
3 xy 2 = x − 8
4 cos(xy 2 ) = y 2 + x
5 x2 + 2x2 y + 3xy = 0.

35
Consider the unit circle centered at the origin.
We can describe the circle with the equation

x2 + y 2 = 1

36
We can also think of the curve as the path of a moving particle
whose position P (x, y) is changing over time.
Then the position becomes a function of t: P (t) = (x(t), y(t).
Definition 19
If x and y are given as functions x = f (t), y = g(t) over an interval
I of t-values, then the set of points (x, y) = (f (t), g(t)) defined by
the pair of equations is a parametric curve.5

5
The parametric equations of the unit circle above are x = cos t, y = sin t (seem familiar?)
37
The equations
⎧
⎪ x = f (t)
⎪
⎨
⎩ y = g(t)
⎪
⎪
are parametric equations for the curve. t is the parameter for the
curve.
Example 20
1 The equations x = cos t, y = sin t are parametric equations for
the unit circle centered at the origin.
2 The equations x = t2 , y = 2t are parametric equations for the
parabola y 2 = 4x with vertex (0, 0), focus (1, 0) and directrix
x = −1.
38
Suppose x and y are functions of a third parameter t. If y = F (x),
then
dy dx
= F ′ (x) ⋅
dt dt
If we consider the quantities dx/dt and dy/dt as rates of change for
the x- and y-coordinates respectively, we have that the rates are
”related” by the above equation.

39
Examples

The volume V of a sphere of radius r is given by the equation

V = 43 πr3 . If V and r are changing with respect to time6 , we
have
dV dV dr
= ⋅
dt dr dt
dV dr
= 4πr2 ⋅
dt dt
dr
If dt = 1 cm/min when r = 10 cm, then
dV
= 4π ⋅ 100 ⋅ 1 = 400π cm3 /min.
dt
6
for instance, air is being pumped into the sphere
40
Example 21
1 When a circular plate of metal is heated in an oven, its radius
increases at the rate of 0.01 cm/min. At what rate is the
plate’s area increasing when the radius is 50 cm?
2 A 13 ft ladder is leaning against a wall when its base starts to
slide away from the wall. By the time the base is 12 ft from the
wall, the base is moving at the rate of 5 ft/s.
(A) How fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall?
(B) At what rate is the area of the triangle formed by the ladder, wall and ground
changing then?

41
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Derivative of y = sin−1 (x)

Consider the function y = sin−1 (x). From MATH 121, we fixed the
domain of the function as the closed interval [−1, 1], and the range
π π
as the closed interval [− , ]. We can use the technique of implicit
2 2
differentiation to find the derivative of the arcsine function:

y = sin−1 (x)
x = sin(y)
d
1 = (sin y)
dx
dy
1 = cos y ⋅
dx
42
Derivative of y = sin−1 (x)

Using the Pythagorean identity, we have

dy 1
=
dx cos y
1
=√
1 − sin2 (y)
1
=√
1 − x2
d 1
(sin−1 (y) = √
dx 1 − x2

43
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

We can similarly prove the following equations:

d 1 d 1
1 (cos−1 )(x) = − √ 3 (sec−1 )(x) = √
dx 1 − x2 dx ∣x∣ x2 − 1
d 1
2 (tan−1 )(x) =
dx 1 + x2

44
Examples

Find the derivative of the following functions:

1 f (x) = cos−1 (x2 ) 5 f (x) = (1 + arcsin x)3

2 g(t) = arcsin(et ) 6 f (t) = et arccos(t2 )

3 h(t) = t2 arctan(t2 ) 7 f (x) = tan−1 (ln x2 )

1
y = sin−1 ( 2
y = ln(tan−1 (x2 ))
8 )
4 x +4

45
Logarithmic Differentiation
Introduction

Given y = f(x), we can discuss the derivative of y with respect to x

in the following manner:

y = f (x)
ln y = ln f (x)
1 dy d
= (ln f (x))
y dx dx
dy d
∴ = y ⋅ (ln f (x))
dx dx

46
We can use the technique of logarithmic differentiation to find the
derivatives of certain special functions.
Example 22
Find the derivative of the function y = xx .

47
We can use the technique of logarithmic differentiation to find the
derivatives of certain special functions.
Example 22
Find the derivative of the function y = xx .
Solution: We use logarithmic differentiation:

y = xx
ln y = ln(xx ) = x ln x
1 dy 1
= ln x + x ⋅
y dx x
dy
= y(ln x + 1)
dx
dy
= xx (ln x + 1)
dx 47
 √
1 − x2
Find the derivative of the function f (x) = .
(x + 1)2/3

48
 √
1 − x2
Find the derivative of the function f (x) = .
(x + 1)2/3
Solution:
1 2
ln f (x) = ln(1 − x2 ) − ln(x + 1)
2 3
′
f (x) 1 −2x 2 1
= −
f (x) 2 1 − x2 3 x + 1
f ′ (x) x 2
=− 2
−
f (x) 1−x 3(x + 1)
x 2
∴ f ′ (x) = f (x) [− − ]
1 − x2 3(x + 1)
√
1 − x2 x 2
=− [ + ]
(x + 1)2/3 1 − x2 3(x + 1)
48
Examples

Find the derivative of each of the following functions:

1 f (x) = 32x
2
+1 4 f (t) = tπ+1 + (π + 1)t
5 y = (x2 + 3x)(x − 2)(x2 + 1)
2 f (x) = (xx )x
x + 11
y=√
f (x) = x(x )
x 6
3 x3 − 4

49