Section 3E Products and Quotients of Vector Spaces 99

3.96 example: sum of a vector and a one-dimensional subspace of 𝐑2

Suppose

𝑈 = {(𝑥, 2𝑥) ∈ 𝐑2 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐑}.

Hence 𝑈 is the line in 𝐑2 through the origin with

slope 2. Thus

(17, 20) + 𝑈

is the line in 𝐑2 that contains the point (17, 20)

and has slope 2.
Because (17, 20) + 𝑈 is parallel
to the subspace 𝑈.
(10, 20) ∈ 𝑈 and (17, 20) ∈ (17, 20) + 𝑈,

we see that (17, 20) + 𝑈 is obtained by moving 𝑈

to the right by 7 units.

3.97 definition: translate

For 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑈 a subset of 𝑉, the set 𝑣 + 𝑈 is said to be a translate of 𝑈.

3.98 example: translates

• If 𝑈 is the line in 𝐑2 defined by 𝑈 = {(𝑥, 2𝑥) ∈ 𝐑2 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐑}, then all lines in

𝐑2 with slope 2 are translates of 𝑈. See Example 3.96 above for a drawing of
𝑈 and one of its translates.
• More generally, if 𝑈 is a line in 𝐑2, then the set of all translates of 𝑈 is the set
of all lines in 𝐑2 that are parallel to 𝑈.
• If 𝑈 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 0) ∈ 𝐑3 ∶ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐑}, then the translates of 𝑈 are the planes in
𝐑3 that are parallel to the 𝑥𝑦-plane 𝑈.
• More generally, if 𝑈 is a plane in 𝐑3, then the set of all translates of 𝑈 is the
set of all planes in 𝐑3 that are parallel to 𝑈 (see, for example, Exercise 7).

3.99 definition: quotient space, 𝑉/𝑈

Suppose 𝑈 is a subspace of 𝑉. Then the quotient space 𝑉/𝑈 is the set of all
translates of 𝑈. Thus

𝑉/𝑈 = {𝑣 + 𝑈 ∶ 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉}.
100 Chapter 3 Linear Maps

3.100 example: quotient spaces

• If 𝑈 = {(𝑥, 2𝑥) ∈ 𝐑2 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐑}, then 𝐑2/𝑈 is the set of all lines in 𝐑2 that have
slope 2.
• If 𝑈 is a line in 𝐑3 containing the origin, then 𝐑3/𝑈 is the set of all lines in 𝐑3
parallel to 𝑈.
• If 𝑈 is a plane in 𝐑3 containing the origin, then 𝐑3/𝑈 is the set of all planes in
𝐑3 parallel to 𝑈.

Our next goal is to make 𝑉/𝑈 into a vector space. To do this, we will need the
next result.

3.101 two translates of a subspace are equal or disjoint

Suppose 𝑈 is a subspace of 𝑉 and 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉. Then

𝑣 − 𝑤 ∈ 𝑈 ⟺ 𝑣 + 𝑈 = 𝑤 + 𝑈 ⟺ (𝑣 + 𝑈) ∩ (𝑤 + 𝑈) ≠ ∅.

Proof First suppose 𝑣 − 𝑤 ∈ 𝑈. If 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈, then

𝑣 + 𝑢 = 𝑤 + ((𝑣 − 𝑤) + 𝑢) ∈ 𝑤 + 𝑈.

Thus 𝑣 + 𝑈 ⊆ 𝑤 + 𝑈. Similarly, 𝑤 + 𝑈 ⊆ 𝑣 + 𝑈. Thus 𝑣 + 𝑈 = 𝑤 + 𝑈, completing

the proof that 𝑣 − 𝑤 ∈ 𝑈 implies 𝑣 + 𝑈 = 𝑤 + 𝑈.
The equation 𝑣 + 𝑈 = 𝑤 + 𝑈 implies that (𝑣 + 𝑈) ∩ (𝑤 + 𝑈) ≠ ∅.
Now suppose (𝑣 + 𝑈) ∩ (𝑤 + 𝑈) ≠ ∅. Thus there exist 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ∈ 𝑈 such that

𝑣 + 𝑢1 = 𝑤 + 𝑢2 .

Thus 𝑣 − 𝑤 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 . Hence 𝑣 − 𝑤 ∈ 𝑈, showing that (𝑣 + 𝑈) ∩ (𝑤 + 𝑈) ≠ ∅

implies 𝑣 − 𝑤 ∈ 𝑈, which completes the proof.

Now we can define addition and scalar multiplication on 𝑉/𝑈.

3.102 definition: addition and scalar multiplication on 𝑉/𝑈

Suppose 𝑈 is a subspace of 𝑉. Then addition and scalar multiplication are

defined on 𝑉/𝑈 by

(𝑣 + 𝑈) + (𝑤 + 𝑈) = (𝑣 + 𝑤) + 𝑈
𝜆(𝑣 + 𝑈) = (𝜆𝑣) + 𝑈

for all 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 and all 𝜆 ∈ 𝐅.

As part of the proof of the next result, we will show that the definitions above
make sense.
 Section 6B Orthonormal Bases 205

If 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉, then the map that sends 𝑢 The next result is named in honor
to ⟨𝑢, 𝑣⟩ is a linear functional on 𝑉. The of Frigyes Riesz (1880–1956), who
next result states that every linear func- proved several theorems early in the
tional on 𝑉 is of this form. For example, twentieth century that look very much
we can take 𝑣 = (2, −5, 1) in Example like the result below.
6.40.
Suppose we make the vector space 𝒫5 (𝐑) into an inner product space by
defining ⟨𝑝, 𝑞⟩ = ∫−11
𝑝𝑞. Let 𝜑 be as in Example 6.41. It is not obvious that there
exists 𝑞 ∈ 𝒫5 (𝐑) such that
1
∫ 𝑝(𝑡)(cos(𝜋𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡 = ⟨𝑝, 𝑞⟩
−1

for every 𝑝 ∈ 𝒫5 (𝐑) [we cannot take 𝑞(𝑡) = cos(𝜋𝑡) because that choice of 𝑞 is
not an element of 𝒫5 (𝐑)]. The next result tells us the somewhat surprising result
that there indeed exists a polynomial 𝑞 ∈ 𝒫5 (𝐑) such that the equation above
holds for all 𝑝 ∈ 𝒫5 (𝐑).

6.42 Riesz representation theorem

Suppose 𝑉 is finite-dimensional and 𝜑 is a linear functional on 𝑉. Then there

is a unique vector 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 such that

𝜑(𝑢) = ⟨𝑢, 𝑣⟩

for every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉.

Proof First we show that there exists a vector 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝜑(𝑢) = ⟨𝑢, 𝑣⟩ for
every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉. Let 𝑒1 , …, 𝑒𝑛 be an orthonormal basis of 𝑉. Then
𝜑(𝑢) = 𝜑(⟨𝑢, 𝑒1 ⟩𝑒1 + ⋯ + ⟨𝑢, 𝑒𝑛 ⟩𝑒𝑛 )
= ⟨𝑢, 𝑒1 ⟩𝜑(𝑒1 ) + ⋯ + ⟨𝑢, 𝑒𝑛 ⟩𝜑(𝑒𝑛 )

= ⟨𝑢, 𝜑(𝑒1 )𝑒1 + ⋯ + 𝜑(𝑒𝑛 )𝑒𝑛 ⟩

for every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, where the first equality comes from 6.30(a). Thus setting
6.43 𝑣 = 𝜑(𝑒1 )𝑒1 + ⋯ + 𝜑(𝑒𝑛 )𝑒𝑛 ,
we have 𝜑(𝑢) = ⟨𝑢, 𝑣⟩ for every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, as desired.
Now we prove that only one vector 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 has the desired behavior. Suppose
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ∈ 𝑉 are such that
𝜑(𝑢) = ⟨𝑢, 𝑣1 ⟩ = ⟨𝑢, 𝑣2 ⟩
for every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉. Then
0 = ⟨𝑢, 𝑣1 ⟩ − ⟨𝑢, 𝑣2 ⟩ = ⟨𝑢, 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ⟩
for every 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉. Taking 𝑢 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 shows that 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0. Thus 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 ,
completing the proof of the uniqueness part of the result.
206 Chapter 6 Inner Product Spaces

6.44 example: computation illustrating Riesz representation theorem

Suppose we want to find a polynomial 𝑞 ∈ 𝒫2 (𝐑) such that
1 1
6.45 ∫ 𝑝(𝑡)(cos(𝜋𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑝𝑞
−1 −1

for every polynomial 𝑝 ∈ 𝒫2 (𝐑). To do this, we make 𝒫2 (𝐑) into an inner product
space by defining ⟨𝑝, 𝑞⟩ to be the right side of the equation above for 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝒫2 (𝐑).
Note that the left side of the equation above does not equal the inner product
in 𝒫2 (𝐑) of 𝑝 and the function 𝑡 ↦ cos(𝜋𝑡) because this last function is not a
polynomial.
Define a linear functional 𝜑 on 𝒫2 (𝐑) by letting
1
𝜑(𝑝) = ∫ 𝑝(𝑡)(cos(𝜋𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡
−1

for each 𝑝 ∈ 𝒫2 (𝐑). Now use the orthonormal basis from Example 6.34 and
apply formula 6.43 from the proof of the Riesz representation theorem to see that
if 𝑝 ∈ 𝒫2 (𝐑), then 𝜑(𝑝) = ⟨𝑝, 𝑞⟩, where
1 1
𝑞(𝑥) = (∫ √ 12 cos(𝜋𝑡) 𝑑𝑡)√ 12 + (∫ √ 32 𝑡 cos(𝜋𝑡) 𝑑𝑡)√ 32 𝑥
−1 −1

1
+ (∫ √ 45
8
(𝑡2 − 13 ) cos(𝜋𝑡) 𝑑𝑡)√ 45
8
(𝑥2 − 13 ).
−1

A bit of calculus applied to the equation above shows that

15
𝑞(𝑥) = 2𝜋 2
(1 − 3𝑥2 ).
The same procedure shows that if we want to find 𝑞 ∈ 𝒫5 (𝐑) such that 6.45
holds for all 𝑝 ∈ 𝒫5 (𝐑), then we should take
105
𝑞(𝑥) = 8𝜋 4
((27 − 2𝜋 2 ) + (24𝜋 2 − 270)𝑥2 + (315 − 30𝜋 2 )𝑥4 ).

Suppose 𝑉 is finite-dimensional and 𝜑 a linear functional on 𝑉. Then 6.43

gives a formula for the vector 𝑣 that satisfies
𝜑(𝑢) = ⟨𝑢, 𝑣⟩
for all 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉. Specifically, we have
𝑣 = 𝜑(𝑒1 )𝑒1 + ⋯ + 𝜑(𝑒𝑛 )𝑒𝑛 .
The right side of the equation above seems to depend on the orthonormal basis
𝑒1 , …, 𝑒𝑛 as well as on 𝜑. However, 6.42 tells us that 𝑣 is uniquely determined
by 𝜑. Thus the right side of the equation above is the same regardless of which
orthonormal basis 𝑒1 , …, 𝑒𝑛 of 𝑉 is chosen.
For two additional different proofs of the Riesz representation theorem, see
6.58 and also Exercise 13 in Section 6C.