BUILDING MATERIALS

Cement
Cements in a general sense are adhesive and cohesive materials which are capable of
bonding together particles of solid matter into a compact durable mass.

Its primary function being to bind the fine (sand) and coarse (grits) aggregate particles
together.

Joseph Aspedin was the first to introduce Portland cement in1824 formed by heating a
mixture of limestone and finely divided clay in a furnace to a temperature.

1. Constituents of Cement

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Note: CaCO3 CaO + CO2

Functions of different constituents of cement

i. Lime:
 Imparts strength and soundness (volume).
 Excessit becomes difficult to combine with other compunds, free lime will be
present in clinkers which makes cement unsound, causes it to expand and
disintegrate.
 Deficiencyreduces strength of cement, causes it to set quickly.
ii. Silica:
 Imparts strength to cement.
 Excessincreases strength of cement, but increases setting time of cement.
iii. Alumina:
 Imparts quick setting property.
 Reduces the clinkering temperature, if it is in excess weekens the cement.
iv. Gypsum:
 Present in form of calcium sulphate.
 Used in increase initial setting time of cement.
v. Iron oxide:
 Imparts color, strength and hardness to cement
 It induces reddish brown tint to the cement
vi. Magnesia:
 Imparts strength and color to cement (yellowish tint)
 Excessmakes cement unsound
vii. Sulphur:
 It is also responsible soundness
 Note- Soundness due to lime and magnesia can be measured directly but no test is
available to measure soundness due to sulphur.

viii. Alkalies:
 Presence of alkalies causes efflorenscence and staining of structure.
 Alkalies react with water and white grey spots are formed
 Alkalies accelerate setting of cement paste.

2. Bougues compounds/Composition of cement clinker

Various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker. The compounds formed
in the burning process have properties of setting time and hardening in presence of water.

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TriCalcium Aluminate: 3CaO · Al2O3

 4-14% by weight
 Formed within 24 hours of addition of water in cement
 Responsible for maximum amount of heat of hydration
 It is responsible for initial set, higher heat of hydration and greater tendency to
volume changes.
 The heat of hydration of 865 J/g.

TetraCalcium Alumino Ferrate: 4CaO · Al 2O3Fe 2O3

 10-18% by weight
 It is formed within 24 hours of addition of water to cement
 Amount of heat of hydration evolved during formation of this compound initially is
comparatively more which goes on decreasing with time.
 It is also responsible for flash set but generates less heat.

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 It is responsible for flash set but generates less heat. It has poorest cementing
value. Raising theC4AF content reduces the strength slightly. The heat of hydration
is 420 J/g.

TriCalcium Silicate: 3CaO · SiO2

 45-85% of weight.
 It is supposed to be the best cementing material and is well burnt cement.
 Formed within a week of addition of water in cement.
 Responsible for development of early strength of cement in initial stages (7 days
strength)
 The rate of hydrolysis of C3S and the character of gel developed are the main causes
of the hardness and early strength of cement paste. The heat of hydration is 500
J/g.

DiCalcium Silicate: 2CaO · SiO 2

 15-35% by weight
 It is formed very slowly after addition of water in cement and may require a year of
so for its formation
 It imparts resistance to chemical attacks.
 It is responsible for progressive strength of cement in later stages.
 While after one year, its contribution to the strength and hardness is
proportionately almost equal to C3S. The heat of hydration is 260 J/g.

Note- If early strength is required, than increase C3S (emergency road work,
prefabricated construction work, etc.). If strength required is to be increased in later
stages, than increase C2S.

3. Hydration of cement:
 The chemical reaction between cement and water is known as Hydration of Cement.
 Heat of hydration of OPC during 7 days is about 89-90 cal/gm and during 28 days is
about 90-100 cal/gm.
 WaterAbout 23% of water by weight of cement is required to carry out the
complete hydration. About 15% of water is used up in filling voids of the cement
particles; hence effectively 38% of water (by weight of cement) is required to carry
out complete hydration.

Note: Heat of hydration: C3A > C3S > C4 AF > C2S

Rate of hydration: C4AF > C3 A > C3S > C2S

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4. Water Requirement for Hydration

About an average 23 per cent (24 per cent C 3S, 21 per cent C2S) of water by weight
of cement is required for complete hydration of Portland cement. This water
combines chemically with the cement compounds and is known as bound water.
Some quantity of water, about 15 per cent by weight of cement, is required to fill the
cement gel pores and is known as gel water. Therefore, a total of 38 per cent of
water by weight of cement is required to complete the chemical reaction. The
general belief that a water/cement ratio less than 0.38 should not be used in
concrete because for the process of hydration, the gel pores should be saturated – is
not valid.

5. Manufacturing of cement

Mixing Burning Grinding

6. Methods of manufacturing of cement

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Dry Method

Argillaceous (slate/laterite) Calcereous (lime/marble)

Crushing (25mm) Crushing (25mm)

Fine grinding in tube/ball mill Fine grinding in tube/ball mill

Storage Storage

Channel Mixing of raw ingredients in correct Channel

proportions

Pre-heating at 8000C by exhaust gases

Fed to rotary kiln for burning (14000C-15000C)

Clinkers are formed

Fine grinding in tube mills

Cement silos/particles

Cooled down and packed

Wet process

Argillaceous (slate/laterite) Calcereous (lime/marble)

Crushing (25mm) Crushing (25mm)

Storage Storage

Channel Wet grinding in Ball mill to form slurry Channel

Blending of slurry to corrected proportions

Fed to rotary kiln for burning (15000C-16000C)

Clinkers are formed

Fine grinding in tube mills

Cement silos/particles

Cooled down and packed

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7. Testing of Cement
Testing of cement is carried out to analyze the presence of desirable properties in it.
Experience has shown that it is practically impossible to make large quantities of cement
without any variation in quality. To be sure, some mills working with raw materials which
run very uniformly and using the best of equipment and methods of operation will have
very few unsuccessful 'burns' in a year, whereas others will be less fortunate. In
engineering construction the main qualifications demanded of cement are permanency of
structure, strength, and a rate of setting suitable to the demands of the work. To determine
these qualifications, both physical and chemical tests are made, the former, on account of
importance, more often than the latter. As a result of long experience the physical tests
which have come into general use in determining the acceptability of cement are: (1)
soundness or constancy of volume, (2) strength, (3) time of set or activity, and (4) fineness.

Color test

Physical
Field test
property test

Strength test

Testing of Fineness test

cement

Standard
consistency test

Setting time

Laboratory Tests

Soundness test

Strength test

Chemical
composition test

Field tests:

There are four field tests may be carried out to as certain roughly the quality of cement.
There are four types of field tests to access the color, physical property, and strength of the
cement as described below.

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i. Color test
 Color of cement should be uniform.
 It should be typical cement color i.e. grey color with a light greenish shade.
ii. Physical properties
 Cement should feel smooth when touched between fingers.
 If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.
 Cement should sink in water and should not float over the surface.
 It should be free from presence of any lumps which are formed due to
absorption of moisture.
iii. Strength test
 Prepare a block of cement to be tested of size 25 x 25 x 200 mm 3
 Immerse in water for 7 days
 Now remove the mould and subject it to point load of 340N by placing it over
supports 150mm apart
 Sample should show no sign of failure under the application of this load.
 A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept
under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.

Note: Presence of lumps

 Cement should be free from lumps.

 For a moisture content of about 5 to 8%, this increase of volume may be
much as 20 to 40 %, depending upon the grading of sand.

Laboraty Test

i. Fineness test: used to check proper grinding which has direct impact on rate of
hydration, rate of gain of strength and evolution of heat
a. Sieve test:

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 Take 100gm of cement and place it on IS Sieve no. 9 (90 micron)

 Perform sieving for 15 minutes.
 Weight of residue should not exceed 10% of original weight for OPC.
b. Air Permeability test:
 Blaines air permeability apparatus is used
 Based on relationship between flow of air through cement bed and surface
area of cement particles forming the bed.
 For OPC, SSA (Specific Surface Area) should not be less than 2250 cm2/gm
 For rapid hardening cement, SSA should not be less than 3250 cm 2/gm.
Type of cement Percentage of residue by Specific surface (m3/kg)
weight not less than
OPC 10 225
RHC 5 325
PPC 5 300

ii. Standard consistency test:

 Standard consistency should be known before we know about soundness
 Standard consistency- permits penetration of vicat plunger of size 10mm dia and
50mm height upto a depth of 33-35mm from top into the mould.
 We find the water content at which the cement consistency is produced.
 Take 500gm of cement and add 23% of water by weight of cement is produced.
 Lower the plunger slowly and gently up to the surface of mould and release quickly.
 The moisture content at which the cement paste of standard consistency is
produced is termed as ‘P’

Fig: Vicat Apparatus

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iii. Setting time test:

Carried out to know whether cement is deteriorated due to storage or not. Two
times are associated with setting of cement
 Initial setting time
 Final setting time

Initial setting time: time which is being measured from the instant water is added to
cement up to the time cement starts losing its plasticity.

 Take 500 gm cement and gauge it with 0.85P

 Lower the square needle gently and release it quickly
 Note the time required by needle to penetrate 33-35 mm from top
 This time is called initial setting time
 For OPC, initial setting time is 30 minutes.

Final Setting time: time which is being added to cement up to the time cement
completely loses its plasticity and attains sufficient firmness.

 Take 500 gm cement and gauge it with 0.85P

 Lower the annular collar with needle gently and release it quickly.
 Final setting time is the time when annual collar fails to make an impression
over the mould but needle does show.
 For OPC, final setting time is 10 hours.

iv. Soundness test:

It is important that cement after setting does not show any appreciable change in volume
as it seriously affects the durability of the structure. Soundness of cement is due to LIME,
MAGNESIA and SULPHUR.

Soundness due to Lime

 Gauge 100 gm cement with 0.78P and fill the paste in mould
 Cover top and bottom with glass plates and immerse entire assembly in water
having temperature 27 c to 32 c for 24 hours.
 Remove mould and note the displacement of split with help of indicators arms
 Then agai6n we immerse entire assembly, increase temperature in 25-30 min up
to boiling point, and maintain it for next three hours.
 Note the displacement of split with the help of indicators arms
 The difference in reading in both the parts of test should not be more than
10mm.

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Soundness due to lime and magnesia

 This test is sensitive to both lime and magnesia

 Prepare a mould of lean cement of size 25 x 25 x 250 mm
 Place in autoclave in which steam pressure is increased up to 21 kg/cm2 and is
maintained for next three hours.
 The mould is removed, percentage expansion of the mould in noted in each
direction which should not exceed 0.8% for OPC.

v. Strength test

Compressive strength test

 Cement : Annure sand = 1 : 3

 Three specimen cubes are prepared and cement, sand and water are taken as
 185g
 555g
 (P/4)+3.5 (P= % of water for standard consistency)
 Mortar is filled in size of 70.5mm mould and immersed in water for 7 days
curing period
 Compressive strength of cement is tested in UTM
 For OPC 33 grade, strength
At 28 days = 33N/mm2
At 7 days = 2/3 (strength at 28 days)
At 3 days = 50% (strength at 28 days)

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Tensile strength test (Briquette test)

 Quicker indication of defects in cement is obtained than any other test

 Cement : Sand is taken in 1 : 3 by weight
 Water to be used is calculated as P/5 + 2.5 (P=% of water required for standard
consistency at 270C)
 OPC should have a tensile strength of not less than
o 2 N/mm2 after 3 days
o 2.5 N/mm2 after 7 days

Chemical composition test:

 The ratio of alumina to iron oxide should not be less than 0.66
 The ratio of lime to silica, Alumina and iron oxide should not be greater than
1.02 and should not be less than 0.66. This ratio is termed as Lime Saturation
Factor

CaO−0.7SO3
0.66 < < 1.02
2.8 SiO2+1.2 Al2O3+0.65 Fe2O3

Specific Gravity test:

 It is done using Le Chatlier Flask

 The flask is filled with either kerosene free of water or Naptha to a point on the
stem between 0 and 1ml mark.
 64 g of cement is introduced in it and rise in volume is observed.
 Specific gravity of ( homogenous cement particles) cement is 3.15
 Bulk density of cement is 1440 kg/m 3.

Fig: Le Chatlier Flask

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Specific gravity =Weight of cement ÷ Displaced volume of liquid in ml

Some important points

 Total weight of magnesia should not be greater than 5%

 Total loss on ignition when heated to 1000 0C should not be greater than 4%
 Total sulphur content should not be greater than 2.75%
 Weight of insoluble residue should not be greater than 1.5%

8. Ordinary Portland cement

It is a cementing material resembling a natural stone quarried from Portland in U.K.

It is classified as

 33 Grade (IS 269 : 1989)

 43 Grade (IS 8112 : 1989)
 53 Grade (IS 12669 : 1987)

IS 10262 has classified OPC grade wise from A to F, as per 28 days compressive strength:

Category Strength (MPa)

A 32.5-37.5
B 37.5-42.5
C 42.5-47.5
D 47.5-52.5
E 52.5-57.5
F 57.5-62.5

9. Types of Cement
i. Rapid Hardening cement
 Higher rate of development of strength. Must not be confused with quick setting
cement.
 This higher rate of strength is attributed to higher fineness which is obtained
by finer grinding of cement at about 4500 cm 2/gm (SSA should not be less
than 3250 cm2/gm)
 Produced by fine grinding of clinkers, increasing proportion of C 3S and
reducing C2S.
 Strength of RHC at the age of 3 days is same as that of OPC at 7 days.
 After 90 days, strength of RHC and OPC is almost same.

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 Used in-
o Pre-fabricated construction work
o Cold weather concreting
o Where formwork is used for speedy construction.
o Repair of structures.

ii. Extra Rapid Hardening Cement

 Produced with inter-grinding rapid hardening cement clinkers with CaCl 2,
proportion of which should not be greater than 2% of weight of cement.
 This cement should be mixed, transported, compacted and finished within 20
minutes of its formation.
 This cement has approx. 20-25% higher strength than rapid hardening cement
at the age of one or two days and 10-15% higher strength at the age of 7 days.

iii. Sulphate Resisting Cement

 OPC is highly susceptible to attack of sulphates
 It is manufactured by reducing proportion of C 3A and C4AF such that 2C3A +
C4AF should not be greater than 25%.
 Used in foundation work, sewage treatments work; marine structures and
construction of pipes in marshy areas.

iv. Super Sulphated Cement

 Produced by intergrinding granulated blast furnace slag and 10-15% hard
burned Gypsum and 5% cement clinkers
 Application- same as sulphate resisting cement

v. Portland Slag Cement

 Granulated Blast Furnace slag + Gypsum + cement clinkers
 Offer high resistance against attack of chlorides and sulphates
 Higher water tightness property due to less permeability.

vi. Quick Setting cement

 Produced by adding small quantity of aluminium sulphate, fine grinding the
cement clinkers and reducing proportion of Gypsum.
 Used in grouting operations and under water concreting, pavement
construction.
 Quick setting cement has setting time of-
o Initial setting time = 5 minutes

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o Final setting time = 30 minutes

vii. Low Heat Cement

 Produced by reducing proportion of C 3A (about 5%) and increasing the
proportion of C2S (about 46%).
 This cement shows slow rate of development strength.
 Used where bulk concreting is required.

viii. IRS T 40 Cement

 Special type of cement used to manufacture sleepers for Indian Railways
 It is prepared by finely grinding clinkers and increasing proportion of C3S to
achieve high early strength.

ix. Hydrophobic Cement

 It is produced by inter-grinding cement clinkers with water repellant film
forming substance like oleic acid and steric acid.
 Water repellant layer protects cement from deterioration due to storage.

x. Portland slag Cement (IS : 455)

 It is manufactured either by intimately inter-grinding a mixture of Portland
cement clinker and granulated slag with addition of gypsum or calcium sulphate,
or by an intimate and uniform blending of Portland cement and finely ground
granulated slag.
 Slag is a non-metallic product consisting essentially of glass containing silicates
and alumino-silicates of lime and other bases, as in the case of blast-furnace slag,
which is developed simultaneously with iron in blast furnace or electric pig iron
furnace.
 Granulated slag is obtained by further processing the molten slag by rapid
chilling or quenching it with water or steam and air. The slag constituent in the
cement varies between 25 to 65 per cent.
 The chemical requirements of Portland slag cement are same as that of 33 grade
Portland cement. The specific surface of slag cement should not be less than 225
m2/kg.
 The expansion of the cement should not be more than 10 mm and 0.8 per cent
when tested be Le Chatelier method and autoclave test, respectively.
 The initial and final setting times and compressive strength requirements are
same as that for 33 grade ordinary Portland cement. This cement can be used in

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all places where OPC is used. However, because of its low heat of hydration it can
also be used for mass concreting, e.g., dams, foundations, etc.

xi. Portland Pozzolana Cement

 It is manufactured by grinding Portland cement clinker and puzzolana (usually
fly ash 10-25% by mass of PPC) or by intimately and uniformly blending
Portland cement and fine puzzolana.
 Consequently, the resistance to chemical attack increases making it suitable for
marine works.
 The hardening of Portland puzzolana cement consists in hydration of Portland
cement clinker compounds and then in interaction of the puzzolana with calcium
hydroxide released during the hardening of clinker.
 The hardening of Portland puzzolana cement consists in hydration of Portland
cement clinker compounds and then in interaction of the puzzolana with calcium
hydroxide released during the hardening of clinker.
 It has low heat evolution and is used in the places of mass concrete such as dams
and in places of high temperature.

xii. Air Entraining Cement:

 Vinsol resin or vegetable fats and oils and fatty acids are ground with ordinary
cement. These materials have the property to entrain air in the form of fine tiny
air bubbles in concrete.
 Minute voids are formed while setting of cement which increases resistance
against freezing and scaling action of salts. Air entrainment improves
workability and water/cement ratio can be reduced which in turn reduces
shrinkage, etc.
 Air entraining cements are used for the same purposes as that of OPC

10. Cement Mortar

Mortar is commonly used for binding building blocks and for plastering the masonry
surface, which is an intimate mixture of inert cementing material like mud, lime,
cement or a combination of these and fine aggregates like sand and water.

Types of Mortars:
i. Cement mortar:

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It is an intimate mixture of cement, sand, and water. It may be hand mixed or machine
mixed. The mortar should be used within half an hour of adding water and should be re-
tempered by adding water every 15 minutes to be used for little later. The strength of the
mortar depends on the proportion of sand and cement mixed.
Uses of Cement Mortar:
i. To bind masonry blocks like stones, bricks and to plaster slabs and walls.
ii. It is used to give neat finishes to the wall, concrete surfaces, and pointed joints to
masonry.
iii. It is also used to prepare concrete blocks, to fill joints and cracks in walls and as
a filler material in stone masonry and Ferro-cement works.

ii. Mud mortar:

Mud mortar is made by adding sand and clay in such proportion that when they mixed with
water, they should not be any cracks after drying. Stones should not be present in the
mixture to avoid cracks on walls in later. To get better-plastered surface, small quantities
of hydrated lime, bitumen and cow dung is added. This mortar is cheap, less durable and
is commonly used for the construction of cheap houses, temporary sheds for animals.

iii. Lime mortar:

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It is composed of lime and sand with water and is one of the oldest known types of mortars.
Fat lime or hydraulic lime and inert materials like sand, surkhi or cinder are used for
making lime mortar. These mortars are quite plastic and workable and develop strong
bonds with building blocks. The famous historic structure Charminar in Hyderabad was the
first monument in the world constructed using lime mortar and granite. Fat lime mortar is
used for plastering, and hydraulic lime mortar is for masonry works. The flexible
properties of cement mortar have completely replaced lime mortar in the market.

Special mortars:

These mortars are prepared for specific requirements and they include:

i. Cement clay mortar: The quality of clay mortar is improved by adding cement
to the mixture in the proportion of 1:1 clay to cement. Cost increases and also
the durability by addition of cement.
ii. Gauged cement mortar: This mortar is obtained by adding cement to lime
mortar and then mixed with sand. This mixture should be used within 30
minutes of adding water. It is cheaper than cement mortar, and quality is in
between cement and lime mortar.
iii. Decorative mortar: These mortars are prepared by using colored cement to
give to decorative finish to wall surfaces.

Functions of Mortars:
 It is used to cover unevenness of the constructed surface.
 Mortar plaster gives a smooth finish.
 Mortar binds the building blocks and makes them stronger.
 Mortar helps to provide even surface for laying courses of building blocks.

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