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ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
1. Point – indicates a position in space. Has no length, width, depth static, directionless,
centralized.

As elements of form, a point serve as;

• Two ends of a line.
• Intersection of two lines.
• Meeting of lines at the corner of the plane or volume.
• The center of the field.
2. Line – extending a point produce a line. A line is a continuous mark made by a pencil,
brush, pen or other tool. Lines can be thick or thin, straight or curved, jagged or smooth,
light, or heavy. Line with arrowhead set direction, motion, movement, growth.

Repetition of similar elements is regarded as a line.

Horizontal line is stable and in equilibrium.

Horizon, ground plane and body at rest represents a line at rest.
a. Oblique lines – are dynamic, visually active in its unbalanced state.
b. Vertical elements - can define transparent volume as in the case of Hagia Sophia’s
minarets.

c. Linear elements – as structural elements express movement across plane, provide

support for overhead plane from three – dimensional frame for architectural space.
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Modern buildings often use bold lines created by structural steel cross bracing. Lines can
also be suggested by the shape and massing of a building. For instance, a building can look
horizontal or vertical. Lines are often suggested by the structural materials designers
choose for their buildings such as the random lines of natural stone or the sleek lines
created by beams of steel or walls of glass.

3. Plane – extending line and intersecting with two more lines become a plane. It has length
and width, shape, surface, orientation, position. Extension of lines form a plane.

a. Overhead Plane – roof plane that spans and shelters the interior spaces of a building.
b. Wall Plane – Is active in our field of vision because of its vertical orientation, shapes
and encloses an architectural space.
c. Base Plane – can either be a ground plane or a physical foundation and visual base for
building forms.
Planes enriched by color, pattern textures all affect its visual weight and stability.

Plane limits boundaries of volume. Plane is an important element in an architecture. Plane

encloses the structure. Plane is an important element in an architecture. Plane encloses
the structure.

Shape – is the identifying character of form.

4. Volume – a plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction. Has three dimensions:
length, width, and depth.
a.) Solid – Space enclosed by plane
b.) Void – Space displaced by mass
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5. Form
Size – characteristics characteristic outline or space configuration of a particular form.
Shape categorize form. Size is a physical dimension of form length, width, height.
Texture – visual and tactile quality given quality given to a surface by size, shape,
arrangement, and proportions of the parts. Light affects textures.

Colored – affected by light. Gives individual perception on hue, saturation, and tonal
value.

Orientation – direction of form relative to ground plane, the compass point, other forms,
or the person viewing them.

Position – the location of the form relative to its environment or to the visual field within
which it is seen.

Visual Inertia – degree of concentration and stability of form.

All of these properties are in reality affected by the conditions under which we view
them:
- A changing perspective or angle of views present different shapes.
- Distance from form determine the size.
- Lighting conditions.
- Visual field surrounding the form.
In architecture, we are concerned with:
- Floor, wall, ceiling planes that enclose space.
- Door and window openings or fenestration.
- Silhouettes and contours of buildings and forms.
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Primary Shapes
Circle – normally stable shape and self centering. In combination with angular or straight forms
or placing an element along its circumference creates a rotary motion. Position at center creates
centrality.

Triangle - at its apex, it can be stable or unstable. Stable at its base, stable at its apex / unstable
at its apex.

Square – pure and rational. Bilateral symmetrical. Rectangles are variation of square. Stable
when at its sides. Dynamic when at its corners.
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Surfaces
1. Cylindrical- sliding straight line along a plane curve or vice versa. Circular, elliptic, or
parabolic.
2. Translational – sliding a plane curve on a straight surface or another plane curve.
3. Ruled – Motion of straight line
4. Rotational surfaces – generated by rotating a plane curve about an axis.
5. Paraboloids – Intersection of parabolas and ellipses
6. Hyperbolic paraboloids – are surfaces generated by sliding a parabola with downward
curvature along a parabola with upward curvature.
7. Saddle – Upward curve on one side, downward on the other.

Primary Solids
1. Sphere – semicircle about its diameter Circular object that maintains shape when viewed
in different directions.
2. Cylinder – generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides. Centralized
and highly concentrated form.
3. Cone – Stable when resting on its base, unstable when tipped.
4. Pyramid – having a polygonal base and triangular faces. Stable when any of its sides are
placed down.
5. Cube – prismatic solid bounded by six equal square sides. Stable on any of its faces,
unstable on its corners.
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PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

HIERARCHY (Dominance) – creates visual emphasis. Differences rely on the importance of the
form and spaces due to:
• Function
• Symbolic roles
Value system – how we treasure certain things; how users, client, community or even the
designer assigned value to forms (or volume) and spaces.
• Dictated by personal or cultural aspirations.
Hierarchy is achieved by:
– Exceptional size – element can be of significant; it is the smallest or the biggest in size of
similar shapes.
– Unique shape – contrast in shape (what makes it stand out).
– Strategic location.
o End of line or axial organization
o Centerpiece of a symmetrical organization
o Central or radial organization
o Offset above, below, or in the foreground of a composition
o Can be achieved by the position of the building (front or center)
Visual Emphasis – in architectural composition, visual emphasis is created when dominant
feature is supported by lesser dominant elements.
Visual Interest – lesser dominant features create visual interests such as variety, rhythm tension
and composition – all supporting the dominant feature thus creating visual interest.

RHYTHM – regular interval on how the element is appearing. Systematic Recurrence or Repetition
of elements: Harmony, the simplicity, and the power of these rhythmical relationships.
Repetition of Differences – In this rhythmical series, the ascending and descending progressions
are built up from small to large and to small again.
Repetition of Shapes – Repetition of constructive elements.
Repetition of Lines – Variations of linear lengths of curvatures.
• Spiral – combination of repeated curves around a focus and the continual progressive
change in the radius of the curvature
Repetition of Dimensions – Such as the dimensions between supports or those of bay spacing. Is
the movement characterized by the patterned recurrence of elements or motifs at regular or
irregular interval. Maintained patter: ex. different shapes (square, circle, triangle, square, circle,
triangle)
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BALANCE – visual weight with the use of shapes, volumes, lines, color, texture, value, etc.
Arranging elements so that no one part of a work overpowers, or seems heavier than any other
part.
There are two systems for achieving balance:
1. Symmetry – formal balance
a. Axial symmetrical balance – arranging visually equal elements on both sides of a
single axis, like the human body.
b. Biaxial symmetrical balance – arranging visually equal elements in each of the four
quadrants created by a pair of crossed axes (ex. Villa Capra, Italy by Andrea Palladio).
c. Radial balance – everything is equidistant to the center; arranging visually equal
elements at an equal distance from a center point and spaced at an equal distance
apart from one another, like the petals of a flower. (ex. Restaurante Submarino: L’
Oceanografic, Spain by Felix Candela)
2. Asymmetry – informal balance
• Balance is established by equalizing the element forces in spite of their differences.
• Occurs when several smaller items on one side are balanced by a large item on the
other side, or smaller items are placed further away from the center of the screen
than larger forms.
• Affected by distance.
• Examples: Auditorio de Tenerife by Santiago Calatrava, Knights of Columbus,
Philippine Heart Center

UNITY AND VARIETY

Unity – most important principle
• Based on the Gestalt theory of visual perception, which states that the eye of the viewer
seeks a gestalt or unified whole.
• (also called harmony) is an important principle of design that gives the artwork a sense
of cohesion. It is the wholeness or completeness of a picture.
• Importance of Unity.
o Creates a sense of order
o Gives elements the appearance of completeness, that they belong together.
Different elements of design are organized achieving UNITY (oneness, harmony)
• Texture
• Color
• Tone
• Direction
• Proportion
• Solid and Void
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• Form and Shape
Unity can be achieved by:
• Simplicity – no competition among elements.
• Proximity – nearness for easy “communication” among elements.
• Repetition – defined theme.
It deals with visual composition in design.
Composition means the relationship between the visual elements.
1. Texture
- Refers to the appearance and feel of a surface
- Could also mean the physical composition or structure of something, especially with
respect to its size, shape and arrangement of its parts.
- Individual dwellings within a group, as well as decorations and carvings in buildings
can create an effect of texture.
2. Solid and Void
- The relationship between solid (walls, roofs, etc.) and void (windows and other
openings) structural units is very important to form a good composition
3. Color
- Refers to hue (color range)
- Ex. Kuggen Building by Wingardh Arkitektkontor, Sugamo Shinkin Bank by
Emmanuelle Moureaux
4. Tone
- Gives solidity, volume and weight to an image
- Lightness and darkness of color
5. Proportion (unifying principle)
- In this context, proportion is the geometric relationship of the sides of volumes (e.g.
rectangles). It is also the ratio and comparative size of individual parts of the
composition.
- Ducal Palace and the Sta. Maria Novella illustrates the concept of unity through
proportions.
- We cannot measure these relationships accurately by eye, but we can compare them
and try to judge the relationship of one to another on proportional basis.
6. Direction
- Every building has elements which suggest direction. In most buildings, these are
strong elements that suggest vertical and horixontal direction.
- Ex. City Theater, Finland – this building shows a dominance of horizontality given by
the roof line and overhang in contrast from the columns. The directional emphasis is
reinforced by the use of strongly ribbed cladding tile, which can be seen running
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horizontally on the eaves soffit and the beams linking the column heads and the solid
parts of the wall behind them.
7. Form and Space
- Form and shape can be clearly observed in the overall arrangement of a building or in
parts of a building (windows, doors, etc.) which have geometric shapes. Repetition or
variation of a particular form can provide strong elements of composition.
- Shape helps to identify different forms, for example, the pitch of a roof will provide a
certain form which is easy to identify and also easy to relate to other roofs which have
a similar pitch.
Variety – a way of combining the different elements in involved ways to achieve visual interest
DIFFERENCE OF VARIETY AND UNITY
1. Variety – use of different visual elements throughout a work
2. Unity – feeling that all the parts of a work fit together well.
Varying the elements creates variety. Ways to vary elements include:
Line – thinness, thickness, value, color, angle, length
Shape – size, color, orientation, texture and type
Color – hue, value, saturation
Value – darkness, lightness, high-key, value, contrast
Texture – rough, smooth
1. Space – three-dimensional field in which objects and events occur.
• Size is one of the easiest ways to create the illusion of space.
• Overlapping is another easy way to suggest depth in an image. When objects overlap
each other, the viewer perceives the one that is covering parts of other to be in front
and the one that is covered to be in the back.
• Compositional Location refers to where a form is positioned vertically in the image. The
bottom is seen as the foreground, the part of the image that is nearest to the viewer
and the top as the background, the part farthest from the viewer.
2. Proportion – relationship of elements of composition.
Choices when determining the proportions of things/ architectural application of proportion:
1. Nature of materials
2. How building elements respond to forces
3. How things are made
Types of Proportion
➢ Absolute
• relationship of part to the whole
• Ex: Door sizes to the entire house
➢ Relative
• the relationship of one part with another
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• Ex: Door sized compared to window sizes
➢ Classical Proportion
• Proportion and harmony in the structure.
• Intercolumniation spacing of the classical column
• Every order have distinct characteristic
• The diameter is basic unit of dimension
• Shaft is based on human body
• Vignola set rules of column construction
• Proportion and harmony in the structure

Renaissance Theories
• Alberti: De Re Aedificatoria
• Palladio: Four Books of Architecture
• Vignola: The five Order of Architecture
KEN
• Standardized Japanese residential architecture
• Tatami Mat
o Arranged in clustered, linear,staggered pattern
o Varied according to the size of the room
o Mat room depends on room dimension
o 1 is to 2
The Divine Proportion
• Human body proportion
Golden Ratio
• Use of the golden rectangle via the Fibonacci sequence
• Fibonacci Series- mathematical sequence, starting with zero and one, is created by adding
the 2 numbers (0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21…)
Material Proportions
• Proportions with natural strengths and weaknesses
• All building materials have distinct properties
• Ultimate strength beyond which they cannot extend
• Dimensions beyond which they cannot go
• Limited lengths which it cannot span
• Extending beyond its limit will cause it to collapse, break or fall
• Proportions with natural strengths and weaknesses
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Structural Proportions
• Span spaces and transmits loads through supports
• Size and proportion of structural elements are directly proportional to the tasks they
perform
• Visual indicators od size and scale of spaces enclosed
• Depth increases as loads and span increases
Manufactured Proportions
• Architectural elements are sized and proportioned
• By process through which they are manufactures
• Materials are manufactured with fixed proportions
3. Scale - size of something compared to a reference standard. The ratio of physical quantity,
how we can judge the size of something comparing to the size of something else
Ex: human scale
Scale is also gestalt sa perception blabalalba
Visual Scale
• Does not refer to actual dimensions, but rather how small or big something appears to be
in relation to the size of the other things surrounding it
Mechanical Scale
• The size of something in relation to an accepted standard of measurement
Anthropometry
• “anthopos” – human, “metron” – measure
• Measurement of man
• Leonardo da Vinci- Vitruvian man
• Architectural elements are designed to fit people
• Anthropometrics should not be an absolute measurement
The Modulor
• Anthropometric scale by Le Corbusier
• It was developed as a visual bridge between two scales: The imperial and metric system
• Used as a system to set out a number of le Corbusier’s buildings and was later codified
into two books
• Height of 5 feet 9 inches or 1.83 meters
Rectangle Tiling/ Golden Mean
• Can be rearranged in many ways
• Same tiles with different arrangement
• Used to illustrate surfaces and divert sizes
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SPACE ORGANIZATION

Spatial Relationships
1. Space within a space – a space maybe contained within the volume of a larger space.

2. Interlocking Spaces – the field of a space may overlap the volume of another space.

3. Adjacent Spaces – two spaces sharing a common border. The separating plane may:
✓ Limit visual & physical access between two adjacent spaces, reinforce the individuality
of each space, and accommodate their differences.
✓ Appear as a freestanding plane in a single volume of space.
✓ Be defined with a row of columns that allow a high degree of visual and spatial
continuity between the spaces.
Most common type of spatial relationship.
The degree of visual and spatial continuity that occurs between two adjacent spaces
depends on the nature of the plane that both separates and binds them together.

4. Spaces Linked by a Common Space – spaces relying on intermediary space or their

relationship. The intermediate space itself can become linear in form to link two spaces
that are distant from each other or join a whole series of spaces that have no direct
relationship to one another. Can become dominant space in a relationship. Can be
residual in nature.
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Spatial Organizations
1. Centralized Organization – spaces grouped in a centralized dominant space. Number of
secondary spaces are grouped.

2. Linear Organization – series of spaces. Linear sequence of repetitive spaces.

3. Radial Organization – combination of both linear and centralized. A central space from
which linear organizations of space extend in a radial manner.

4. Clustered Organization – relies of physical proximity. Spaces grouped by proximity or the

sharing of a common visual trait.

5. Grid Organization – spaces are regulated by 3-d grid pattern or field. Spaces organized
within the field of a structural grid or other 3D framework.
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COLOR THEORY
Color is an element of design that spans a large area of study We are all tremendously affected
by color in everything we do and see.

The Origin of Color

• Isaac Newton was the first to study the origin of color He concentrated on
the nature of spectrum we find in the rainbow for his experiment.
• He passed a beam of sunlight through a glass prism.
• Newton named these colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Another
experiment was carried out by passing a spectrum through glass prism.
• The output came in the form of white light.
• The experiments were going on and the third was about the complementary colors.
• With the help of two prisms he produced different colors on the same spot having white
background.
• The combinations of these colors were producing the color, which lies between two
source colors in the spectrum.
• Isaac Newton came to some amazing conclusions after these experiments.

Color Wheel
1. Shows the relationship of primary, secondary, and tertiary colors.
2. Used to make “desirable” color combination.
3. Scientific arrangement of colors from warm hues to cool hues.
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The Vocabulary of Color
Hue – Basic colors. It is a color found in the spectrum. These are hues that cannot be produced
by mixing any other colors.

Primary Colors – Red, Blue, and, Yellow.

Secondaries - are hues also, and they are made by mixing equal portions of two primaries.

Tertiaries – sometimes called intermediates, are hues made by mixing equal portions of one
primary and one secondary.

Value – The attribute of value describes the lightness or dullness of a hue. If a color is very light,
we say it is a high value color When a color is very dark, we say that its value is low.

➢ Tint – between the pure color and white.

➢ Shade – between the pure color and black.
➢ Tones – any colors that are Grayed down.
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Tints – By adding white in degrees, a hue is gradually made lighter. Lightened hues are called
tints.

Red White Pink

(hue) (tint)
Shade – And adding degrees of black to a hue will produce shade.

Red Black Maroon

(hue) (shade)

Intensity – the attribute of intensity is the brightness or dullness of a hue Intensity is obtained by
adding degrees of gray to a hue The more gray added, the less intense of the hue Full intensity
has no gray Some theories refer to intensity as chroma or saturation Chroma saturation and
intensity refer to the same attribute of color.
By adding degrees of gray to a hue will produce tone.

Pink Gray Tone

Color Temperatures
1. Warm Colors – Red, Orange, Yellow
• Orange – Energy, Happiness, Health. Also used to Draw attention or Emphasis.
• Red – Love, Passion, Fire, Violence, Warfare, Warning. It is also encourages
appetite, evokes strong emotion
• Yellow – Cheerful, Hope, Deceit, Cowardice, Increases metabolism. Most likely to
strain eye or eye fatigue. Babies are more prone to crying
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2. Cool Colors – Variations of Green, Blue, and Violet. Associated with night, water, and
nature plants. Usually Calming and Relaxing.
• Green – new beginnings, relaxing, abundance, jealousy. Nature , Life , Spring
• Blue – Calm, responsible, sadness, energizing. Most productive and relaxing color.
Curbs Appetite.
• Violet – creativity, royalty, wealth, wisdom.

3. Neutral Colors – Combinations of Blacks, Whites, and Browns. Commonly combined with
other colors to create accents. Can be cool or warm but are more subtle than blues and
reds.

• White – Purity, Cleanliness, Great for creating illusion of space.

• Grey – Moody, Formality, Cloudy, Conservative.
• Black – Mystery, Elegance, Evil, often used in Luxury Items.
• Brown – Nature, Wholesomeness, Dependability.
• Tan / Beige – Conservative, Piety, Dull.
• Cream / Ivory – Calm, Elegant, Antiquity.
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Color Harmonies
Standardization is a way of defining and categorizing It is important to be aware of
standardization of color combinations They are called color harmonies color schemes or
colorways and are named for convenience and order in color theory.

1. Monochromatic – One hue only. hue. This singular hue may be varied in value and/or
intensity. A monochromatic scheme has the most unity of all other color harmonies.

2. Analogous – Combination of two or three hues that lie side by side on the color wheel
When all analogous colors are equal in value and intensity, the result is a highly unified
harmony.

3. Complementary – complementary harmony refers to a harmony using two hues that lie
directly opposite one another on the color wheel.
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4. Split-complementary – split complementary harmony is a three-color combination
utilizing a hue, its complement and neighbor, or a hue and the two neighbors of its
complement.

5. Triadic – A triad is a combination of three hues that lie equidistant from one another on
the color wheel.

6. Rectangle (Tetradic) – The rectangle or tetradic color scheme uses four colors arranged
into two complementary pairs.

7. Square – The square color scheme is similar to the rectangle, but with all four colors
spaced evenly around the color circle.
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CHROMATIC ENERGY
Color Psychology is the study of color as a determinant of human behavior. The study of the
effect that colors have on the moods, behavior, and feelings of people. Individual colors invoke
negative or positive feelings which are used to promote products or create a desired atmosphere
inside a home or business.

Colors and their Relationship to Personality

1. RED – boldness, action, outgoing spirit. Strong emotions, judgments, deeds. Sharp
contrasts possible, as love or hate, rebellion, or fierce loyalty.
2. PINK – likes money, status, sheltered life. Not usually the type for total dedication to
causes. Friendly and warm, yet somewhat restrained. Seeks unfailing happiness.
3. PURPLE – extremely artistic, natural talent, individualistic, opinionated, multi personality
to fit certain situations.
4. YELLOW – lofty intellect and goals; often radical views. Imaginative and farsighted. Leans
towards “reform” and “new thought”. Wants to influence others.
5. ORANGE – jovial, extrovert, friend to man and beast. Gets along with almost everyone,
regardless of station. Pleasure loving may be fickle in romance.
6. BROWN – dependable, stable. Handles money well his and others. Conservative. Shuns glitter,
tinsel, fads.
7. BLUE – competent, well-mannered, reserved. A good provider. Responsible, conservative;
can be stubborn in defense of own views. Most preferred color.
8. GREEN – mostly moderate in personal conduct. Loves nature. Non-philander. Appreciates
respect for these qualities.
9. GRAY – personality, like color, stresses compromise. Seeks inner peace, tranquility.
Would like to avoid emotional ups and downs, renounces questionable conduct for hard
work and duty.
10. BLACK – projects worldly, changeless, dignified image, yet no pompous or overbearing.
Feels no need for “artificial” supports as bold styles and vivid colors.

Color Psychology as Therapy

Several ancient cultures, including the Egyptians and Chinese, practiced chromotherapy or using
colors to heal. Chromotherapy is sometimes referred to as light therapy or colourology and is
still used today as a holistic or alternative treatment.
In this treatment:
• Red was used to stimulate the body and mind and to increase circulation.
• Yellow was thought to stimulate the nerves and purify the body.
• Orange was used to heal the lungs and to increase energy levels.
• Blue was believed to soothe illnesses and treat pain.
• Indigo shades were thought to alleviate skin problems.
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Effects of Colors
Color creates powerful psychological and physiological (or physical) effects Psychological effects
are sensed in the mind physiological effects actually cause a change in the body It is important to
note that people may react differently to the same color based on their previous experiences or
learned behavior Research studies have shown that
✓ Color affects an individual's moods or feelings in regard to space. Light and cool colors
seem to expand space: dark and warm colors seem to enclose space.
✓ Color affects eye's perception of weight and size Dark and bright colors seem heavier than
light and cool colors However, it is interesting that the opposite effect is true in fashion
design Dark colors tend to slim the figure, whereas light colors are usually thought to
make one look heavier.
✓ Color affects a person's perception of temperature Studies have indicated that body
temperature actually fluctuates in response to various colors. For example, red, orange,
and yellow can raise one's temperature cool colors have the opposite reaction.
✓ Color can cause feelings of boredom and calmness, or stimulation and liveliness. Colors
may cause the nervous system to become agitated, and the body reacts in negative ways
to this stimulus.
✓ Colors can affect one's reaction to sounds, taste, odors, and time perception.
✓ Colors can improve the rate of recovery of sick patients.

Lights
“Architecture is the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought together in light.
Our eyes are made to see forms in light; light and shade reveal these forms…”
-Le Corbusier, towards a new architecture.
What is Light
• Electromagnetic radiation.
• Visible to human eye.
• Responsible to the sense of sight.
• Light ranges from the shorter wavelength invisible infrared light to longer wavelength
visible ultraviolet light.

Color usage varies on locations

1. Residential – Family members have different color tastes and preferences.
2. Commercial – all the colors in such an installation must relate to each other.
3. Industrial – Each color has its sign and meaning.
4. Institutional – should be to provide an atmosphere that is friendly and inviting.
5. Educational – Children prefer stronger colors.
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GESTALT PERCEPTION
Visual Acuity acuteness or clearness of vision, which is dependent on the sharpness of the retinal
focus within the eye and the sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of the brain. Visual acuity is
a measure of the spatial resolution of the visual processing system.

Acuity – cuteness or clearness of vision

Types of Vision
1. Kinesthetic – man experiences space in the movements of the eye from one part of a
whole work of art to another.

2. Stereoscopic – applied to man’s ability to overlap views.

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Perception - the method by w/c the brain takes all the sensations people experience at any given
moment and allows them to be interpreted in some meaningful fashion.
Perceptual Constancy – the property of remaining stable.

Forms of Perceptual Constancy

1. Size Constancy – interprets an object as always being the same size, regardless of its
distance from the viewer.

2. Shape Constancy – interprets the shape of an object as being constant, even when its
shape changes on the retina.

3. Brightness constancy – perceives the apparent brightness of an object as the same even
when the lights condition changes.
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Gestalt Principle
1. Figure ground – tendency to perceive objects, or figures, as existing on a background. The
brain is processing two objects.

2. Reversible Figure – if a drawing is presented wherein two parts are equally meaningful,
there may be an alternation of “figure” and “ground” between them.

3. Fluctuation – instances of fluctuation are given by the phenomena of the alternating

perspective and retinal rivalry. Depends on where you focus or concentrate, the view is
fluctuating.

4. Entasis – the application of a convex curve to a surface for aesthetic purposes. Treating/
counteracts the optical illusion. Computed mathematically.
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Psychology in Architecture
– Architecture falls under environmental psychology.
– The elements that affects a person’s perception of a structure are:
• Color
• Texture
• Space
• Light – the most effective element in creating a sense of mystery and awe. The
manipulation of light has been a key element in the building of religious structures.

Environmental Psychology
Attention or Understanding – how people notice their environment.
Perception and Cognitive Mapping – how people cognitively map what they experience based
on what they know and think they know about the environment. People naturally seek out places
where they feel confident, competent, feel comfortable and enjoy.
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Gestalt Principles of Grouping
Proximity – objects that are close to each other are of the same group.

Similarity – Similar elements belong to the same group

Closure – complete figure that are incomplete. Although the panda is not complete, enough is
present for the eye to complete the shape. When viewer’s perception completes the shape,
closure occurs.

Continuity – Perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern than a complex
broken pattern.
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Contiguity – Things that happen close together in time are related.
1. Principle 1 – place printed words near corresponding graphics.

2. Principle 2 - Words should be synchronized with corresponding graphics.

Depth Perception – The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions.

1. Monocular Cues - referred as PICTORIAL DEPTH CUES.
a. Linear Perspective – parallel lines appear to converge on each other.

b. Relative size – principle of size constancy.

c. Overlap/ Interposition – an object that appears to be blocking part of another

object is in front of the 2ndobject and closer to the viewer.
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d. Aerial/Atmospheric Perspective – haziness that surrounds objects that are
farther away from the viewer.

e. Texture Gradient – textured surface becomes finer when farther from the viewer.

f. Motion Parallax – closer objects move faster.

2. Binocular Cues
a. Convergence – rotation of two eyes to focus on an object.

b. Binocular Disparity – difference in images between the two eyes.

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BEHAVIOR SETTING
Behavior – behavior or the actions and mannerisms individuals, organisms, systems, or artificial
entities interaction with themselves or with their environment.
Included are the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment

Behavior is the result of a complex interaction between two main sets of variables:
Environment

TWO THEORIES ON THE DEGREE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT ON PEOPLE’S ACTIONS:

1. Environmental Possibilism
- People choose among the environmental opportunities available to them.
- Human is capable of making choices.
2. Environmental Probabilism
- Some choices are more likely than others.
- Limits human opportunities.
- The environment gives cues to the probability of certain decisions.
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Inner Condition of the Individual
1. Physiological relating to the way in which a living organism or bodily part functions.

2. Psychological-of, affecting, or arising in the mind; related to the mental and emotional
state of a person.

Environmental Psychology
Deals with the study of relationships between environments and human behavior as well as how
they affect one another. Roger Barker, a psychologist, theorized that social settings influenced
behavior. The study showed the person-environment relations in terms of settings, social
features such as rules, customs, and typical activities together with its physical features.

People – Environment Relationship – Consistency in the behavioral pattern done in a given

space. Uniformity actions of certain roles is important.
Behavior Setting
• The term behavior setting was first coined by Roger Barker and Herbert Wright.
• Setting a space for a specific behavior.
• A physical location that influences the behavior of the people within it.
• The identity of a place.
• Small localities, bounded in time and space, within which there is some stable pattern of
purposeful behavior with some particular physical setting.
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Surveying a Behavior Setting
According to Barker (1968), conducting a behavior setting survey consists of the measurement
of eleven key descriptive attributes:
1. Occurrence - the number of days in a year the behavior setting is capable of occurring.
2. Duration - the number of hours the behavior setting functions during a year.
3. Population - is the number of different persons who inhabit the behavior setting during
the year.
4. Occupancy Time - the number of person-hours spent in the behavior setting.
5. Penetration - is the degree to which an inhabitant is involved in the setting and consists
of six incremental zones, ranging from onlooker to leader.
6. Action Patterns - are the functional attributes of the patterns of behavior (e.g., religion,
education, and recreation).
7. Behavior Mechanisms - are the modalities through which behavior is implemented in
the setting, such as gross motor activity, talking, or thinking.
8. Richness - is a composite measure of the variety of behavior within the setting. It is
computed from the prior attributes using the following formula: (∑Pe + ∑AP +
∑BM)OT/100
9. Pressure - is the degree to which external forces act upon a person to approach/enter
or avoid/withdraw from the setting.
10. Welfare - is the relevance of the setting to a particular group of inhabitants.
11. Local Autonomy - is the geographic level at which the setting's operations are
determined (e.g., town, district, county, state).

Rutledge – a visual approach to Park design. One of the methods for learning more about
behavior patterns is the type of observation study where you sit down and make a sketch of the
setting that you are viewing and then annotate that to indicate how the users behave within the
space.
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1. Environmental Psychology (Research Aspect)
Knowledge from the field enables architects to shape solutions for clients and users with
foreseeable, measurable results.

2. Users Needs Study (Research Aspect)

Part of the process of developing a site that will successfully meet the needs of prospective
users.

3. Social and Behavioral Factors (Research Aspect)

Social behaviors are involved in settings whose objective and physical characteristics have
the potential to affect the behavior itself.
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Functional Aspect
1. Circulation Flow 2. Proximity 3. Spatial Quality

After the research aspect, it paves the way for the for the analysis of functional aspects that
involves various technicalities known in the design process such as determining the circulation
flow, the assessment through Technical space analysis, as well as visualizing projected spatial
quality for the users of the site.

Methods of Measuring Preferences

Bipolar Adjectives - Bipolar adjectives shows a qualitative rating scale wherein the endpoints of
which are defined by a corresponding adjective with an antonymous meaning.
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Field Survey – consisted of three parts.
1. Data on the Social Background of the Respondents.
2. Their spontaneous preferences for the simulated environments by a semantic differential
technique.
3. Some interlocking questions in which the respondents among other things had to rank
the environments after their inclination to move into them.

Behavior Studies in architecture include the systematic examination of relationship between the
environment and human behavior and their application in the design process.
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PROXEMICS
Proxemics is the study of measurable distances between people as they interact. The term was
introduced by anthropologist Edward T. Hall in 1966.

Fundamentals of Proxemics
Space – an area with invisible boundaries surrounding a person's body into which intruders may
not come.
Distance – relational concept, typically measured in terms of how far one individual is from the
other.
Territory – any area controlled and defended by an individual or group of individuals with
emphasis on physical possession.

According to Edward T. Hall, the man who coined the term “proxemics,” social distance between
people is reliably correlated with physical distance according to the following delineations:
• Intimate distance for embracing, touching, or whispering ranges anywhere between 6 to
18 inches or even closer.
• Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members ranges
anywhere from 1.5 feet to 4 feet.
• Social distance for interactions among acquaintances ranges anywhere from 4 to 12 feet.
• Public distance used for public speaking ranges anywhere from 12 to 25 feet.
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Proxemics Applied in Interiors
Things to consider:
• Distance
• Lightning
• Personality
• Shape
• Sound
Territoriality
• Exclusive to owner
• Central to daily functioning
• Guard against intruders
• Can also include possessions

There are four forms of human territory in terms of Proxemics. They are:
1. Public territory – a place where one may freely enter.
2. Interactional territory – a place where people congregate informally.
3. Home territory – a place where people claim their individual territory.
4. Body territory – the space immediately surrounding us.

These different levels of territory, in addition to factors involving personal space, suggest ways
for us to communicate and produce expectations of appropriate behavior.

For people it is important to have a place of their own. People, just like animals, also have their
own territory. For example, people find it terrible when there has been burgled in their houses.
Not only because of the fact that they miss valuable things, but worse is the idea that someone
has been in their territory.
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Territoriality and Proxemics
Edward T. Hall emphasized the impact of proxemic behavior (the use of space) on interpersonal
communication.
Hall believed that the value in studying proxemics comes from its applicability in evaluating not
only the way man interacts with others in his daily life, but also "the organization of space in his
houses and buildings, and ultimately the layout of his towns.

Bedroom (Intimate)
Spaces are 18 inches/ 1 feet.
Lights placed on dull places.
Almost square in plan for intimate feeling and sound control.

Office (Personal)
Distance is 2 feet to 4 feet.
Lights at working desk.
Larger space for minimal sounds.
Partitions for concentration.

Conference Area (Social)

Distance is 2 feet to 4 feet.
Lights at working desk.
Larger space for minimal sounds.
Partitions for concentration.

Church (Public)
Distance is 12 feet to 28 feet.
Aisles and elevated area at the end. Authority purposes.
Higher ceilings for lightning purposes.
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Three Hidden Zones in Offices
1. The immediate work area of the desktop and chair.

2. A series of points within arm's reach outside the area mentioned above.

3. Spaces marked as the limit reached when one pushes away from the desk to achieve a
little distance from the work without actually getting up.
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Defensible Space Theory
The Defensible Space Theory of architect and city planner Oscar Newman encompasses ideas
about crime prevention and neighborhood safety.

“A term used to describe a residential environment whose physical characteristics—building

layout and site plan—function to allow inhabitants themselves to become key agents in ensuring
their security. “

The area is safer when people feel a sense of ownership and responsibility for that piece of a
community.

Four factors of Defensible Space

1. Territoriality – the idea that one's home is sacred.
2. Natural surveillance – the link between an area's physical characteristics and the
residents' ability to see what is happening.
3. Image – the capacity of the physical design to impart a sense of security.
4. Milieu – other features that may affect security, such as proximity to a police substation
or busy commercial area.

Principles of designing Defensible Space

• The assignment to different resident groups - the specific environments they are best able
to utilize and control, as determined by their ages, lifestyles, socializing proclivities,
backgrounds, incomes, and family structures.
• The territorial definition of space in residential developments to reflect the zone of
influence of specific inhabitants.
• The juxtaposition of dwelling interiors with exterior spaces and the placement of windows
to allow residents to naturally survey the exterior and interior public areas.
• The juxtaposition of dwellings—their entries and amenities—with city streets so as to
incorporate the streets within the sphere of influence of the residential environment.
• The adoption of building forms and idioms that avoids the stigma of peculiarity that allows
others to perceive the vulnerability and isolation of a particular group of inhabitants.
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ARCHITECTURAL CONCEPTS

• Bright idea.
• Unique solution to a problem.
• The designer’s way of responding to the design situation presented in the program.
• Means for translating the non-physical statements into physical building product.

The building projects may begin with one concept or single overall direction of how to respond
to the problem.
PARTI – the basic, central, or main concept, drawing, or scheme of an architectural design.
However, any building design is composed of many concepts. The designer must divide the
project situation into a manageable number of parts, deal with them individually and then
synthesize them in to one whole simultaneous building.

How to make a Concept?

• A Concept is a Statement of an ideal set of relationships among several of the elements
under an architect’s control –such as form, material, texture, color, and adjacency.
• A Concept Statement is made up of a simple diagram and a few words.
• A Concept may encompass the entire problem or can illustrate the ideal solution for a
small part of the project.
Examples of Concept:
✓ Circulation concept
✓ Tropical design concept
✓ Environmental concept
✓ Behavioral concept
✓ Spatial concept
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Source of Concepts
Analogies - comparison between two different things and establishing the similarities between
them. Very useful in generating overall design concepts because it is fairly easy to make the
necessary comparisons with known objects to generate new ideas about the object to be
designed.
Examples of Analogies:
• A building lying on a hill.
• A building cooled like a tree – Responding to environment.
• Office building like an apple – Space organization.
• Sydney Opera House is like a ship sailing in the harbour – Symbolic form.
• Pavilions like footprints – context.

1. Metaphor - compares two subjects without any connecting words such as “like” or “as.”
Metaphors are considered a strong form of analogy as they assert that one thing is
another. Metaphor helps in the problem-solving activity. Using metaphor makes the
abstract concept more defined by relating a building to dissimilar objects and extracting
the similar characteristics existing between the two. Understanding metaphor requires
two conditions:
a. the receiver – the one the receives the message.
b. the target – the object that is sending the message.
2. Simile - A simile is a comparison between two things using the connecting words “like” or
“as.”
• As light as a feather.
• As busy as a bee.
• As quiet as a mouse.
• As happy as a clam.
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Essences – suggests insights into the most critical aspect of the thing being analyzed.
Direct response and problem solving – one is looking at the stated requirements. An architect’s
ability to solve a client’s problem is essential in coming up with this type of concept.
Ideals – represents the highest aspirations and goals of the architect.

A Good Concept Diagram

1. Simple – simple diagram giving full representation of the idea.
2. Strong visual impact – minimal detail, strong lines, arrows showing direction where
necessary.
3. Brief verbal description –few words as possible to make the meaning clear.
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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PROCESS
Architecture – art and science of designing a building.
Design – to create, fashion, execute, or construct according to plan: devise, contrive.
Process - is a series or set of activities that interact to produce a result; it may occur once only
or be recurrent or periodic.
Architectural design process is a tool/device consisting of interdependent planned activities that
are executed in cyclic or iterative attempts to produce a beautiful and functional building design.

Architectural Design Paradigm

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1. Problem Identification – the accumulation and gathering of general information including
specific data related to the project which include:
a. Project Objectives – “Project Goal & Project Objective” Who is the client or owner,
there goals, and objectives.
Goal - vague, profound, general statement of what to achieve at the end of the
process.
Objective - specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, time-bound (SMART)
statements (based on goal) on what to achieve at the end of the process.
Project goal - profound, vague general statement of the client/user in having a
structure and what the client/user intends to achieve after the structure is
constructed.
Project objective - ways of achieving the project goal of the client/user
• Sort out all the client’s goals/objectives in relation to architectural
activities.
• Observe hierarchy of objectives.
• Project objectives-client.
• Design objectives-architect.
b. Background of the Project - “Building Typology” Information gathering related to the
project: on:
Type of building to be constructed:
• Institutional • Recreational • Entertainment • Cultural • Industrial •
Commercial
c. Scope of the Project – “Needs vs Wants” List on spaces and activities based on the
needs and wants and within the field of architecture the architect can provide to the
client/user.
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d. The Project Site – “Transfer Certificate of Title or TCT” Contains information about
the site: location, size and shapes, measurements others. The information stated in
the TCT is very important as preliminary site research and inventory. The TCT is a
public document that shows essential information needed the site inventory/research
site analysis.
Ownership
Location
Size
Shape
North orientation
Street boundaries

e. Building Requirements – “National Bldg. Code, Fire Code, Archi Graphics Standards,
Building Types” All requirements and data needed in putting up a specific building:
legal, space requirements, standards, needs and wants of the user/owner, cultural,
others.

2. Development of Design Strategies

a. Architectural Programming - Duerk’s definition
• Management of information to be readily accessible in the stages of the design
process that will aid in the decision making of the building.
• Tool in establishing the hierarchy of needs of the client.
• Identifies issues that will affect design of building.
• Recommend programmatic concepts to aid the formation of design concepts.
• Architectural programming is the problem-seeking phase.
• Design-problem solving phase.
Programming is the first step of the design process Information provided by the
client/user Design team or Program consultant
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Programming Design Issues
• Area of concern that demands a design response.
• Areas of concern should be categorized.
Examples:
✓ Client-issue on budget, ROI, personal, etc.
✓ User-issue on comfortability, isolation, privacy, identity, gender, equality, etc.
✓ Planet Earth-issue on climate change, loss of natural habitat, etc.
Mission – defines special purpose that the building project must fulfil to succeed.
Contains set of values that were part of the impetus that generated the project.
Mission and issues should be stated so that goals can be formulated.
b. Design Objectives
• Architect’s intention on what to accomplish at the end of the design process.
• Influence by project objectives.
• Answers the needs of the project which can be translated into spatial or
architectural activities.
• Influence by other factors that the architect will include in his statement of
objectives. These factors influencing his objectives are the design considerations.

Architect’s Programming Framework

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c. Design Considerations
• Influencing factors that are considered in developing the building and it environ.
These are factors may not be directly related in architecture but are needed since
they affect the design of the building.
• Geared toward the attainment of the design objectives.
• Also hinge on the project objectives.

d. Technical Space Analysis - The client initially identifies the spaces of the project. The
role of the architect is to complete all the needed space requirements by:
• Finding out all the required spaces for the building, computing the sizes of the
building.
• Determining space adjacencies.
• Space circulation.
• Other space requirements.

Tools for Space Analysis

1. Matrix Diagram - Tool in determining space adjacency
a. List all spaces.
b. Make scale of space proximity.
• essential
• desirable
• not needed
c. Compare the proximity of one space with the rest of the spaces.
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2.Interaction Net - Tool in determining space adjacency.
a. Represent all spaces in bubbles.
b. Lay in circle.
c. Translate proximity from matrix by connecting the bubbles.

3.Grid Bubble Layout

a. Place all bubbles in grid.
b. Connect bubbles using the interaction net.
c. See to it that there are no overlapping connections.
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e. Space Zoning

Technical Space Analysis

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Design Concept – motivating idea that give direction for design considerations to directly
influence the satisfaction of design objectives.
Defining Design Concepts in Various Ways:
• Conscious interacting repertoire of design consideration to meet design
objectives.
• A format conceived with regards to the general approach to design.
• An initial generalized idea which is to be expanded and developed latter in more
details.
• A perception about from resulting from analysis of the problem.
• A strategy for moving from design objectives to design solutions through.
• Satisfaction of design objectives through design considerations.

3. Design and Appreciation Development

a. Development of Its Design and Alternatives – Objective appreciation and criticism of
each scheme should be observed. The opinion of others should be sought after.
Objective and meritorious criticism should help achieve an improvement in the
design. The improved design scheme will follow series of reassessment particularly in
the detail level of design to arrive at the final design. At this stage of the process the
designer should exhaust all his / her efforts for the purpose of arriving at not as simply
a mediocre traditional solution but rather exceptional innovative design.
b. Appreciation of Design and Its Alternatives – Once a design concept is established,
different design schemes that meet the design objectives are developed. Using
technical space data from the previous stage will facilitate developing architectural
forms needed for the schemes. Forms, mass proportions and other mass
considerations will play vital role. The viable alternatives are further developed into
preliminary design for appreciation. These schemes should be comprehensive
detailed designs that shows a plan, elevation, section and other important drawings
and graphical illustrations. We should also consider the advantages and disadvantages
of different schemes and alternatives.
4. Final Design and Appreciation
a. Final Design Proposal and Presentation – At this stage, the designer makes an
accounting of all drawing requirements, makes mock-up composition of drawings per
board, and established the workload for production. A work schedule is produced with
the use of bar charts, considering production rate, logistics and available time frame.
A decision of what medium of presentation values of using impressive mediums.
During this last stage, the refinements and further detailing is done.