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 T h e Ox f o r d H a n d b o o k o f

I N DU ST R IA L
A RC HA E OL O G Y
The Oxford Handbook of

INDUSTRIAL
ARCHAEOLOGY
Edited by
ELEANOR CONLIN CASELLA,
MICHAEL NEVELL,
and
HANNA STEYNE

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,
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 Preface

Industrialization: a Social,
Technological, Economic,
and Human Process

Representing the first substantial English-​language text on industrial archaeology in

a decade, this volume comes at a time when the global impact of industrialization is
being reassessed in terms of its legacy of climate change, mechanization, urbanization,
the forced migration of peoples, particularly enslaved Africans, and labour relations.
Critical debates around the beginning of a new geological era—​the Anthropocene—​
have emerged over the last decade. Their central focus interrogates the widespread
exploitation of natural resources that underpins industrialization from its early emer-
gence in eighteenth-​century northern Europe to its contemporary ubiquity in our
globalized world.
The rise of carbon-​based economies is at the heart of industrialization. With its em-
phasis on the physical remains of the human past—​from pots and knives to buildings
and landscapes—​archaeology is uniquely placed to provide both a broad and a detailed
understanding of how the processes of industrialization emerged and evolved. In 2007,
for the first time in human history, the majority of the world’s population were found to
be living in industrialized cities and towns, the largest urban areas being located in Japan,
India, China, Brazil, and Mexico (https://​our​worl​dind​ata.org/​urban​izat​ion#num​ber-​
of-​peo​ple-​liv​ing-​in-​urban-​areas). These population conglomerates have arisen through
more than three centuries of industrialization, with intricate networks of resource ex-
ploitation, labour organization, and goods trans-​shipment. Thus, understanding the
origins, processes, and development of industrialization through its physical remains,
and the consequences of this shift in human terms—​both the good and the bad—​is vital
for understanding our modern world of the third decade of the twenty-​first century.
The themes discussed in this volume extend and augment many of the issues raised
in previous publications (Palmer et al. 2012; Casella and Symonds 2005; Horning
and Palmer 2009), reflecting a vibrant diversity of research over the past decade,
which has expanded the scope and geographical focus of industrial archaeology. This
volume explores the dynamics of industrialization within European, American, and
Australasian worlds from the early eighteenth century through to the late twentieth
vi   Preface

century. Recognizing the original role of Britain as the world’s first industrial nation, our
volume seeks to document the historic influences and social/​economic realities of indus-
trial societies. We respectfully acknowledge the grim industrial past: the essential roles
of unfree and under-​waged labour; the commodification of humans, animals, and nat-
ural landscapes; the origins of modern prisons, workhouses, and asylums; and the stark
brutalities of African, Asian, and Indigenous slavery as the backbone of Europe’s capit-
alist global trade. This volume also explores the spectacular engineering achievements
of industrialization, especially its astounding improvements to basic living standards,
public health and sanitation, universal literacy, and poverty reduction. We ultimately
recognize the complex industrial legacy as an intricate story of production, distribution,
and consumption. It is one that travels from UNESCO World Heritage Sites to local sites
of significance, linking them all into the economic, political, social, and racial dynamics
that continue to forge our contemporary world.
Understanding the material remains of industrialization is the major aim of our
volume. As a social process, industrial archaeology is not something that can be boxed
off as a study of technological process or transfer. It crosses the traditional divides of his-
torical, post-​medieval, and contemporary archaeology, as well as the specialist subfields
of engineering, architectural, social, and economic histories. To address this broad
scope, this handbook is divided into three sections, beginning with a section on techno-
logical innovation, and then widening the study to include archaeologies of distribu-
tion and consumption. It concludes with a final section on the wider impacts on society
in terms of rural and urban landscapes, and the reshaping of the social structures of
communities, towns, cities, and landscapes. All the authors have taken explicitly arch-
aeological approaches to their subjects. This allows for a series of detailed case studies
on the many aspects of industrialization that should be applicable wherever the process
can be found.
The first classic wave of industrialization is reflected in the initial section on extrac-
tion and production, the core of the European and North American experiences of in-
dustrialization. This covers twenty-​one chapters including sections on power supplies
(coal, water, gas); mineral extraction and processing (iron and steel, slate, gold and
silver mining, non-​ferrous mining); manufacturing (ceramic, cotton processing, linen
and wool, glass, mechanical engineering, car production); food production (enclosure,
timber, whaling, food processing). It also includes studies of industrial waste, colo-
nial land settlement, and nuclear power, topics that illuminate the consequences of the
global carbon economy.
The second section explores the new patterns of distribution and consumption
that were needed to support the pivotal transition from a rural, agrarian society, to
an industrial, urban-​based one. Nine chapters explore the archaeology of moving
goods and people—​from the terrestrial roads, bridges, and railways, to the canals, in-
land waterways, ports, and maritime shipping routes that transported commodities
to ever-​expanding markets. The material nature and handling of these commercial
goods are covered in studies of warehouses, processed foods, ceramics, and domestic
 Preface   vii

storage containers. This section concludes with case studies on urban patterns of con-
sumption and telecommunications, the latter industry serving as the origin of today’s
digital world.
A final section explores industrialized worlds of society and space. Here, twelve
chapters detail the legacy of industrialization by showcasing new research on workers’
housing, churches and chapels, and burial landscapes. Themes of social ‘improvement’
are brought out with studies of public baths, mechanics institutes, bars and pubs, and
temperance institutions. The industrialization of conflict is reflected in a study of the
archaeology of the Cold War, while its broader implications are explored through a close
analysis of the everyday lives and livelihoods of coal miners. Closing with a chapter on
the material lives of women and children within industrial-​era communities, this final
section of the volume explicitly highlights the diverse legacies of industrialization to
help understand the prevailing engine of change within our modern world.
The links between industrial archaeology and industrial heritage (both the preser-
vation and maintenance of our industrial legacy) remain very strong. Nevertheless, the
archaeological study of industrialization is more than just one of engineering history
and museum displays. It is about the tracking of a social process—​a fundamental shift
from a rural, agrarian society to an urban-​based industrial one, as read through its phys-
ical remains. Although these revolutionary transformations began in early eighteenth-​
century Britain and northwestern Europe, industrialization has since spread around
the globe. It is the heart of our modern globalized economy. We hope that the research
covered in this handbook reflects the continuing vibrancy of discovery taking place in
industrial archaeological research of the early twenty-​first century.

Eleanor Casella (University of Tasmania, Australia)

Michael Nevell (Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust
and the University of Salford, UK), and
Hanna Steyne (University of Manchester, UK)
October 2020.
 Acknowledgements

The current volume is the result of a collaborative project a decade in the making
whose writing and editing has spanned several continents. We would like to thank the
commissioning editors at Oxford University Press for their patience while this complex
project was pulled together. A work such as this inevitably relies upon the good will
and cooperation of not just the authors but many more individuals and institutions.
Therefore, the volume editors wish to thank a number of people, institutions, funding,
and scholarly bodies who have supported the creation of this publication in countless
ways. These include: the Association for Industrial Archaeology; the Society for
Historical Archaeology; the Council for British Archaeology; English Heritage/​Historic
England; the British Academy; and the Australasian Society for Historical Archaeology.
Special thanks are due to Marilyn Palmer, Paul Shackel, Paul Belford, Flor Hurley,
Catherine Mackey, Andy Myers, Richard Nevell, Norman Redhead, Tegwen Roberts,
Adam Thompson, John Walker, Ian West, and Denis Gojak. Their contributions are
warmly and gratefully acknowledged. Finally, we send our gratitude to the many chapter
authors who were patient participants in this grand project. Their work reflects the deep
significance of the industrial heritage that forges our contemporary world.
 Contents

List of Figures xv
List of Contributors xxvii

1. Introduction: The Past Made Public 1

Paul A. Shackel
2. Water Power 13
Colin Rynne
3. The Gas Industry 30
Ian West
4. An Archaeology of Nuclear Power: Monuments of the Atomic Age 45
Vicki Cummings and David Robinson
5. Slate Production 58
David Gwyn
6. The Archaeology of the British Coal Industry 74
Marilyn Palmer and Michael Nevell
7. Gold Rush Archaeology: Gold and Silver Mining Around the
Pacific Rim 95
Susan Lawrence
8. Non-​ferrous Metal Mining and Processing in Industrial Britain 110
Marilyn Palmer
9. Enclosure: A Living Historical Process 128
Chris Dalglish
10. Australian Colonial Land Settlement 142
Sean Winter and Alistair Paterson
xii   Contents

11. Timber 158

Peter Davies
12. Textiles: Cotton 174
Roger N. Holden
13. The Linen and Wool Industries in Britain and Ireland 188
Colin Rynne
14. Maritime Industry: Whaling 210
Martin Gibbs
15. ‘A Fruit of the Art of Fire’: The Glass Industry in Britain 227
Ian Miller
16. Food Processing 255
Amber Patrick and Hanna Steyne
17. Mechanical Engineering and the Integrated Engineering Works 274
Michael Nevell
18. Ceramic Production 291
Eleanor Conlin Casella
19. British Car Factories since 1896: An Industrial Archaeology Site
Type Survey Case Study 314
Paul Collins
20. The Archaeology of the Iron and Steel Industries in Britain 323
Michael Nevell
21. Butte and Anaconda, Montana: Industrial Waste as
Industrial Heritage 341
Fredric L. Quivik
22. Roads and Bridges 357
Geoff Timmins
23. Railways 373
David Gwyn
24. Canals and Inland Waterways 389
Hanna Steyne and Nigel Crowe
 Contents   xiii

25. Ports and Shipping 407

Richard Newman and Hanna Steyne
26. Global Communications, 1561 to 2016 425
Nigel Linge
27. Warehouses c.1770 to 1914 445
Michael Nevell
28. Ceramics and Pottery: The Enduring Appeal of the
Willow Pattern Print 457
Nigel Jeffries
29. Food Storage 473
Eleanor Conlin Casella and Samantha Bolton
30. Commodities and Consumption 489
Penny Crook
31. Industrial Workers’ Housing in Britain 507
Michael Nevell
32. Churches and Chapels 529
Angela Connelly
33. The Industrial Archaeology of the Burial Landscape 544
Julie Rugg
34. A Celebration of Growth, Independence, and Worth: Symbolism
and Functionality in Swimming Pools for Developing Industrial
Communities 558
Gordon S. Marino
35. Mechanics’ Institutes in Britain and Ireland 571
Maria Elena Turk
36. Bars, Public Houses, and Saloons 585
Andrew Davison
37. Temperance 600
Andrew Davison
38. Social Welfare Institutions 619
Eleanor Conlin Casella and Katherine Fennelly
xiv   Contents

39. Industrialized Conflict 634

Wayne D. Cocroft
40. The Cold War: Archaeologies of Protest and Opposition 649
John Schofield
41. They Were Here Too: Women and Children in
Industrial Communities 663
Marika Hyttinen and Titta Kallio-​Seppä
42. The Social Life of Coal Mining 682
Karin Larkin
43. Conclusion: Industrial Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future 700
Marilyn Palmer

Index 719
 List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Plan of Ballincollig Gunpowdermills, County Cork, Ireland

(1794–​1903), showing the extent of mill races and the installations
serviced by them. 15
Figure 2.2 Reconstruction of early medieval horizontal-​wheeled mill
(c.ad 833) at Cloontycarthy, County Cork, Ireland. 17
Figure 2.3 Waterwheel types. 18
Figure 2.4 Poncelet-​type waterwheel (c.1860) at Glanworth Woollen Mills,
County Cork, Ireland. 19
Figure 2.5: All-​iron suspension waterwheel at Dyan Mills, County Tyrone,
Northern Ireland, c.1829. 21
Figure 2.6 Surviving axle of the earliest-​known suspension waterwheel by
Thomas Cheek Hewes of Manchester (c.1802), at Overton Cotton
Mills, near Bandon, County Cork, Ireland. 22
Figure 2.7 All-​iron suspension waterwheel of 1852 by William Fairbairn of
Manchester, at Midleton Distillery, County Cork, Ireland. 23
Figure 3.1 Gas works plant built by Samuel Clegg in 1809 for Ackerman’s Print
Works, The Strand, London. In the background are two circular
retorts, in the foreground are the purifier, tar well, and rectangular
gas holder (King’s Treatise on Gas Manufacture, 1878, p. 25). 32
Figure 3.2 Flame Gas Works Museum, Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland.
In the centre is the tank of a demolished gas holder; behind this,
left, is the coal store and, in the centre, three retort houses, with
distinctive ventilated roofs. The elevated tank in front of the
right-​hand retort house held tar (©Ian West). 35
Figure 3.3 Two gas-​holder houses, Dresden, Germany. The one on the right,
dating from 1908, houses a panorama visitor attraction; the one
on the left, built in the 1920s, is disused (©Ian West). 43
Figure 4.1 Timeline of Sellafield in the 1940s and 1950s in relation
to world events. 50
Figure 5.1 Slate quarry remains at Llanberis (National Slate Museum), Wales.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 70
xvi   List of Figures

Figure 6.1 Pillar and stall workings, Sharlston Colliery, Wakefield. Image
courtesy and copyright of Oxford Archaeology North. 75
Figure 6.2 The early twentieth-​century headgear at Pleasley Pit, Derbyshire.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 76
Figure 6.3 Dul Michal Mine, Ostrava, Moravia, in the Czech Republic showing
the miners’ dry architecture. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 77
Figure 6.4 A line of bellpits to the east of Monyash in Fern Dale, Derbyshire,
showing the typical upcast with a central depression. These are for
lead prospecting. Copyright: Michael Nevell. 79
Figure 6.5 The mid-​nineteenth-​century Jane Pit Pumping Engine House,
Workington. Copyright: Michael Nevell. 81
Figure 6.6 The excavated remains of the 1770s colliery pumping engine and
boiler house of c.1800 at Fairbottom Bobs, Ashton-​under-​Lyne,
Greater Manchester. 82
Figure 6.7 The surviving wooden headstocks at Caphouse Colliery.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 83
Figure 6.8 The mid-​twentieth-​century Clipstone Colliery headstocks.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 84
Figure 6.9 Worsley Delph, Bridgewater Canal, showing the recently renovated
entrance from the 1760s into the underground coal mines.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 87
Figure 6.10 The late eighteenth-​century Park Bridge Colliery tramway,
Ashton-​under-​Lyne, during excavation in 2001.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 87
Figure 6.11 Old Row Elsecar. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 90
Figure 6.12 New Bolsover colliery workers’ housing, 1890s.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 91
Figure 7.1 Stamp battery, Kawerau Gorge, Otago,
New Zealand (S. Lawrence). 98
Figure 7.2 Chinese pig-​roasting oven, Palmer River Goldfield, Australia
(photo courtesy Gordon Grimwade). 103
Figure 8.1 Allihies Copper mine, County Cork. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 112
Figure 8.2 Laxey Waterwheel, Isle of Man. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 115
Figure 8.3 Circular horse-​powered lead-​crushing wheel, Odin Mine,
Derbyshire. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 116
Figure 8.4 Water-​powered lead-​crushing wheel, Kilhope Mine, Weardale.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 116
 List of Figures    xvii

Figure 8.5 La Tortilla Mine, Linares, Spain. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 119
Figure 8.6 Reconstruction of an early tin-​stamping mill from Dartmoor.
The crushed ore from the water-​powered stamps fed directly into
wooden buddles inside the building and then into a stone-​built
buddle outside (image courtesy of Philip Newman). 121
Figure 8.7 East Pool Winding Engine, Cornwall. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 122
Figure 8.8 Arsenic calciner, Botallack, Cornwall. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 123
Figure 8.9 Rørøs Copper-​mining Settlement, Norway.
Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 124
Figure 9.10 Scores Burn, Perthshire, Scotland; a ruined upland farmstead.
North is to the top of the image. Structures A and B may represent a
small farm of pre-​Improvement date; structures C and D represent
an early Improvement-​era farmstead showing several phases of
development but probably only occupied for a few generations
before abandonment. (Survey plan of Scores Burn Farmstead,
Perthshire, Scotland © University of Glasgow). 131
Figure 9.11 An extract from the first edition Ordnance Survey map of the
County of Perthshire, Scotland, 1866. This extract captures the
character of enclosure in Scotland. The lower ground towards the
north (top) and west (left) is characterized by a pattern of rectilinear
enclosures, breaking the land into individual units. The higher
ground towards the south (bottom) remains largely open but has,
by this date, been privatized and turned over to extensive single-​
tenancy grazings. There is one boundary visible: a straight line
running north–​south over the high ground. This is a ‘march dyke’
separating one estate from another. (Extract for Ordnance Survey
first edition Sheet CXVIII, published 1866 © Crown Copyright and
Landmark Information Group Limited (2014). All rights reserved.) 135
Figure 10.1 Map of locations referred to in text. 144
Figure 10.2 Australian workers: a) Afghan cameleer escorts Mrs Walter
Lawrence Silver on the wallaby track c.1904; b) Miners outside
the Garrick Tunnel Bowen Consolidated Coal Mines c.1920; c)
Workers on the Rockhampton to Marlborough railway line c.1920;
d) Timber cutting and an Aboriginal Family c.1870 in Queensland.
All images courtesy of the State Library of Queensland. 146
Figure 11.1 Remains of steam-​powered logging winch in the headwaters
of the Yarra River, Victoria, Australia (P. Davies 2006). 161
Figure 11.2 Bridge on logging tramway, Little Ada River, Victoria, Australia
(P. Davies 2005). 163
xviii   List of Figures

Figure 12.1 Kirk Mill, Chipping, Lancashire. Probably the most complete
surviving Arkwright-​type mill in Lancashire. Built in 1785, it ceased
to be used for spinning in 1866 and was subsequently used for chair-​
making until 2010. The photograph was taken when it was still
being used for chair-​making (R. N. Holden 2006). 177
Figure 12.2 Scholefield Mill, Nelson, Lancashire. A room and power weaving
mill with space for 2000 looms built 1906–​1907. The single-​storey
weaving shed, with north-​light roof, is in the foreground with the
multistorey warehouse and preparation block behind. Weaving at
the mill ceased in 1934. In 1941 it was requisitioned for wartime use
and it continued in use as a Government document store until 2013
(R. N. Holden 2010). 182
Figure 13.1 Scutch mill at Grillagh Bridge, near Upperlands, County Derry,
Northern Ireland (After McCutcheon 1980). 191
Figure 13.2 Late nineteenth-​century beetling engines at Orr’s Linen Mill, near
Benburb, County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. 196
Figure 13.3 Power looms for linen weaving at Orr’s Linen Mill, near Benburb,
County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. 201
Figure 13.4 Carding machine, from Rees’ Cyclopaedia, 1819. 204
Figure 13.5 Slubbing billy, from Rees’ Cyclopaedia, 1819. 205
Figure 14.1 Illustration of whaling from small boats. Published by R. V. Hood,
Hobart, 1848. Reproduced by permission of the W. L. Crowther
Library, Tasmanian Archive and Heritage Office. 214
Figure 14.2 A Whaling Station on the California Coast 1877 (Harpers Weekly: A
Journal of Civilization, Saturday June 23, 1877 [Volume XXL—​No.
1069, page 1]. New York). 216
Figure 15.1 The dominating townscape character of three early eighteenth-​
century glass cones on the River Avon in Bristol, captured in
watercolour painting A View of Glasshouses in St. Philips, by
H. O’Neill c.1821. Braikenridge Collection (M2777), Bristol City
Council. 228
Figure 15.2 The interior of a crown glass works published by William Cooper in
1835 (Reproduced from the Crown Glass Cutter and Glaziers manual). 229
Figure 15.3 Casting plate glass in the 1880s (reproduced from The Popular
Science Monthly, 1889). 231
Figure 15.4 A woodcut of the glass-​making process produced by Georgius
Agricola in the sixteenth century, and published originally in 1556
in his De Re Metallica. Agricola describes an oven-​shaped fritting
furnace, a melting furnace, and an oblong annealing furnace with a
small heath below the floor 233
 List of Figures    xix

Figure 15.5 Reconstructed plan of the Rosedale glass furnace at working level. 234
Figure 15.6 The remains of the Shinrone furnace in County Offaly, Ireland, is
the only upstanding example of a wood-​fired glass furnace known
in Ireland, Britain, or the Lorraine region of France, where the
family that established the furnace originated. 235
Figure 15.7 The glass cone was one of the very few examples of British
manufacturing technology that was mentioned specifically in
Diderot’s acclaimed Encylopedie of the mid-​eighteenth century. 237
Figure 15.8 An engraving of the Percival, Vickers, & Co. Glass Works printed
in 1902, featuring the warehouse and office range along the street
frontage, with the three furnaces to the rear. The lehr extended from
the two furnaces of 1844 to the warehouse, with a materials store
and the cutting and engraving workshops on either side. The later
furnace and associated lehr are shown to the left on the engraving. 239
Figure 15.9 Two of the furnaces excavated at the Percival, Vickers, & Co. Flint
Glass Works in Manchester. The furnace on the left was built in
1844, while that on the right had been added by the 1880s and
incorporated design improvements that included mechanical
stoking of the furnace and an improved air flow that also allowed
some combustion air to be pre-​heated. 240
Figure 15.10 Excavated remains of part of a tank furnace at Greener & Co. Wear
Flint Glassworks in Sunderland, showing two vertical regenerative
chambers and their distinctive brick chequer-​work. Archaeological
excavations frequently encounter the remains of subterranean
regenerators, even when the entire furnace superstructure has been
demolished (© Suave Air Photos). 242
Figure 15.11 Excavated remains of the eighteenth-​century glass cone that was
adapted to house the early regenerative furnaces at Powell & Rickets
Glass Works. 243
Figure 15.12 Plan and section view of a continuous tank furnace from William
Siemens’ patent of 1872 (British Patent 1513, 1872). 244
Figure 15.13 ‘Pomona’ glass with luminous green colouration solidified in the
lower part of a failed crucible from the Percival, Vickers, & Co.
glass works. 247
Figure 15.14 Engraving of glassmakers replacing an open-​top crucible in the
furnace, shown in Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert’s
Encyclopédie of 1751–​1765. 248
Figure 15.15 Catcliffe Glasshouse. 249
xx   List of Figures

Figure 15.16 The importance of the Pilkington No. 9 Tank House is reflected in
its designation as a Grade II* listed building. It lies adjacent to the
Sankey Canal in St Helens, and forms part of the World of Glass
Exhibition Centre. 250
Figure 15.17 The Cannington Shaw No. 7 Bottle-​Making Shop in 2010. 250
Figure 16.1 Frank Coney Dukeries Flour Mill, Worksop, Nottinghamshire.
Demolished 1985 (Photograph A. Patrick 1980). 258
Figure 16.2 J. & B. Stevenson Battersea Bakeries, London, now converted for
residential use (Photograph H. Steyne 2016). 260
Figure 16.3 Gleadells Maltings, Kirton-​in-​Lindsey, Lincolnshire, UK. Built 1897
(Photograph: A. Patrick 1996). 262
Figure 16.4 Pneumatic ABM/​Pauls Malting, Louth, Lincolnshire. In use 1952–​
1998. (Photograph: A. Patrick 1998). 262
Figure 17.1 Nineteenth-​century wrought-​iron rolling mill at Ironbridge.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 278
Figure 17.2 Late nineteenth-​and early twentieth-​century erecting shop at Hick
Hargreaves Engineering Works, Bolton. Copyright Michael Nevell. 279
Figure 17.3 The early twentieth-​century factory floor at Budenberg’s
gauge manufacturing works, Broadheath, Altrincham.
Copyright: Michael Nevell. 280
Figure 17.4 The excavated remains of Ashbury’s Railway Carriage Works,
Gorton, Manchester, in 2012. Reproduced courtesy of
Suave Aerials. 287
Figure 18.1 Coarse earthenware jar with clear lead glaze on interior
and exterior, early twentieth-​century, north Cheshire (UK).
(Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley Sandhills Project). 293
Figure 18.2 Fine redware plate fragments with white clay slip and yellow lead
glaze, early eighteenth-​century, Newton Hall, east Lancashire (UK).
(Photo: Mike Nevell, Centre for Applied Archaeology, Salford
University). 294
Figure 18.3 Contemporary blue hand-​painted, tin-​glazed earthenware
flowerbud vase, Delft Potteries, The Netherlands, 2011.
(Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella). 295
Figure 18.4 Blue transfer-​printed whiteware plate, maker’s mark printed
on base ‘Mortlock’s Oxford Street,’ London retailer, c.1885–​1930
(Godden 1964: 452, mark number 2788). (Photo: Eleanor Conlin
Casella, Alderley Sandhills Project). 297
Figure 18.5 ‘Bartmann’ (from German ‘bearded man’) or ‘Bellarmine’
salt-​glazed stoneware jug, moulded floral medallion on mid-​body,
Cologne, Germany, late sixteenth-​century (Gaimster 1997:
208–​211). (Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella). 300
 List of Figures    xxi

Figure 18.6 Black transfer-​printed stoneware jar, Frank Cooper’s Oxford

Marmalade, maker’s mark stamped on base ‘MALING ENGLAND’,
Sunderland potteries, c.1800–​1890 (Godden 1964: 408–​409, marks
number 2484 and 2486). (Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley
Sandhills Project). 301
Figure 18.7 Blue hand-​painted Chinese export porcelain toiletry bottles,
archaeologically recovered from the wreck of the Sydney Cove
(1797), Preservation Island, Australia, late eighteenth-​century (Nash
2001). (Photo: Mike Nash, Tasmanian Parks & Wildlife Service). 303
Figure 18.8 Overglaze polychrome transfer-​printed porcelain plate, purple
rim, and gold gilt flowers and borders hand-​painted along interior,
Blackpool tourist souvenir, late nineteenth to mid twentieth
century. (Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley Sandhills Project). 304
Figure 18.9 Clay pipe assemblage recovered from excavation of the Hagg
Cottages, Cheshire (UK), late seventeenth to early twentieth
century. (Drawing: Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley
Sandhills Project). 306
Figure 19.1 Company offices at Crossens Car Works, Southport, 1907.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 315
Figure 20.1 Abraham Derby’s 1709 coke iron furnace, Coalbrookdale,
Ironbridge. Copyright Michael Nevell. 327
Figure 20.2: The eighteenth-​to twentieth-​century iron furnace at Backbarrow,
Cumbria. Copyright Michael Nevell. 328
Figure 20.3 The early nineteenth-​century rolling mill building at the Elsecar
Ironworks, West Yorkshire. Copyright: Michael Nevell. 336
Figure 21.1 Silver Bow Creek entering a canyon of slag at the site of the former
Butte Reduction Works in Butte. In the left background is another
portion of the slag impoundment that once contained tailings from
the smelter’s concentrator. The site presently houses construction
equipment being used in the remediation of hazardous materials in
and around Butte. The local government has plans to interpret the
site once remediation is complete (Photograph F. Quivik). 345
Figure 21.2 When built in 1918, the stack at the Washoe smelter in Anaconda
was the world’s tallest chimney. It provided the draft necessary to
draw smelter smoke through Cottrell electrostatic precipitators
located at the base of the stack, where the two tall vertical openings
are visible. The stack discharged smoke from the smelter until it
closed in 1980. Although the rest of the smelter was demolished
shortly thereafter, citizens of Anaconda advocated for preservation
of the stack. ARCO agreed to let it stand and donated it and its
hilltop site to the State of Montana. The stack now stands as a state
monument (Photograph F. Quivik). 348
xxii   List of Figures

Figure 22.1 Diagrammatic representation of reducing summit heights and

raising valley heights (After Law 1855). 360
Figure 22.2 Fleet Valley relief map (After Law 1855). 361
Figure 22.3 Summit height reduction at Cadshaw, c.1800 (After Timmins 2003). 363
Figure 22.4 Longitudinal profiles of old and new sections of road at Cadshaw
(After Timmins 2003). 364
Figure 23.1 The Rocket—​an experimental locomotive design that won the
Rainhill Trials for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1829.
Copyright Michael Nevell. 374
Figure 23.2 St Pancras Station and hotel, London, after restoration. Copyright
Michael Nevell. 383
Figure 24.1 Foxton lock flight, Leicestershire (Photograph Canal & River Trust). 396
Figure 24.2 Turnover bridge at the junction of the Macclesfield and Peak Forest
Canals at Marple, Greater Manchester (Photograph H. Steyne 2017). 398
Figure 24.3 Marple Aqueduct carrying the Peak Forest canal over the Goyt
Valley, Greater Manchester (Photograph H. Steyne 2017). 398
Figure 25.1 The Royal Albert Dock, Liverpool, designed by Jessie Hartley and
Philip Hardwick and opened in 1846. Copyright Michael Nevell, 409
Figure 25.2 The sugar warehouses of 1802, West India Dock, Isle of Dogs,
London, now converted to the Museum of London Docklands,
Copyright Michael Nevell. 414
Figure 26.1 The 1929 Cable House, Porthcurno which was the landing point
for fourteen undersea international telegraph cables. This building
is now preserved as part of the Telegraph Museum, Porthcurno
(Photograph: N. Linge). 431
Figure 26.2 The ‘T’-​shaped antenna array forming the Tetney Beam Station
near Grimsby which provided a communications link between the
UK and Australia and India from 1927. (Courtesy of BT Heritage), 433
Figure 26.3 The 26 metre (85 ft) diameter ‘Arthur’ satellite dish built at
Goonhilly Downs to provide communications with the world’s first
telecommunications satellite, Telstar. (Courtesy of BT Heritage). 438
Figure 28.1 A pearlware plate with the blue transfer-​printed Willow Pattern
print applied: from Sydenham Brewery (site code SYB92: context
[27]) (photograph Andy Chopping: copyright MOLA). 458
Figure 28.2 The Popular Service Suits All Tastes, 1913. Double Royal standard
poster format, W 625mm x H 1010mm. Printed by Johnson, Riddle
& Company Ltd, Published by Underground Electric Railway
Company Ltd. London Transport Museum Number: 1983/​4/​370
(photograph Emily Aleev-​Snow, 2013). 470
 List of Figures    xxiii

Figure 29.1 Stoneware porter bottle, J. Bourne Potteries, Derbyshire (UK),

1833–​1850s (Photo: Eleanor Conlin Casella,
Alderley Sandhills Project). 474
Figure 29.2 Examples of hole in cap can lids: a) round; and b) rectangular
(Photos: S. Bolton). 477
Figure 29.3 Groves & Whitnall green glass mineral water bottle, Salford (UK),
1900–​1930s. Drawing shows diagnostic markings, embossing, and
finishes. (Drawing by Eleanor Conlin Casella, Alderley Sandhills
Project). 483
Figure 30.1 Wedgwood and Byerley showroom, York Street, St James’s Square,
London as depicted in Rudolph Ackermann’s The Repository of
Arts, Literature, Commerce, Manufactures, Fashions and Politics. As
Blaszczyk (2000: 9) notes, showrooms such as these were a keystone
of Wedgwood’s marketing strategy. (Ackermann 1809: Plate 7;
Source: Internet Archive, https://​archive.org). 492
Figure 30.2 Interior of Burlington Arcade, London, in the 1840s. (Dugdale 1845;
Source: author’s collection). 493
Figure 30.3 The examiners’ room, third floor, Montgomery Ward & Co. as
depicted on the back of their 64-​page 1878 catalogue. The caption
cheerily notes: ‘Should any errors occur in this department, you
may blame the gentleman with blonde mustache [sic] at Examiners’
counter’ (Montgomery Ward & Co. 1878, back; Source: author’s
collection). 494
Figure 32.1 Ground floor and first floor plan of the South London Wesleyan
Mission in Bermondsey, London. (Source: Wesleyan Chapel
Committee Annual Report, 1899). 537
Figure 32.2 Exterior image of the former YMCA building, Peter Street,
Manchester. (Source: Author). 539
Figure 33.1 Extract from a burial inspection report for the establishment of a
new burial ground under the Burial Acts of 1852 & 1853 at Thirsk,
North Yorkshire in 1878. Copyright: North Yorkshire County
Record Office 548
Figure 34.1 The Angel of Purity stained glass window at Victoria Baths,
Manchester (Photo: G. Marino). 564
Figure 34.2 Sharston pool, Wythenshawe, Manchester (Photo: G. Marino). 567
Figure 35.1 Bessbrook College Square, the Institute (Turk 2011, Figure A1.11). 575
Figure 35.2 Distribution of Mechanics’ Institutes and sister societies in Britain
and Ireland in the nineteenth century. (Compiled from lists and
references in various sources including Walker 2010, Stockdale
1993, Roderick 1991 and Phythian Tylecote 1957). 578
xxiv   List of Figures

Figure 35.3 Sion Mills Institute (Turk 2011: 279). 581

Figure 36.1 During the 19th Century, the English urban public house adopted a
distinctive external style, typically with large ground-floor windows
advertising the owning brewery’s products, and with the ground
floor highlighted by tiling (as here at the Lower Angel, Buttermarket
Street, Warrington, Cheshire), or other decorative finishes 590
Figure 36.2 The distinctive external styles for 19th century English urban public
houses included ground floor wooden panelling as here at the
Oliver Twist, North Market Road, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. 590
Figure 36.3 During the period between about 1880 and 1905, brewers rushed
to buy up public houses, particularly in urban areas, frequently
registering as limited companies and issuing shares in order to
raise funds to do so. During this period, the competition for trade
led to the appearance of magnificent new pub buildings in major
cities such as London, Liverpool and Birmingham, decorated with
fancy tilework, engraved mirrors, polished woodwork and stained
glass. The Bartons Arms, High Street, Newtown, Birmingham,
constructed in 1901 to the designs of James and Lister Lea, is one of
the most impressive surviving examples. 594
Figure 37.1 The Temperance Hall at Laceby, Lincolnshire, dating from 1872,
is typical of the halls erected in many small towns and villages
in England during the mid-19th Century. The influence of the
Nonconformist chapel is clear. 603
Figure 37.2 The Bee-Hive, Streatham, Greater London, was built in 1879 to the
designs of the architect Ernest George. It was one of many hundreds
of cocoa and coffee taverns which appeared from the late 1870s
onwards, intended to compete directly with the public house in
terms of design and facilities – everything but the sale of alcohol. 609
Figure 37.3 The Railway Cocoa Rooms, the Chester Cocoa Tavern Company’s
premises near Chester railway station. Dating from c1880, it was
one of many hundreds of cocoa and coffee taverns which appeared
from the late 1870s onwards, intended to compete directly with the
public house in terms of design and facilities – everything but the
sale of alcohol. 610
Figure 37.4 Billiards was an extremely popular pastime in late Victorian and
Edwardian England, and was widely played in public houses and
licensed billiard halls. Temperance Billiard Halls Ltd was one of
a number of companies which provided a teetotal alternative to
the licenced halls. The Cheetham Hill Temperance Billiard Hall,
Manchester, is typical of the distinctive buildings erected around
Manchester and in south London to the designs of its architect,
Norman Evans. 613
 List of Figures    xxv

Figure 37.5 Drinking fountains were an obvious way for the Temperance
movement to provide an alternative to drinking alcohol in the
public house. This example was erected in 1900 at Malvern Link,
Worcestershire, paid for by the local branch of the British Women’s
Temperance Association. 614
Figure 37.6 Memorials to activists helped to spread the Temperance message.
Preston held a special place in the story of the movement, and the
Preston Teetotal Monument , erected in 1859 in the newly laid out
Preston General Cemetery was intended to act as the focal point for
the commemoration of the movement, its founders and activists. 616
Figure 38.1 Ground plan of Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, showing strict spatial
boundaries. (Redrawn from Weale 1854 by K. Fennelly). 623
Figure 38.2 Ground plan of south wing of St Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
showing execution of double-​ward plan. Redrawn from Burdett
1893. Image by K. Fennelly. 625
Figure 38.3 William Blackburn’s influential designs for reformed prison
architecture. (Redrawn from Brodie et al. 2002 by E. C. Casella). 629
Figure 38.4 Cell Block ‘A,’ Alcatraz Island Federal Penitentiary, California.
Library of Congress, Historic American Buildings Survey—​
California (HABS CAL, 38-​ALCA, 1-​A-​17). 631
Figure 39.1 The Royal Arsenal Woolwich, early twentieth century, large gun-​
boring shop (Author’s collection). 638
Figure 39.2 Rolls-​Royce, Derby, assembly of a Tyne turbo prop-​jet engine in
1961 in an open, steel-​framed factory shop that was probably built
during the 1930s (Image courtesy of Rolls-​Royce). 646
Figure 40.1 Painted fence post near the Green Gate peace camp, Greenham
Common. (Photo: John Schofield). 654
Figure 40.2 Fence surrounding the GAMA site, and also now denoting the
boundary of the Scheduled Monument. (Photo: John Schofield). 655
Figure 40.3 Spiral arrangement, one of many spirals made of rocks and pebbles
at Peace Camp, Nevada. (Photo: Harold Drollinger). 658
Figure 40.4 Ceramic mask in situ inside the outer margins of a stone circle at
Peace Camp, Nevada. (Photo: Harold Drollinger). 659
Figure 41.1 Plan of the town Oulu (in Swedish Uleåborg) drawn by Henrik
Holmbom at the end of the eighteenth century (1784–​1786).
Pikisaari Island is shown in the centre of the map marked with letter
‘N’. Letter ‘a’ stands for the Pikisaari pitch mill area which borders
the sea. Courtesy National Archives of Sweden (RA), (Lantmät. lev.
1892 nr. 46 [kartavd. m. form.]. 666
xxvi   List of Figures

Figure 41.2 The fire insurance map illustrating the Pikisaari pitch mill area
in 1834. The pitch mill (Nos. 1–​2) and decks (Nos. 21–22). Deck
No. 22 was situated on the shoreline. Housing for mill workers
and their families was built beside the mill as well as warehouses,
workshops (Nos. 4–12, 14–20), and cowshed (No. 13). Buildings
marked with letters are outside the pitch mill area, except house ‘O’
and warehouse ‘N’ which possibly had a private owner. Keskinäisen
Vakuutusyhtiö Tarmon arkisto/​The Mutual Insurance Company
Tarmo’s archives. Courtesy National Archives of Finland (KA). 668
Figure 41.3 Excavation map of a worker’s house and adjacent household
midden in the Pikisaari pitch mill area. Drawing: T. Ikonen/​
alterations Marika Hyttinen. Courtesy Finland’s National Board of
Antiquities (Helsinki). 673
Figure 41.4 A doll’s head and a horse-​shaped figure. Photo by Marika Hyttinen. 675
Figure 42.1 Miner-​built housing in southern Colorado, 1900–​1920. Photo by
Otis Altman, courtesy of History Colorado CHS.A799. 684
Figure 42.2 CF&I company housing at Berwind, Colorado. Photo courtesy of
Steelworks Museum, Bessemer Historical Society, Pueblo, Colorado. 685
Figure 42.3 Berwind House #249 first prize winner in 1924. Photo courtesy of
Steelworks Museum, Bessemer Historical Society, Pueblo, Colorado. 689
Figure 42.4 Portrait of children, women, and men, at the UMW camp for coal
miners on strike against CF&I in Ludlow, Las Animas County,
Colorado. Courtesy of Denver Public Library, Western History
Collection, X-​60458. 692
Figure 42.5 Ludlow Tent Colony map, courtesy of Colorado Coalfield War
Archaeology Project. 694
Figure 43.1 Reconstructed rectangular buddle for lead-​dressing at Killhope,
Country Durham. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 705
Figure 43.2 Derby railway roundhouse conversion. Copyright Marilyn Palmer. 711
Figure 43.3 Excavations at Somertown Goods Yard, London, by MOLA.
Copyright MOLA. 712
 List of Contributors

Samantha Bolton is an independent archaeologist

Eleanor Conlin Casella is a Professor in the School of Humanities at the University of
Tasmania
Wayne Cocroft is a Senior Archaeological Investigator at Historic England
Paul Collins is an independent archaeologist
Angela Connelly is a Senior Lecturer at Manchester School of Architecture
Penny Crook is a Research Fellow in the Department of History and Archaeology,
Macquarie University, Sydney
Nigel Crowe is the former Head of Heritage at the Canal and River Trust, UK
Vicky Cummings is Professor of Neolithic Archaeology at the University of Central
Lancashire
Chris Dalglish is a Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Glasgow
Andrew Davison is an Inspector of Ancient Monuments at Historic England
Katherine Fennelly is a Teaching Associate in Cultural Heritage Management at the
University of Sheffield
Martin Gibbs is a Professor in the Department of Archaeology, University of New
England
David Gwyn is an independent archaeologist, historian, and heritage consultant
Roger N. Holden is an independent archaeologist
Marika Hyttinen is a historical archaeologist who recently defended her PhD disserta-
tion at the University of Oulu on industrial archaeology.
Nigel Jeffries is a medieval and post-​medieval pottery, glass, and clay tobacco pipe spe-
cialist at the Museum of London Archaeology
Titta Kallio-​Seppä is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Oulu, Finland
Karin Larkin is Assistant Professor and Curator for the Department of Anthropology
at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs
xxviii   List of contributors

Susan Lawrence is a Professor of Archaeology at La Trobe University, Melbourne

Nigel Linge is Professor of Telecommunications at the University of Salford
Gordon Marino is an independent archaeologist
Ian Miller is Senior Planning Archaeologist at the Greater Manchester Archaeological
Advisory Service, the University of Salford
Michael Nevell is the Industrial Heritage Support Officer for England and Honorary
Research Fellow in Industrial Archaeology at the University of Salford
Richard Newman is Principal Archaeologist at Humber Archaeology Partnership
Marilyn Palmer is Emeritus Professor of Industrial Archaeology at the University of
Leicester
Alistair Paterson is a Professor in the School of Social Sciences at the University of
Western Australia
Amber Patrick is a Council Member and Planning Casework Officer with the
Association for Industrial Archaeology
Frederic L Quivik is a Professor of History (retired) at Michigan Technological
University
David Robinson is a Reader in the School of Natural Sciences at the University of
Central Lancashire
Julie Rugg is Senior Research Fellow in the Centre for Housing Policy at the University
of York
Colin Rynne is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Archaeology at University
College Cork
John Schofield is Professor of Archaeology and Cultural Heritage at the University
of York
Paul A. Shackel is a Professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of
Maryland
Hanna Steyne is a PhD research student at the University of Manchester
Geoff Timmins is Emeritus Professor at the University of Central Lancashire
Maria Turk is an independent archaeologist, researcher and heritage consultant
Ian West is a Visiting Scientist at Southampton University
Sean Winter is an Adjunct Lecturer in Archaeology, University of Western Australia /
Archaeologist, Snappy Gum Heritage.
 Chapter 1

Introdu c t i on
The Past Made Public

Paul A. Shackel

Introduction

Where heritage and archaeology meet at industrial sites, we find the excitement of our
discipline. This intersection is also where we find some troubling aspects of how nations
and communities use their past and develop their heritage discourse. ‘Heritage’ is dif-
ficult to define because it means different things to different people; the keepers of any
particular ‘heritage’ are likely to have their own definitions.
Peter Howard’s (2003) definition of heritage is a good starting point. In Heritage:
Management, Interpretation, Identity, he begins by stating: ‘Heritage is taken to include
everything that people want to save, from clean air to Morris dancing, including ma-
terial culture and nature. It is all pervasive, and concerns everyone. Much of it divides
people’ (2003: 1). While heritage can be divisive through the exclusion of peoples’ stories,
it is also true that heritage can unite people. It is this tension—​between remembering
and forgetting—​that makes the preservation of industrial and labour sites an important
issue to discuss.
Much of this volume is about the accomplishments of industrial archaeologists
bringing the industrial and engineering feats of the past to a larger audience. This
archaeology succeeded only because of the hard work by professionals in extraordinary
conditions.
We treat many of these industrial heritage sites as monuments to industrial
achievement, as remnants of the past, and of an era of industrial achievement that is
the foundation for the way we live today and yet, at the same time, foreign to the way
we live in the present day. What is disturbing to the author, is that while we remember
these places for industrial achievements, we often neglect to commemorate the people
and labour associated with these places. James Green (2000: 151) notes that, for people
who worked in early industrial places, unorganized labour often meant an early death,
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Menoun. Bouc.
Messugo. Ciste.
Morven. Genévrier.
N
Nasquo. Inule visqueuse
(pl.).
Niero. Puce.
O
Oc. Oui.
Oouruou. Maquereau.
Ourami. Faucille.
P
Pantai. Rêve.
Pechier. Cruche (petite).
Peiroou. Chaudron.
Poutargo. Caviar.
R
Rabas. Blaireau.
Raï. Troupeau de
porcs.
Roumias. Ronce.
Ruelo. Coquelicot.
S
Sartan. Poêle à frire.
Siagno. Massette d’eau.
Sivado. Avoine.
Seioun. Pot à lait.
T
Tap. Bouchon.
Tanquo. Barre.
Tapet. Genre
d’escargot.
Tarnaou. 1/8 d’once.
Tesouiros. Ciseaux.
 Tigno. Engelure.
Toouteno. Calmar.
Touaro. Chenille.
Toupin. Pot à feu.
Trufar (se). Se moquer.
Trui. Aire pour les
raisins.
Tuy. If.
V
Vabre. Ruisseau.
Vano. Couverture.
Vesou. Voir venir.
Vibre. Castor.
Vichou. Roitelet.

Nous avons voulu seulement, dans une recherche aussi obscure

que celle des mots ou des expressions de l’antique langue
ligurienne, indiquer les analogies existant entre le Provençal actuel
et la langue des premiers habitants de la Gaule cisalpine. Une
démonstration plus étendue, un vocabulaire plus complet pourraient
faire l’objet d’un ouvrage spécial, mais ne rentrent pas dans le cadre
de celui-ci.
Dans le rapide exposé que nous donnons ci-dessus, on a dû
remarquer que les mots provençaux qui sont probablement dérivés
du Ligurien sont:
1o Des noms géographiques, tels que: Gour, lac; Bachas, mare;
Baou, escarpement, d’où viennent Baoumo, grotte, et Baouco, nom
générique donné aux graminées et aux herbes qui croissent sur les
rochers et sur les bords des sentiers; Coumbo, vallon, creux; Craou,
plaine caillouteuse; Drayoou, sentier; Esqueirié, pente pierreuse;
Lubac, côté d’une montagne exposé au nord; etc...;
2o Des noms de divers végétaux et animaux indigènes; tels sont:
Agast, érable; Arno, teigne; Darbou, mulot; Faouvi, sumac, etc...;
3o Des termes relatifs à la vie pastorale, qui était celle des
anciens Liguriens, comme, par exemple, Tapi ou Tapio, hutte;
Escaboua, troupeau de chèvres; Ménoun, bouc; Raï, troupeau de
cochons; Cambis, collier pour suspendre les sonnettes du bétail,
etc...;
4o Quelques termes d’agriculture comme: Eyssarry et
Eyssarryen, paniers pour mettre sur les bêtes de somme, ou bât;
Daï ou Dayo, faux; Magaou, pioche; Mas, ferme; Ourami, faucille,
etc...;
5o Enfin, des mots divers qui, par suite de circonstances
particulières ou d’une longue habitude, ont résisté à l’invasion des
langues étrangères. Ces mots sont encore assez nombreux et
présentent des marques d’origine qui ne permettent pas de les
confondre avec ceux qui ont été transmis au Provençal par le Grec,
le Latin et les langues gothiques.
Une étude approfondie de ce qui reste du Ligurien pourrait
conduire à attribuer aux racines de cette langue une certaine
parenté avec les langues sémitiques. Mais, comme nous l’avons dit
précédemment, une telle étude, trop longue pour trouver sa place
dans cet ouvrage, devrait, pour être complète, faire l’objet d’un
volume spécial. Qu’il nous suffise ici de constater qu’il y a eu une
langue Ligurienne plus ou moins différente des idiomes parlés dans
les Gaules, et que cette langue, que l’on croit morte, n’a pas
totalement disparu, puisqu’elle a laissé des traces dans le
Provençal.
Nous ne pensons pas que le Ligurien se soit répandu sous la
même forme dans toute la Provence; nous penchons à croire, au
contraire, qu’il a dû se diviser en autant de dialectes qu’il y avait de
nations différentes dans ce pays et dans la Ligurie proprement dite.
Aucun fait connu ne peut nous porter à supposer que ces dialectes
fussent écrits. Les annales des Ligures, leurs lois, les préceptes de
leur religion se conservaient chez eux par la tradition, comme chez
les Gaulois. Plus tard seulement, grâce à l’influence que les
Marseillais exercèrent sur eux, et même sur les Gaulois, par l’effet
du commerce, ils connurent et adoptèrent l’alphabet grec. A partir de
ce moment, les dialectes liguriens perdirent de leur importance, ils
ne furent même plus employés dans les marchés; la langue
Grecque, jusqu’à la conquête romaine, domina toute la Gaule
méridionale, et le Ligurien ne fut plus usité que dans l’intérieur, au
fond des campagnes. C’est ainsi que nous devons aux paysans la
conservation et la tradition des derniers vestiges de la langue d’où
naquit le Provençal.

LANGUE GRECQUE

L’arrivée de Prothis et de ses compagnons au pays des Ligures

ne devait pas tarder à exercer une influence sur le langage de ces
derniers. En effet, les Phocéens, qui parlaient le dialecte ionique,
l’introduisirent rapidement dans toutes les possessions
marseillaises. Comme nous l’avons dit plus haut, la langue Grecque
prit bientôt le dessus dans la Provence et dans les Gaules. Elle y fit
même de tels progrès et elle s’y parlait si purement que Marseille,
surtout ville de commerce, n’en devint pas moins illustre par le culte
des Arts et des Lettres, par ses écoles renommées, où les familles
patriciennes de Rome faisaient instruire leurs enfants. L’étude de la
langue Grecque y était l’objet d’un tel soin qu’elle contribua à mériter
à notre cité le titre d’Athènes des Gaules.
 Les Phocéens à Marseille: Fiançailles de Gyptis.

L’extension de la langue Grecque et sa prédominance dans la

Gaule et la Ligurie pourraient faire conjecturer qu’elle se mêla aussi
aux idiomes vulgaires des différents pays; il n’en fut rien, ou, du
moins, elle ne les altéra que d’une manière insensible. On en a
donné comme raison qu’introduite par l’usage et le commerce, elle
ne s’était guère étendue au-delà des limites du territoire de
Marseille, et fut bientôt remplacée par le Latin, imposé par la
conquête dans tous les pays placés sous la souveraineté de Rome.
A cet état de choses, seule, la République Marseillaise fit
exception. Ayant su conserver ses franchises et une quasi-
indépendance, elle conserva aussi le Grec comme langue officielle,
aussi bien dans les actes publics et privés que dans les rapports
journaliers des habitants; il en fut ainsi jusqu’au commencement du
IVe siècle. A cette époque, par l’influence de la religion chrétienne,
qui domina enfin dans cette République et établit à Marseille un
siège épiscopal, le Latin y devint la langue écrite, selon l’usage de la
Cour de Rome. Mais il est bon d’ajouter que le Grec fut encore
pendant longtemps le langage parlé. Il s’altéra peu à peu par la suite
et finit par fusionner avec le Provençal, sur lequel il marqua son
empreinte, soit dans les mots, soit dans la prononciation. Cette
remarque suffit à expliquer comment le Roman de la Gaule
méridionale, dans la partie spéciale à Marseille et à son territoire, est
plus riche en mots grecs que le Roman parlé en dehors de cette
province.
Nous donnons ci-après un tableau des mots grecs qui
s’incorporèrent au Provençal; nous en avons trouvé la nomenclature
dans l’ouvrage de M. Martin fils, de l’Académie de Marseille[49]:
PROVENÇAL GREC FRANÇAIS

A
Agi. Ragion. Grain de raisin.
Agreno. Agrinos. Prune sauvage.
Alabre. Labros. Glouton, vorace.
Alapedo. Lepas. Patelle (coquille).
Androun. Andron. Ruelle, recoin.
Anissar. Anypsoo. Hérisser.
Aqui. Anchi. Là, auprès.
Aragnoou. Araias. Sorte de filet.
Argui. Ergasia. Cabestan, treuil.
Artoun. Artos. Pain.
B
Barri. Baris. Rempart.
Bellugo. Balleka. Étincelle.
Blestoun. Blaisotes. Matteau de chanvre.
Bogo. Bokes. Bogue (poisson).
Boucaou. Baukalion. Bocal.
Boufaire. Bouphagos. Vorace, gros mangeur.
Bregin. Brochis. Sorte de filet.
Bourrido. Boridia. Soupe de poisson à
l’ail.
Bourriquo. Brichon. Ane.
Brousso. Brosis. Lait caillé, recuite,
nourriture.
Bugado. Bouchanda. Lessive.
C
Cabesso. Kebe. Tête.
Cabudaou. Kebe-oidos. Peloton.
Calar. Chaloo. Jeter.
Calen. Chalumma. Filet et lampe.
Calignar. Calindeo. Courtiser.
Calignaou. Chalinos. Bûche de bois.
Canasto. Canastron. Corbeille.
Canisso. Canis. Claie.
Cantoun. Canthos. Coin.
Capelan. Apellakes. Prêtre.
Carambot. Carabos. Crevette.
Caro. Kara. Face.
Chilet. Cheiloter. Sifflet de chasse.
Cliquetos. Kykleo. Crécelle.
Corpou. Colpos. Fond de filet.
Coucoumar. Coucoumion. Vase, pot allant au feu.
Coufo. Kouphos. Corbeille, cabas.
Courous. Koreia. Joli, beau, riche.
D
Dardailloun. Dardaillon. Ardillon.
Destraou. Dextralion. Hache.
E
Eissaougo. Eisago. Sorte de filet.
Escaoumé. Skalmos. Cheville pour rames.
Escaravas. Ascalabos. Escarbot (insecte).
Esco. Yska. Amadou.
Esparmar. Sphalmeo. Enduire de suif.
Esparrar. Sparasso. Glisser fortement.
Esquifou. Scafé. Petite barque.
Estelos. Stoloi. Éclats de bois.
F
Fanaou. Phanos. Fanal.
Fanons. Phaneros. Magnifique.
Fenat. Phenax. Mauvais sujet.
Fregir. Phrygo. Frire.
G
Gabi. Gabis. Hune.
Gamato. Gabathon. Auge de maçon.
Ganchou. Kampsos. Croc.
Gangui. Gangami. Sorte de filet.
Gaudre. Charadra. Torrent.
Gaoutos. Gnathos. Joues.
Gaougno. Chaunos. Ouïes de poissons.
Gazan. Gazaa. Gain, richesse.
Gibous. Ybos. Bossu.
Gip. Gypso. Plâtre, gypse.
Gobi. Kobios. Goujon.
Goï. Guios. Boiteux.
Gouargo. Gorgyra. Egout, canal.
J
Jarret. Jarax. Jarret (poisson).
Jimou. Ecmaïos. Mou, humide.
L
Labech. Libonotos. Vent du sud.
Lan. Lampsis. Éclair.
Lar. Laros. Vent favorable.
Leou. Ileos. Poumons.
M
Madrago. Mandraago. Madrague.
Magagno. Manganon. Fourberie, ruse.
Mastro. Mactra. Pétrin.
Matou. Mataios. Fou, niais.
Mouledo. Muelodès. Mie de pain.
Moustacho. Mustax. Moustache.
N
Nanet. Nanos. Nain.
Nougat. Nogala. Nougat.
O
Onidê. Ochetos. Tas de pierres.
Oustaou. Estia. Maison.
P
Pantou. Pantoios. Déguenillé.
Pedas. Paidicos. Maillots.
Pouaïré. Poterion. Seau.
Priou. Prioo. Présure.
Prueisso. Prulées. Foule.
R
Ragagé. Ragas. Gouffre, abîme.
Raquo. Rax. Marc de raisins.
Rajar. Razo. Couler.
Raï et Riou. Reon. Ruisseau.
Rusquo. Rous. Tan.
S
Sardino. Sardinous. Sardine (poisson).
Saoumo. Sagmarios. Anesse.
Sengounaïré. Sagouron. Sorte de filet.
Sepoun. Snepon. Billot.
Soulomi. Ialemos. Chant languissant.
Souquet. Sicoma. Bonne mesure.
Strancinar. Strangizo. Se consumer.
Supioun. Sypidion. Petite sèche.
T
Tarabusteri. Tarabéos. Importun.
Teso. Tasis. Allée d’arbrisseaux.
Tian. Thyeia. Grand vase de terre.
Tiblo. Tryblion. Truelle.
Tinéou. Thynnae. Bas-fonds.
Thité. Thytthos. Poupée.
Toouteno. Teuthis. Calmer.
 Toumo. Tomos. Fromage mou.
Tron. Bronte. Tonnerre.
U
Ueil. Illos. Œil.
Uillaou. Illaino. Éclair.
Z
Zoubar. Sobeo. Frapper.

Des recherches plus longues auraient fait découvrir un nombre

plus considérable de mots provençaux tirés du Grec; ce petit
vocabulaire est cependant suffisant pour prouver la filiation de la
langue Provençale avec la langue Grecque. On pourrait trouver une
nouvelle preuve de cette filiation dans des exclamations populaires
encore en usage de nos jours à Marseille. Par exemple, le mot Aou,
pour appeler, et Arri, qui répond à Arry, exciter. Une expression dont
les matelots provençaux se servent encore dans un effort commun
au travail: Ala soya lesso, n’est qu’une variante de Alla soi alexo, qui
servait aux mariniers grecs pour régler leurs mouvements dans une
manœuvre d’ensemble. Enfin, Nono Nono, chant des nourrices pour
endormir les enfants, répond au mot grec Nonnion Nonnion, auquel
Hesychius donnait la même signification.

LANGUE LATINE

La conquête des Gaules par les Romains devait avoir sur la

langue Grecque, parlée par les habitants des côtes de la
Méditerranée, une influence beaucoup plus considérable que celle
qu’exerça le Grec sur le Ligurien.
Ce résultat fut dû en grande partie à l’obligation absolue,
imposée par les Romains, de rédiger, sous peine d’amende, tous les
actes publics en Latin. Il fut même enjoint aux magistrats de ne
promulguer leurs décrets qu’en cette langue. Toutes les Gaules
durent se soumettre à la loi du vainqueur. En Provence, si l’on en
juge par les relations historiques, le Latin s’implanta d’une façon si
puissante qu’au point de vue linguistique cette province ne se
distingua plus de l’Italie.
Cependant, l’attitude de Marseille, devant l’abaissement général
et la soumission universelle aux lois imposées par les vainqueurs,
fut, comme nous l’avons dit précédemment, exceptionnelle. Elle
continua à se servir de la langue Grecque dans les actes publics, et
cette particularité mérite d’autant plus d’être remarquée qu’il n’y a
pas d’exemple d’un pareil privilège dans toute l’étendue de la
domination romaine.
Cette marque d’estime concédée à la seule République
Marseillaise fut due à l’indépendance qu’elle sut conserver sous la
protection des Romains. Ce fut aussi pour elle la cause principale de
la célébrité dont jouirent ses écoles à cette époque. On y enseignait
en effet trois langues: le Grec, le Latin et le Gaulois, avec une
excellente méthode et une pureté qui avaient valu à Marseille la
préférence de l’aristocratie romaine et des classes aisées, pour
l’éducation de leurs enfants.
La carrière du barreau et celle des lettres bénéficièrent
également de l’enseignement supérieur de ces écoles. Des noms
illustres vinrent leur donner un éclat particulier, car les premiers
emplois et les plus grands honneurs étaient réservés à ceux qui
savaient le Latin. C’est ainsi que l’on vit l’Espagne, la Gaule
transalpine et la Gaule cisalpine fournir au Sénat, au Gouvernement,
aux armées, à la littérature, des personnages de marque dont les
talents contribuèrent à soutenir la gloire et la renommée de la patrie
adoptive.
Parmi ceux dont les noms sont arrivés jusqu’à nous, on peut citer
pour l’Espagne les deux Sénèque, Lucain, Pomponius Mela,
Columelle, Martial, Silvius Italicus, Hygin, etc... Quant à nous, nous
ne pouvons oublier que Cornélius Gallus, Trogue-Pompée, Pétrone,
Lactance, Ausone, etc..., naquirent dans les Gaules.
Grâce à la célébrité des écoles de Marseille, qui maintinrent
assez longtemps le niveau général des études à la hauteur de leur
réputation, la décadence du Latin fut plus lente en Provence
qu’ailleurs. Il laissa des traces profondes dans les idiomes anciens
encore parlés par le peuple, et il faut arriver à l’invasion des
Barbares[50] pour marquer la première période de sa décadence.
Les divers idiomes de ces peuples, en se mêlant au Latin,
l’altérèrent au point qu’ils donnèrent naissance à une nouvelle
langue, dont le nom devait rappeler l’origine: le Roman, c’est-à-dire
langue tirée du Romain ou Latin.
Pour bien caractériser l’influence du Latin sur le Roman, qui
devint la souche de nos langues modernes, et sur le Provençal,
nous donnons ci-après, comme nous l’avons fait pour le Ligurien et
le Grec, un vocabulaire résumé des mots latins conservés, ou à peu
près, dans le Provençal de nos jours:

VOCABULAIRE DE QUELQUES MOTS LATINS CONSERVÉS DANS LE

PROVENÇAL[51]

Substantifs

PROVENÇAL LATIN FRANÇAIS

A
Aigarden. Aqua ardens. Eau-de-vie.
Aigo. Aqua. Eau.
Aillet. Allium. Ail.
Api. Apium. Céleri.
Areno. Arena. Sable.
Arro. Arrha. Arrhes.
B
Babi. Bubo. Hibou.
Berbi. Bubo. Dartre.
C
Cadeno. Catena. Chaîne.
Carn. Carnis. Chair, viande.
Cavillaire. Cavillator. Chicaneur.
Cebo. Cepa. Oignon.
Claou. Clavis. Clef.
Conco. Concha. Pile, évier.
Couniou. Cuniculus. Lapin.
 D
Delubre. Delubrum. Temple.
Di. Dies. Jour.
E
Erbetto. Beta. Poirée.
Escalo. Scala. Échelle.
Escoubo. Scopæ. Balai.
Escoumesso. Res commissa. Chose jugée.
Espigo. Spica. Epi.
F
Fabre. Faber. Ouvrier.
Febre. Febris. Fièvre.
Fusto. Fustis. Bâton.
G
Gaou. Gaudium. Joie.
Grame. Gramen. Chiendent.
J
Jas. Jacere (de). Étable.
Jouven. Juventus. Jeunesse.
Judici. Judicium. Jugement.
Judiou. Judæus. Juif.
L
Lach. Lac. Lait.
Lagramo. Lacryma. Larme.
Lambrusco. Labrusca. Vigne sauvage.
Lequo. Laqueus. Piège.
M
Merso. Mersis. Marchandises.
Mouloun. Moles. Amas.
N
Neblo. Nebula. Brouillard.
O
Ortigo. Urtica. Ortie.
Ouardi. Hordeum. Orge.
Oulo. Olla. Marmite.
Ourfaneou. Orfanus. Orphelin.
P
Pacan. Paganus. Rustre, paysan.
Pacho. Pactio. Accord.
Palu. Palus. Marais.
Q
Quoua. Cauda. Queue.
R
Rabi. Rabies. Rage.
Rego. Riga. Raie.
Ribo. Ripa. Rive.
S
Salut. Salus. Santé.
Saou. Sal. Sel.
Saouvi. Salvia. Sauge.
Sempre. Semper. Toujours.
Seau. Sebum. Suif.
Solco. Solcus. Sillon.
Suve. Suber. Liège.
T
Tavan. Tabanus. Taon.
Telo. Tela. Toile.
Traou. Trabes. Poutre.
Tremour. Tremor. Tremblement.
Tourdre. Turdus. Grive.
U
Ubri. Ebrius. Ivre.

V
Vacco. Vacca. Vache.
Vedeou. Vitulus. Veau.
Vendumi. Vindemia. Vendange.
 Vespo. Vespa. Guêpe.
Vespre. Vesper. Soir.
Vurto. Vultus. Visage.

Cette première partie du petit vocabulaire, consacrée

spécialement aux substantifs latins, fournit la remarque que les
noms des jours de la semaine se rapprochent plus du Latin dans le
Provençal que dans le Français:
Dilun. Dies Lunæ. Lundi.
Dimar. Dies Martis. Mardi.
Dimecre. Dies Mercurii. Mercredi.
Dijoou. Dies Jovis. Jeudi.
Divendre. Dies Veneris. Vendredi, etc.

Beaucoup de mots provençaux, que l’on croit d’origine latine, ne

sont que des mots liguriens, celtiques, slaves, etc., qui ont fourni des
racines au Latin.
Le Français et le Provençal n’ont point reçu ces mots du Latin,
mais ils les ont tirés, comme lui, des langues mères des peuples du
Nord, par exemple le mot Graou, qui vient de Graou, pierreux, et non
du Latin Gradus; Mas, habitation, qui ne dérive pas de Mansio, mais
qui est un mot salien; Sartan, poêle à frire, qui vient du Ligurien Sart,
et non du Latin Sartago, etc.
Il y a dans le Provençal une grande quantité de mots dont
l’origine est certainement grecque, mais qui se trouvent aussi dans
le Latin et le Français. On a cru longtemps que tous ces mots étaient
passés du Grec dans le Latin et ensuite dans le Français. Cela n’est
vrai que pour quelques-uns et non pour la généralité. L’introduction
de ces mots est due aux Marseillais, qui les ont incorporés d’abord
aux idiomes celtiques et liguriens usités dans les Gaules, d’où ils
sont entrés dans la langue vulgaire ou Romane, et du Roman dans
le Français[52]. C’est ce qui explique la grande quantité de mots
grecs qui se trouvent dans le Français, alors que dans l’Italien,
l’Espagnol et les autres langues tirées du Roman, il y en a très peu.
Le Grec introduit dans le Français par le Provençal a mieux
conservé sa forme dans cette dernière langue, parce qu’il n’y a pas
été mélangé avec d’autres idiomes, comme dans le Nord. Il suffit de
jeter un regard sur le petit vocabulaire que nous donnons plus haut
pour se convaincre que les mots grecs ont conservé dans le
Provençal les sons et la forme de la langue Grecque importée à
Marseille par les Phocéens. Il n’en est pas de même du Latin, où l’on
retrouve des mots grecs, mais altérés par les divers idiomes qui se
sont mêlés à cette langue.
Nous continuons ci-après par les adjectifs le petit dictionnaire des
mots latins qui sont restés dans le Provençal, en donnant en regard
la traduction française.

VOCABULAIRE DES MOTS LATINS QUI SONT RESTÉS DANS LE

PROVENÇAL

Adjectifs
PROVENÇAL LATIN FRANÇAIS

Bigre. Piger. Paresseux.

Dooutou. Doctus. Savant.
Embe. Ambo. Deux.
Madur. Maturus. Mûr.
Magi. Major. Aîné.
Negre. Niger. Noir.
Piegi. Pejor. Pire.
Segur. Securus. Sûr.

En Provençal, le féminin des adjectifs a des formes plus variées

qu’en Français; on dit, par exemple, au féminin: bigresso, doouto,
emba, maduro, magé, negro, seguro, etc...; ces différences
s’augmentent encore par les variantes des divers dialectes.
Pronoms
PROVENÇAL LATIN FRANÇAIS

Iou Ego Je.

Tu Tu Toi.
Eou Ille Lui
Naoutre Nostrum (de) Nous
 Vaoutre Vestrum (de) Vous
Elli Illi Eux

Outre ces pronoms, il y a, en Provençal, des mots qui répondent

à des composés latins dans lesquels il entre un pronom; par
exemple: qouniam, quisnam, pour: quel; Cooucarem, aliquem rem,
pour: quelque chose, etc...
Verbes
Pour la conjugaison des verbes provençaux, ainsi que pour celle
des verbes latins, les pronoms ne sont pas nécessaires; il est même
très rare qu’on s’en serve.
PROVENÇAL LATIN FRANÇAIS

Addure Adducere Apporter

Aigar Aquari Arroser
Ajudar Adjuvare Aider
Amar Amare Aimer
Arar Arare Labourer
Ardre Ardere Brûler
Arrapar Arripere Saisir
Assetar Assidere Asseoir
Aver Habere Avoir
Blagar Blaterare Bavarder
Cantar Cantare Chanter
Coouca Calcare Fouler
Cremar Cremare Brûler
Defoundre Defundere Fondre, renverser
Ensertar Inserere Greffer
Escoundre Condere Cacher
Esse Esse Être
Ferir Ferire Blesser
Finger Fingere Feindre
Fugir Fugere Fuir
Gratificar Gratificare Gratifier
Istar Stare Demeurer
Jacer Jacere Reposer
 Lagrimar Lacrymare Pleurer
Legger Legere Lire
Mouzé Mulgere Traire
Necar Necare Tuer
Ougné Ungere Oindre
Paissé Pascere Paître
Pâtir Pati Souffrir
Pouergé Porrigere Tendre la main
Querré Quærere Chercher
Quierar Queri Se plaindre
Saoupre Sapere Savoir
Siblar Sibilare Siffler

Il y a en Provençal quatre conjugaisons:

La première se termine en ar, comme amar, aimer, et répond à
celle en er, du Français.
La deuxième se termine en ir, comme finir, et elle a sa
correspondante en Français.
La troisième se termine en re, comme recebre, recevoir, et
rendre, rendre; elle correspond aux deux conjugaisons en oir et en
re du Français.
La quatrième se termine en er, comme aver, legger, avoir, lire,
etc... Le r final se supprime dans certains dialectes provençaux; on
dit alors: ave, legge, etc. Cette conjugaison répond au latin habere,
leggere, etc.
Adverbes
PROVENÇAL LATIN FRANÇAIS

Quant Quantum Combien

Men Minus Moins

Prépositions
Por. Per. Pour
Ounte Unde Où
 LANGUES BARBARES

Le souvenir des maux que souffrirent les peuples latins par suite
de l’invasion des diverses nations qui se partagèrent l’Empire
Romain donna au nom de barbares une signification étrangère à son
étymologie. Dans le sens strict du mot, barbares répond à guerriers,
forts ou terribles. La racine Bar, dérivée du sanscrit, signifie noble,
viril, fort.
Parmi ces nations, il y en avait dont le langage, loin d’être
barbare, était régulier et épuré. Les Goths, entre autres, avaient une
langue très travaillée dont la Bible d’Ulphilas est un spécimen
convaincant. Tous les philologues qui ont tenu à reconnaître la
parenté des différentes langues ont trouvé dans cet ouvrage des
ressources indispensables à leurs travaux.
Les Francs, les Bourguignons, les Slaves même avaient leurs
poètes et leurs historiens. Les Lombards, les Saxons et les
Sarrasins étaient dans le même cas; et, si tous ces peuples ont
emprunté et introduit dans leurs langues des expressions et des
mots latins ou grecs, il n’en est pas moins vrai qu’ils ont laissé dans
nos provinces méridionales des traces de leur passage, non
seulement au point de vue archéologique, social, industriel ou
artistique, mais encore au point de vue linguistique.
Dans quelles proportions leur présence dans les Gaules
méridionales a-t-elle concouru, par le contact et les relations
journalières, à enrichir le langage des habitants de ces contrées? Un
rapide résumé des mots que nous trouvons dans divers traités de
linguistique nous fixera sur ce sujet.
Les Wisigoths, qui succédèrent immédiatement aux Romains et
possédèrent la Provence environ un demi-siècle, eurent la sagesse
de ne rien changer dans l’administration et les coutumes du pays. Il
en est résulté que l’on ne retrouve dans le Provençal qu’un très petit
nombre de mots gothiques, plutôt employés en agriculture. Par
exemple Ryo, soc de charrue, qui vient du Gothique ryn, sillon. Dans
quelques verbes, la prépondérance de cette dernière langue est
restée assez sensible. Donnons comme exemple la première
personne plurielle du présent de l’indicatif du verbe être, qui est siam
en Provençal et Siyam en Gothique. Pour le même verbe, le présent
du subjonctif en Provençal se rapproche beaucoup plus du Gothique
que du Latin.
SUBJONCTIF PRÉSENT DU VERBE «ÊTRE»

PROVENÇAL GOTHIQUE LATIN FRANÇAIS

Sighi Siyau Sim Que je sois

Sighes Siyais Sis Que tu sois
Sighe Siyai Sit Qu’il soit
Sighem Siyaima Simus Que nous
soyons
Sighès Siyaith Sitis Que vous soyez
Sigoun Siyaina Sint Qu’ils soient

VERBE «ALLER»

PROVENÇAL GOTHIQUE

Vaghi Vaiyau
Vaghes Vaiyais
Vaghe Vaiyai
Vagoun Vaiyaina

VERBE «VÊTIR»

Viesti. Vastyau
Viestes Vastyais
Vieste Vastyai
Viesten Vastyaima
Viestès Vastyaith
Viestoun Vastyaina

D’autres verbes offrent la même analogie; mais nous pensons

que l’attention a été suffisamment fixée sur ce point, qui peut avoir
de l’importance par rapport à la formation de la langue Romane. Il
est à remarquer que le Provençal emploie, comme le Gothique, le
présent du subjonctif pour l’impératif. On retrouve dans les écrits des
anciens troubadours cette même tournure de phrase dont la Bible
d’Ulphilas[53] fournit de nombreux exemples.