Ex. No.

1 COMPONENTS - RESISTOR, COLOUR CODING

Aim
To study the colour coding of carbon resistors and determine the ohmic value of few
resistors.
Components required:
Carbon resistors of different values
Resistor colour coding
Resistance:
The property of any material to oppose the flow of current is known as resistance.
Symbol: R Unit: Ω
Conductors have very small resistance. Insulators have very high resistance.
Resistor:
Resistor, two-terminal electronic component that offers opposition to an electric
current .They are available in several common forms:
a) Wire wound resistors are formed from windings of fine wire
b) Film resistors, commonly found in consumer electronic devices, use lengths of
carbon or metal film deposited on a resistive base and
c) Carbon-composition resistors use a bonded mass of carbon powder with a
phenolic binder.
Rheostat:
It is a variable resistance with sliding contact. The current flowing through a
circuit is controlled by varying the resistance with the help of a sliding contact (Jockey) .
Potential divider:
It is used to supply electrical voltage to a circuit by division of voltage.

Table showing colour coding of carbon resistors:

Band D
Band A Band B Band C
Colour
Tolerance
First Digit Second Digit Third Digit

Black 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 10 ± 1%
Red 2 2 100 ± 2%
 Orange 3 3 1000 ± 3%
Yellow 4 4 10000 ± 4%
Green 5 5 100000 ± 0.5%
Blue 6 6 1000000 ± 0.25%
Violet 7 7 10000000 ± 0.1%
Gray 8 8 100000000
White 9 9 1000000000
Gold ± 5%
Silver ± 10%
No colour ± 20%

Standard four band resistor:

Bands A, B, C are grouped together .Bands A and B specify first two digits of the
carbon resistor, C specifies the multiplier value and D specifies the tolerance .A typical
carbon resistor with these bands is shown below. The color bands are always read from
left to right starting with the side that has a band closer to the edge.
Colour coding of carbon resistor for different colours is shown in the table .for
example a carbon resistor with the bands A(orange), B(red), C(green), D(gold) represents
3.2M Ω with 5% tolerance.
Procedure:
1. Colour coding of various bands in the given carbon resistor is noted.
2. The ohmic value of the resistor is determined using the table.
3. The above steps are repeated for different carbon resistors.

Result:
Colour coding of carbon resistors is studied and ohmic values of few resistors are
determined.
Ex. No. 2 SOLDERING PRACTICE
AIM
To solder the given electric networks and determine the effective resistance of
each circuit

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.NO. COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY
1. Soldering iron - 1
2. Soldering lead - 1
3. Soldering flux - 1
4. Soldering stand - 1
5. General purpose PCB - 1
6. Resistors Three different values 1

PROCEDURE
1. Resistors of three different values are chosen.

2. The given PCB Board is cleaned.

3. The tip of the soldering iron is cleaned before heating.

4. The soldering iron is heated and the solder is applied to the tip as soon as it
becomes hot.

5. The resistor leads are bent to fit in to the holes on the board and the resistors are
inserted as per the network-1 shown in the diagram.

6. The hot tip is applied to the joints and solder is applied.

7. Soldering tip is removed and the resistor is held tightly until the solder gets cooled
and set.

8. Excess component lead is trimmed with side cutter.

9. The above step is repeated for the second network diagram also.

10. Effective resistances between terminals A & B of both the networks are
determined using a Multimeter.

11. The above values are verified theoretically.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Network diagram1:

Network diagram2:

TABULATION:
Effective resistances between A & B:
Network Theoretical value Practical value
1
2

RESULT
The given electric networks are soldered and effective resistances of two
networks are determined practically and verified theoretically.
Ex. No. 3 ENERGY METER WIRING

AIM:
To measure the energy consumed by the load using single phase energy meter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 40 W Incandescent lamp 4
2 60 W Incandescent lamp 4
3 Single phase Energy meter - 100 rev/kWh 1
750 rev/kWh 1
4 Stop watch - - 1

PROCEDURE:

Before switching ON the supply to the circuit,

1. Energy meter constant of the energy meter must be noted.

2. All the loads must be kept in OFF position (If the rheostats are used as load, it
must be kept at maximum resistance position).
3. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

After switching ON the supply to the circuit,

1. The load is gradually increased.

2. For each load condition, time taken for one revolution in energy meter is noted.
3. Then the energy consumed by the load is calculated for various loads by using the
formula.

FORMULA USED:

1. Number of revolutions 1
in energy meter = x 3600
for one hour Time taken for one revolution (in sec)

Number of revolutions in
2. Measured Energy Energy meter for one hour
(in kWh) =
Energy meter constant (in rev / kWh)

3. True Energy = (Load in Watt * 1 hour) / 1000 in kWh

4. Error = 100 * (True Energy - Measured Energy) / True Energy in %
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

With resistive load:

TABULATION:
Energy meter constant =

S. Load Time taken for one True Energy Measured Error (%)
No. (W) revolution in the energy consumed Energy
meter (in seconds) (in kWh) (in kWh)

RESULT:

Thus the energy consumed by the load was calculated by using single phase
energy meter.
Ex. No. 4 SAFETY ASPECTS OF ELECTRICAL WIRING

Aim :
To study the safety aspects of electrical wiring using circuit breaker, fuses and
grounding.

CIRCUIT BREAKER:
Introduction

Circuit breakers are electrical switching devices for protecting and controlling the
electricity supply to respective electrical circuits. Circuit breakers protect electrical
circuitry from damage due to an overcurrent condition, such as an overload condition or a
relatively high level short circuit or fault condition. Electrical systems in residential,
commercial and industrial applications usually include a panel board for receiving
electrical power from a utility source. The electrical power is then delivered from the
panel board to designated branch circuits supplying one or more loads.
Typically, various types of circuit interrupters are connected to the branch circuits
to reduce the risk of injury, damage or fires. Circuit interrupters include,

1. circuit breakers
2. contactors
3. motor starters
4. motor controllers
5. other load controllers
6. and receptacles having a trip mechanism.

In the event an overcurrent condition occurs, electrical contacts within the circuit
breaker will open, stopping the flow of electrical current through the circuit breaker to the
equipment.
Circuit breakers have an operating mechanism and trip means, such as a thermal
trip assembly and/or magnetic trip assembly, which are automatically releasable to effect
tripping operations and manually resettable following tripping operations. Overload
protection is provided by a thermal element which, when heated by the increased current,
will cause the circuit breaker to trip and interrupt the power.
Use of circuit breakers is widespread in modern-day residential, commercial and
industrial electric systems, and they constitute an indispensable component of such
systems toward providing protection against over-current conditions. Various circuit
breaker mechanisms have evolved and have been perfected over time on the basis of
application-specific factors such as current capacity, response time, and the type of reset
(manual or remote) function desired of the breaker.

What is meant by overloading of the circuit?

Overloading is a relatively easy problem to solve; it is caused by using too many

appliances on one circuit exceeding the power rating for that circuit, causing the fuse to
blow.

What is meant by the Short Circuit in a circuit?

Under short-circuit conditions, a current many times greater than normal can
flow. When electrical contacts open to interrupt a large current, there is a tendency for an
arc to form between the opened contacts, which would allow the flow of current to
continue.
Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and
extinguish the arc. In air-insulated and miniature breakers an arc chutes structure
consisting (often) of metal plates or ceramic ridges cools the arc, and blowout coils
deflect the arc into the arc chute. Larger circuit breakers such as those used in electrical
power distribution may use vacuum, an inert gas such as sulfur hexafluoride or have
contacts immersed in oil to suppress the arc.
TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Based on the voltage range for which it is designed, the circuit breakers are
classified as follows.

1. Low voltage circuit breakers:

The following are the low voltage circuit breaker with the voltage ratings range
from 250 to 600 V AC and 250 to 700 V DC.

a) MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) and

b) MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)

The other class is the low voltage power circuit breaker.

2. Medium voltage circuit breaker:

Medium voltage circuit breakers are rated up to 72.5 kV.

3. High voltage circuit breaker:

a) Vacuum circuit breaker

b) Air circuit breaker
Also the circuit breakers which are used to trip the supply to the any circuitry
under any earth fault are called as earth fault circuit breaker and are listed below.

a) RCD - Residual Current Device

b) RCBO - Residual Current Breaker with over current protection
c) ELCB - Earth leakage circuit breaker

The circuit breakers ELCB (Earth leakage circuit breaker) and MCB (Miniature
Circuit Breaker) are explained in detail below.
ELCB - Earth leakage circuit breaker:

An earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a device with two earth terminals used
to directly detect currents leaking to earth from an installation and cut the power. They
were mainly used on TT earthing systems before RCDs became common. They have
been almost totally replaced by RCDs (except in very old installations) due to a number
of problems.

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker):

The MCB tripping is an indication either that the circuit has been overloaded or
that a short circuit has occurred somewhere in the system. Before resetting the MCB it is
important to identify what has caused it to trip. Switch off all the appliances connected to
the circuit to ensure it is not overloading.

Circuit breakers used in residential and light commercial installations are referred
to as miniature circuit breakers (MCBs). Miniature circuit breakers are commonly used in
the electrical consumer units of domestic dwellings and small industrial premises to
protect and control the electrical supply to respective electrical circuits of the building.
Miniature circuit breakers have been in use for many years and their design has been
refined to provide an effective, reliable circuit breaker, which can be easily and
economically manufactured on a large scale.
Typically, there is a fixed contact attached to the housing and a movable contact
coupled to an operating mechanism. The operating mechanism includes a movable handle
that extends outside of the housing. The handle has essentially three stable positions: on,
off, and tripped. These three positions tell the operator what condition the contacts are in
when the handle is viewed.
FUSES
Introduction
If there is a fault in a piece of equipment then excessive current may flow. This
will cause overheating and possibly a fire. Fuses protect against this happening. Current
from the supply to the equipment flows through the fuse.
Definition
Fuse is an overcurrent protective device containing a calibrated current carrying
member which melts and opens a circuit under specified overcurrent conditions.
In electronics and electrical engineering a fuse, short for 'fusible link', is a type of
overcurrent protection device. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts
when too much current flows. When the metal strip melts, it opens the circuit of which
it's a part, and so protects the circuit from excessive current.
Theory
 The fuse is a piece of wire which can carry a stated current. If the current rises
above this value it will melt.
 If the fuse melts (blows) then there is an open circuit and no current can then flow
thus protecting the equipment by isolating it from the power supply.
 The fuse must be able to carry slightly more than the normal operating current of
the equipment to allow for tolerances and small current surges.
 With some equipment there is a very large surge of current for a short time at
switch on. If a fuse is fitted to withstand this large current there would be no
protection against faults which cause the current to rise slightly above the normal
value.
 Therefore special antisurge fuses are fitted. These can stand 10 times the rated
current for 10 milliseconds. If the surge lasts longer than this the fuse will blow.
 Always find out why the fuse blew before replacing it. Occasionally they grow
tired and fail. If the fuse is black and silvery then it is likely that there is a dead
short (very low resistance) somewhere.
Construction and Operation

The typical fuse consists of an element which is surrounded by a filler and

enclosed by the fuse body. The element is welded or soldered to the fuse contacts (blades
or ferrules). The element is a calibrated conductor. Its configuration, its mass, and the
materials employed are selected to achieve the desired electrical and thermal
characteristics. The element provides the current path through the fuse. It generates heat
at a rate that is dependent upon its resistance and the load current. The heat generated by
the element is absorbed by the filler and passed through the fuse body to the surrounding
air. A filler such as quartz sand provides effective heat transfer and allows for the small
element cross-section typical in modern fuses. The effective heat transfer allows the fuse
to carry harmless overloads. The small element cross section melts quickly under short
circuit conditions. The filler also aids fuse performance by absorbing arc energy when the
fuse clears an overload or short circuit.
When a sustained overload occurs, the element will generate heat at a faster rate
than the heat can be passed to the filler. If the overload persists, the element will reach its
melting point and open.
Increasing the applied current will heat the element faster and cause the fuse to
open sooner. Thus fuses have an inverse time current characteristic, i.e. the greater the
overcurrent the less time required for the fuse to open the circuit. This characteristic is
desirable because it parallels the characteristics of conductors, motors, transformers and
other electrical apparatus. These components can carry low level overloads for relatively
long times without damage. However, under high current conditions damage can occur
quickly. Because of its inverse time current characteristic, a properly applied fuse can
provide effective protection over a broad current range, from low level overloads to high
level short circuits.
Fuse ratings

 Appliances up to 700 Watts = 3 Amp fuse

 Appliances between 700 and 1000 Watts = 5 Amp fuse
 Appliances over 1000 Watts = 13 Amp fuse

EARTHING AND NEUTRAL

Ground or earth in a mains (AC power) electrical wiring system is a conductor

that exists primarily to provide a low impedance path to the earth to prevent the buildup
of voltages, static or transient (lightning), that may result in undue hazards to connected
equipment or persons, and which in normal operation does not carry current. Earth
grounding does little in helping to protect against faults which is accomplished through
“bonding”.

NEUTRAL:

Neutral is a circuit conductor that may carry current in normal operation, and
which is usually connected to earth (bonding). In house wiring, it is the center tap
connection of the secondary winding of the power company's transformer. (See split
phase.) As opposed to the "hot" wire(s) which carry the AC voltage, the neutral is the
"cold" wire which is normally at zero volts.

Since the neutral point of a supply system is often connected to earth ground,
neutral and earths are closely related. Various measures minimize the voltage difference
between neutral and local earth ground. In some systems, the neutral and earth join
together at the service intake (TN-C-S); in others, they run completely separately back to
the transformer neutral terminal (TN-S), and in others they are kept completely separate
with the house earth having its own rod and the neutral being rodded down to earth
within the distribution network (TT). In a few cases, they are combined in house wiring
(TN-C), but the dangers of broken neutrals (see below) and the cost of the special cables
needed to mitigate this mean that it is rarely done nowadays.
HOW DOES THE EARTHING PROTECT THE SYSTEM?

In a system with a grounded (earthed) neutral, connecting all non-current-carrying

metallic parts of equipment to earth ground at the main service panel, will ensure that
current due to faults (such as a "hot" wire touching the frame or chassis of the device)
will be diverted to earth. In a TN system where there is a direct connection from the
installation earth to the transformer neutral, earthing will allow the branch circuit over
current protection (a fuse or circuit breaker) to detect the fault rapidly and interrupt the
circuit.
In the case of a TT system where the impedance is high due to the lack of direct
connection to the transformer neutral, an RCD (Residual-Current Device, sometimes
known as a Residual Current Circuit Breaker or Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) must be
used to provide disconnection. RCDs are also used in other situations where rapid
disconnection of small earth faults (including a human touching a live wire by accident,
or damage) is desired.

COMPARISON OF NEUTRAL WITH EARTHING:

Connecting the neutral to the equipment case provides some protection against
faults/shorts, but may produce a dangerous voltage on the case if the neutral connection is
broken.
Earths are commonly used in electricity supply companies' wiring and
occasionally for fixed wiring in buildings and for some specialist applications where
there is little choice like railways and trams.

Result:
Thus the safety aspects of electrical wiring using circuit breaker, fuses and
grounding were studied.
Ex. No.5 WIRING CIRCUIT FOR A LAMP USING
SINGLE AND STAIR CASE SWITCHES

AIM:
To design and test the wiring circuit for a lamp using single and stair case
switches.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Two way switch - 230V/5A 2
2 One way switch - 230V/5A 1
3 Incandescent lamp - 230V,40W 1
4 PVC pipes - - -
5 Screw driver - - -
6 Cutting pliers - - 1
7 Drilling machines - - 1
8 Round blocks, junction box - - 1
9 Screws, T joints and clamps - - -
10 Lamp holder, connecting wires - - -

PROCEDURE:

Before switching ON the supply to the circuit,

1. The pipe layout of the respective wiring is laid on the board.

2. The PVC pipes are fixed to the wooden board.
3. The junction box and switch box are fixed at appropriate positions.
4. The round blocks are tightened in their position with the help of a
screw driver.
5. The wires are inserted into the pipes and the connections for different
types of switch connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
After switching ON the supply to the circuit,
The condition of the lamp for single way switch is checked against each
and every switch positions as shown in the Table 1.
Then the condition of the lamp for stair case switch is checked for
different positions of its switch as shown in the Table 2.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
SINGLE WAY SWITCH OPERATION:
The single way switch is operated as mentioned in the Table 1 and the
corresponding condition of the lamp is verified.

Fig. 1

Table 1
S.No Switch position Condition of the Lamp
1 1 (Close) ON
2 2 (Open) OFF

STAIRCASE WIRING USING TWO WAY SWITCHES:

The stair case wiring using two way switch for both the operations 1 and 2 are
given as shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 respectively and the corresponding condition of the
lamp are verified from the Table 2 and Table 3.
OPERATION 1:

Fig. 2

Table 2
S.No Switch position Condition of the Lamp
S1 S2
1 1 1’ ON
2 1 2’ OFF
3 2 1’ OFF
4 2 2’ ON
 OPERATION 2:

Fig. 3

Table 3
S.No Switch position Condition of the Lamp
S1 S2
1 1 1’ OFF
2 1 2’ ON
3 2 1’ OFF
4 2 2’ ON

RESULT:
Thus the wiring circuit for a lamp using single and stair case switches were
designed and tested.
Ex. No. 6 FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING

AIM:

To construct a wiring circuit for fluorescent lamp using necessary components.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY

1 Fluorescent tube light frame - - 1
2 Starter - - 1
3 Choke - 40W 1
4 Fluorescent tube - 40W,230V 1
5 Connector - - 1
6 Test lamp(Incandescent) - 40W 1
7 PVC pipe, clamps, junction box, - - As required
Tester, screws, insulation tape
8 Connecting wires - - As required

PROCEDURE:
Before switching ON the supply to the circuit,

1. The layout of the circuit is drawn on a wooden board using a chalk.

2. The PVC pipes are fixed on the wooden board with clamps. The junction
box and the switch box are used at their positions
3. The connecting wires are inserted into the pipes and the connections are
given as per the circuit diagram shown above.
4. Correctness of the connections is ensured.

After switching ON the supply to the circuit,

1. The fluorescent lamp is checked.

2. If the lamp doesn’t glow, then the tube is rotated to make contact between
the filaments on both sides of the tube and its connecting terminals on the
frame.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

RESULT:
Thus the wiring circuit for fluorescent lamp is constructed and tested.