AN OVERVIEW OF ROBOTICS

Robotics is the science or technology that deals with robots. Defining a robot, however, is not easy.
The public image of a robot, produced through myriad motion pictures and books that give them
human characteristics and apparently superhuman intelligence is partially responsible for the
difficulty. A constantly changing technology, which provides robots with increasing levels of
abilities, also contributes to the problem. For example, in 1987 a California doctor demonstrated
a robot at Robots Il that can assist surgeons during brain biopsies. It is, therefore, hard to define
exactly what potential abilities may be found in robots and which applications are realistic and
practical. It is also difficult to keep various industry standard definitions up to date, as most
continue to stress one part of a robot—its manipulator.
The Oxford English Dictionary gives the following definition: “A machine capable of carrying out
a complex series of actions automatically, especially one programmable by a computer.” This
definition includes some interesting elements:
• “Carrying out actions automatically.” This is a key element in robotics, but also in many
other simpler machines called automata. The difference between a robot and a simple
automaton like a dishwasher is in the definition of what a “complex series of actions” is.
Is washing clothes composed of a complex series of actions or not? Is flying a plane on
autopilot a complex action? Is cooking bread complex? For all these tasks there are
machines that are at the boundary between automata and robots.
• “Programmable by a computer” is another key element of a robot, because some automata
are programmed mechanically and are not very flexible. On the other hand, computers are
found everywhere, so it is hard to use this criterion to distinguish a robot from another
machine.
A crucial element of robots that is not mentioned explicitly in the definition is the use of sensors.
Most automata do not have sensors and cannot adapt their actions to their environment. Sensors
are what enable a robot to carry out sanscomplex tasks.
As part of a 1983 seminar on robot sensing and intelligence, Dr. Antal Bejczy of the Jet Propulsion
Lab gave the following definition of robots: There are three parts to the technical definition of
robots.
• First, robots are general purpose mechanical machines.
• Second, they are programmable to perform a variety of work within their mechanical
capabilities.
• Third, they operate automatically.
Dr. Bejczy also stated that automation is the key for advancing the state of the art in robotics. This
useful definition thus combines mechanical engineering, computer programming, and electrical
engineering.
1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF ROBOTICS
Stories of mechanical men, predecessors of the robot C3PO of Star Wars fame, have been around
since the days of Greek myths, and motion pictures have been showing fictional robots from the
earliest film days (Georges Méliés, the French pioneer filmmaker, made The Clown and the
Automaton in 1897). Over the last several centuries, skilled craftsmen developed early versions
of mechanical robots. Although the word robot was not coined until the twentieth century,
mechanical humanoid robots, called automata, were built as early as the 1500s, when moving
figures were used to perform useful work, such as striking a bell on the hour.
By the 1700s, clever inventors had added many advanced capabilities to these devices, culminating
perhaps in the automatons developed by Pierre Jacquet-Droz, a creator of puppets. One of these
devices, named "The Scribe" (or writer), can still be seen at work in a Neuchåtel (Switzerland)
museum. It is a well-constructed model of a young man seated at a desk (Fig. 1). When activated,
the automaton dips its quill pen into an inkwell and writes previously selected text of up to 40
letters in length. What makes this device of particular interest to the robotics engineer is that it is
programmable. With appropriate changes of cams and levers (similar to changing instructions),
the automaton can be made to write any text.

Figure 1. Early automaton. (Courtesy of Musée d'Art et dHistoire, Neuchåtel, Switzerland)

Although numerous automatons were built over the years, they were of interest primarily as
entertaining novelties, and, unfortunately, their technology was not applied to industry. Not until
the mid-1950s was robotic technology adapted by industry to handle the more dangerous
manufacturing tasks.
The term robot was first used in two plays written by the Czech author Karel Capek. Opilec was
the first, written in 1917. It is less well known than his later masterpiece R. U.R., an abbreviation
of Rossum's Universal Robots. An English version of this latter work is available. 2
R. U.R. was first produced in Prague in 1921, and then attained worldwide attention by being
presented in New York in 1922. The play developed the concept of small, manlike creatures
obeying their master's instructions. The term robot, derived from the Czech word robota, means
forced labor or compulsory service, and was the name given to these creatures. Subsequently, films
and science fiction further publicized robots.
During the Second World War, the meaning of robot was extended to include an automatic pilot,
such as found in robot bombs. This was also the period of two related steps—the development of
the computer and the use of the first remote manipulators, now known as teleoperated robots or
telechirs. Hence, robot technology evolution dates from the Second World War. Further steps in
the development cycle included servo systems, numerical control, process control, industrial
robots, and, finally, advanced robots. In 1954, the first industrial robot was built, and the first two
industrial robot patents were applied for. It was the dawn of the robotics age.
A radiator manufacturing company, in 1954, asked Planet Corporation of Lansing, Michigan,
to design a system to handle hot castings while they were water quenched and then placed on a
press die. Planet, which took three years to solve the problem, demonstrated its robot technology
at the International Trade Fair on Automation in Stockholm in 1957, after an invitation from the
U.S. Department of Commerce. Planet named the robot Planobot, and it was publicized as the first
industrial robot. Planobot (Fig. 1-2) was powered hydraulically and controlled through an
electronic sequencer, going through a maximum of 25 steps to carry out a task. With five degrees
of freedom, linear and rotary joint action, and an ability to be easily modified for changes in the
production run, this model was a forerunner of the loading and unloading robots later developed
successfully by Unimation.
During 1954, two robotic patents were applied for. In March, British inventor Cyril W. Kenward

Figure 2. First industrial robot. (Courtesy of Carolyn Turcio)

applied for a British patent. The patent, issued in 1957 as number 781465, is titled Manipulating
Apparatus. Kenward's device was a two-armed manipulator with four degrees of freedom moving
in a Cartesian coordinate system. Two months later, American inventor George C. Davol applied
for a patent. Davol's patent, titled Programmed Article Transfer, was granted in 1961 and served
as the impetus behind Unimation. Founded in 1958, Unimation was the first company to specialize
in robotics. The company name is a contraction of "universal automation." Another entry into the
robotics field during 1958 was AMF, which began developing its Versatron robot. Versatron was
subsequently made a division of Prab Robots.
The first Unimation industrial robots were built in 1961 and, like Planet's robot, were used in
the unpleasant and dangerous task of loading and unloading die casting machines. Their first robot,
originally delivered to a General Motors automobile plant in New Jersey, has been moved to an
exhibit at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.
After a slow start, interest began to build in 1965 as many companies from different nations
entered the field. The first robots were pick-and-place robots with little intelligence, but they were
very reliable, even under poor working conditions. In 1966 a Norwegian agricultural machinery
firm (Trallfa), built a robot to paint wheelbarrows. In 1969, Unimation introduced the first
spotwelding robot, and by 1972 Unimation was offering three series of robots. By the end of that
year, Fortune magazine indicated that 500 robots had been installed in factories.
Universities were also becoming involved in robotics research. Progress in robot mobility,
vision systems, and artificial intelligence was being made at Stanford Research Institute (now SRI
International) in the late 1960s. The first mobile robot was developed at Stanford under a
Department of Defense grant. Called Shakey because of the intermittent manner in which it moved
and the vibration of the vision camera support structure, the robot showed an amazing degree of
intelligence for its time. In one famous task, Shakey was given the job of reaching an object placed
on a platform. The robot was on wheels, so it could not climb the platform. Looking around,
Shakey spotted a ramp. It pushed the ramp to the platform, propelled itself up the ramp, and
reached the object.
Another pioneer, MIT, also had robotics projects underway as part of its work in artificial
intelligence. Particularly significant was MIT's development of a mechanical hand, suggested by
a thesis in 1961, and of early robot languages, such as MHI and MINI.
Under license from Unimation, Kawasaki Heavy Industries in 1969 developed the first
industrial robot in Japan. Other Japanese firms saw the potential of robots in industry and, in 1971,
formed the Japanese Industrial Robot Association, four years ahead of its counterpart in the United
States. Japan has pursued the robotics area so aggressively that they now lead all other countries
in robotics, both as manufacturers and users. They also lead the world in several areas of robot
technology.
The first adaptive robot, built in 1970 by the Electric-Technical Laboratory, a Division of the
Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Development (MITI) had a vision system that could
distinguish nine colors. The robot could also detect and correct errors in its actions. MITI is still a
leader in robotics research.
France joined the international push into robotics during the early 1970s when it set up research
and development facilities under government support. The USSR developed its first robot during
1971 and 1972. Other European countries, including West Germany, Sweden, and Italy, also
became active participants in the industry during the early 1970s.
Early robots were hydraulic-based. The first all-electric model was built in 1973 by ASEA, a
Swedish firm. In that year the concept of revolute joint construction was introduced by Cincinnati
Milacron, and the Trallfa robot from Norway became the first continuous-path robot.
The first multiarmed, overhead robot (Sigma) was built by Olivetti in 1975. In 1978, Unimation
introduced a smaller robot, the PUMA (programmable universal machine of assembly). A later
model (the PUMA 700) is shown in Figure 1-3. This robot was designed to handle small parts and
is still in widespread use. By 1980, Unimation was shipping 600 robots a year, about half of the
robots built in the United States.

Figure 3. PUMA robot. (Courtesy of Unimation, Inc.)

The next big step forward in robot technology came from the Japanese in 1979, with the
selective compliance assembly robot arm (SCARA). Developed at Yamanashi University, this
robot combined inflexible motion in the vertical plane with compliance, or flexible positioning in
the horizontal plane, allowing parts to be inserted much more easily during assembly tasks. Now
offered by many manufacturers, the SCARA concept was an important step in introducing robots
to assembly tasks. Figure 4 shows a SCARA robot from G.E.
Although early robots freed men from dangerous tasks, they were not yet cost-effective. Three
problems contributed to their slow adoption by industry. The first was cost, both initial and
operating. It was more expensive to keep the robot operating than it was to perform the task
manually, and that did not even include the high initial cost of the robot. Second, the technology
was very new, and problems in control, gripper capability, and robot accuracy limited these devices
to only a few applications. Finally, there was the general conservatism of businesses, which tend
to retain successful manufacturing techniques and to reject new and untried methods. Note that,
contrary to popular opinion, unions did not initially object to robots, since they did only dangerous
jobs and were not being installed to save the company money.

Figure 4. SCARA robot. (Courtesy of General Electric Company)

Hence, the sale of industrial robots got off to a slow start. Over the 10-year period since
Unimation began installing robots, perhaps 500 had been installed in the United States. In 1979,
however, the number of robot installations had increased to 2500 in the United States and over
10,000 worldwide. The main reason for this increase was a change in costs. Robot operating costs
had increased only 20%, whereas the cost of labor had increased over 400%. Robot technology
was here to stay.
Robotics had gone through three decades of development. The period from 1955 to 1965 was
the concept feasibility stage, with companies still developing the base technology. From 1966
through 1975, international development accelerated as numerous foreign firms entered the arena.
From 1976 through 1985, environmentally sensitive robots were developed by adding computers
and limited capability external sensors. Advances in sensor technology, image processing, and
artificial intelligence should make the next 10 years the decade of intelligent robots.
The earliest industrial robots were really advanced numerical control machines, also called hard
automation. In hard automation, it is quite difficult to change the role of the robot during its
lifetime, and these robots were designed for one unchanging task.
 However, the latest systems are much more adaptable, leading to the concept of flexible
automation. In the flexible manufacturing area (FMA), the range of tasks that the robot can
perform has been substantially increased. Flexible automation evolved through considering the
robot as part of a complete system and through advances in robotic programming. With
modifications of existing programming (either offline or in teach mode), the robot can be adapted
to a change in requirements without extensive equipment modifications.
Along with this progress in technology, the average person's preconceptions, fears, and hopes
for robots were highly influenced by science fiction films, especially the intelligent C3PO from
Star Wars. This public interest in turn spurred toymakers to offer an even wider selection of robot
toys. New companies were then formed to produce educational or hobby robots. Small robot arms,
mobile robots with and without arms, and line following—line drawing turtle-shaped robots were
offered during the 1980s.
For example, one of the earliest personal robots was RB5X, offered by RB Robotics. This robot
had a working arm and speech synthesis capability and was controlled by programs written in
BASIC. Thousands of these robots were sold, and many individuals learned robot basics from
them. Unfortunately, RB Robots, like many other small robot start-up firms of this period
eventually failed.
An educational robot that has done quite well is the HERO 2000 (Fig. 5). This robot also has
an operational arm and voice system. It comes with a patrol program incorporating both sound

Receiving

Figure 5. Personal robot. (Courtesy of Heath Company)

and light sensors in a limited collision avoidance system. Of major significance is the excellent
quality of documentation available. Another strong point is its ability to download programs, a
necessary feature for any serious utilization.
Except for Heath robots, personal robots have not done as well as personal computers, mainly
because personal robots cannot perform many useful tasks, due to their limited strength, limited
accuracy, and the lack of usable software. In addition, personal computer manufacturers have
provided an open architecture, thus supporting third-party developers. To date, few personal robot
manufacturers have been willing to do this.
Nevertheless, advances in sensor technology and robot programming, coupled with lower-cost
computer technology, should make possible effective personal robots in the near future, although
a robot that can do more than very limited household tasks is still far in the future.
1.2 WORKING DEFINITION OF ROBOT
The term robot means different things to different people. Even if one limits the term to industrial
robots, and eliminates meanings implicit in robots found in motion pictures and toys, there are still
some definition problems. Current definitions are reactive to past technology and do not address
issues of the robot of tomorrow. The result is that definitions, by the time they are adapted, are out
of date.
Each major robot association in the world has its own definition of industrial robot, and,
although similar, there are sufficient differences to cause confusion over what should be called a
robot for statistical purposes. The result has been confusion when the number of robots are
compared between countries.
The Robotics Industry Association (RIA) of the United States, until recently, defined a robot as
a "reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or
specialized devices through variable programmed motion for the performance of a variety of
tasks." The keyword in this definition is "manipulator." Since a manipulator is an arm, this
definition says that all robots must have an arm and that the arm is the principal part of the robot.
In late 1987, the RIA modified this definition to a "reprogrammable multifunctional machine
designed to manipulate material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed
motion for the performance of a variety of tasks" (italics added). This definition is better, but it
still requires the robot to have an arm and to move something.
The British Robot Association (BRA) uses a similar definition. According to its 1985 report,
"An industrial robot is a reprogrammable device designed to both manipulate and transport parts,
tools or specialized manufacturing implements through variable programmed motions for the
performance of specific manufacturing tasks. "
The British version does not require that the robot be a manipulator, only that it be able to
manipulate. In both definitions, the arm is only one part, although an important one, in any robot.
The British definition does add a transport capability, but it requires that the robot perform
manufacturing tasks. Technically, then, robots performing nonmanufacturing industrial or
commercial tasks would not qualify under this definition.
The Swedish Industrial Robot Association (SWIRA) defines a robot as "an automatically
controlled, reprogrammable, multi-purpose manipulative ma chine with or without locomotion for
use in industrial automation applications." This definition, which is being considered by the
International Standards Organization (ISO), has additional improvements. It allows the robot to
be mobile, and it includes all industrial applications, not just manufacturing ones.
In Japan, the Japanese Industrial Robot Association (JIRA) defines six classes of industrial
robots in the JIS B0134-1986 standard. In increasing levels of capability, they include
Class l: Manual manipulator—controlled by the operator (such as a teleoperated robot)
Class 2: Fixed sequence robot—a stand-alone robot operating in sequence and performing a
predetermined and unchanging task
Class 3: Variable sequence robot—similar to class 2, but with preset data that is easily modified
Class 4: Playback robot—the robot is trained by a human operator and then repeatedly performs
the required steps in sequence
Class 5: Numerical control robot—the human operator controls the robot through changing a
program or entering numbers, rather than through a training mode
Class 6: Intelligent robot—the robot has the means to understand its environment and adapt to
changing conditions as it completes its task
Most robots in Japan belong to classes 2 or 4. In a study performed in 1982, 42% of the robots
were class 2 and 39% were class 4. The RIA does not consider the first two classes to be true
robots because they are not reprogrammable. Within the other classes, the RIA does not distinguish
between types of robots.
The French organization (AFRI) has four classifications. French companies are leaders in
teleoperated robots, and their first robot classification (type A) is identical to JIRA class 1. Type
B covers JIRA classes 2 and 3, and is subdivided into Bl, equivalent to JIRA class 2, and B2,
equivalent to JIRA class 3. The AFRI type C robot combines JIRA classes 4 and 5 and is often
considered to define first-generation robots. Type C robots may also contain locomotion. This type
is further divided into C 1, for robots with less than five programmable joints, and C2, for robots
with five or more programmable joints. Type D is identical to JIRA class 6 and defines second-
generation robots. A third-generation robot would have three-dimensional vision and understand
natural languages. No commercial robots now available meet the French definition of a third-
generation robot.
Several difficulties are inherent in many of these robot definitions. First, how should remote-
controlled devices, often called teleoperated robots or telechirs, be classified? The French and the
Japanese call such devices robots, although of the lowest class. Most other organizations, including
the RIA, have resisted classifying them as true robots, primarily because they require a human in
the control loop as the brains of the robot. In other words, a telechir is not autonomous. However,
the technology, ability, and appearance of some of these devices are very close to true robots, and
some do have some autonomous capability and remote capability (such as NASA's moon rover).
As long as a device includes some autonomous capability, it should not be barred from
classification as a robot.
Second, how should automated guided vehicles (AGVs) be classified? These mobile carts carry
parts, mail, and equipment between workstations in the factory automatically, although they
usually follow an explicit or implicit track and have little ability to go around objects. Many of
these units can also load and unload parts at each workstation. These mobile units are autonomous,
can perform useful work in an industrial setting without operator intervention, and may contain a
manipulator, yet they are not classified as an industrial robot by any current definition (except
perhaps the Swedish).
Third, there must be a method of describing robots with features similar to industrial robots,
such as a programmable arm, but that cannot be used in an industrial environment due to their lack
of reliability in the workplace, their limited accuracies, and the small payloads that they can
handle. Since their primary function may be educational, on either an individual or school level,
they should not be called industrial robots, yet in every other way they qualify as robots. The RIA
addresses this by including a separate classification within its membership. Originally called the
National Personal Robot Association, this name was changed in 1986 to the National Service
Robot Association. However, RIA has not yet modified its definition to include a robot of this
type.
There is also a question of robot generations. If the French type C robot is a first-generation
model, it leaves the status of the French type B (JIRA classes 2 and 3) unclear. Possibly these
could be called prerobots.
Finally, no definition of robot describes the robot of the future. Overall, the definition should
be less restrictive, not limited to industrial use, not centered around a manipulator, and not limited
to today's technology.
In the opinion of many individuals in the field, all current definitions of robots are too restrictive.
The definitions may have been satisfactory when they were adopted, but they had no provision to
incorporate the changes in technology or application that developed, and thus the definition is now
generally considered out of date. The ISO and the RIA, among other organizations, recognize this,
and they are attempting to develop a more up-to-date definition of a robot.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
Robots can be classified according to the environment in which they operate (Fig. 6). The most
common distinction is between fixed and mobile robots. These two types of robots have very
different working environments and therefore require very different capabilities. Fixed robots are
mostly industrial robotic manipulators that work in well-defined environments adapted for robots.
Industrial robots perform specific repetitive tasks such soldering or painting parts in car
manufacturing plants. With the improvement of sensors and devices for human-robot interaction,
robotic manipulators are increasingly used in less controlled environment such as high-precision
surgery.

aquatic wheel
mobile terrestrial
airborne legged
robot
fixed
 Fig. 6 Classification of robots by environment and mechanism of interaction
By contrast, mobile robots are expected to move around and perform tasks in large, ill-defined and
uncertain environments that are not designed specifically for robots. They need to deal with
situations that are not precisely known in advance and that change over time. Such environments
can include unpredictable entities like humans and animals. Examples of mobile robots are robotic
vacuum cleaners and self-driving cars.
There is no clear dividing line between the tasks carried out by fixed robots and mobile robots—
humans may interact with industrial robots and mobile robots can be constrained to move on
tracks—but it is convenient to consider the two classes as fundamentally different. In particular,
fixed robots are attached to a stable mount on the ground, so they can compute their position based
on their internal state, while mobile robots need to rely on their perception of the environment in
order to compute their location.
There are three main environments for mobile robots that require significantly different design
principles because they differ in the mechanism of motion: aquatic (underwater exploration),
terrestrial (cars) and aerial (drones). Again, the classification is not strict, for example, there are
amphibious robots that move in both water and on the ground. Robots for these three environments
can be further divided into subclasses: terrestrial robots can have legs or wheels or tracks, and
aerial robots can be lighter-than-air balloons or heavier-than-air aircraft, which are in turn divided
into fixed-wing and rotary-wing (helicopters).
Robots can be classified by intended application field and the tasks they perform (Fig. 7). We
mentioned industrial robots which work in well-defined environments on production tasks.

logistics
industrial manufacturing

robot medical
service home
educational
defense

Fig. 7 Classification of robots by application field

The first robots were industrial robots because the well-defined environment simplified their
design. Service robots, on the other hand, assist humans in their tasks. These include chores at
home like vacuum cleaning, transportation like self-driving cars, and defense applications such as
reconnaissance drones. Medicine, too, has seen increasing use of robots in surgery, rehabilitation
and training. These are recent applications that require improved sensors and a closer interaction
with the user.
1.4 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
The first robots were industrial robots which replaced human workers performing simple repetitive
tasks. Factory assembly lines can operate without the presence of humans, in a well-defined
environment where the robot has to perform tasks in a specified order, acting on objects precisely
placed in front of it (Fig. 8).
One could argue that these are really automata and not robots. However, today’s automata often
rely on sensors to the extent that they can be considered as robots. However, their design is
simplified because they work in a customized environment which humans are not allowed to
access while the robot is working.
However, today’s robots need more flexibility, for example, the ability to manipulate objects in
different orientations or to recognize different objects that need to be packaged in the right order.
The robot can be required to transport goods to and from warehouses. This brings additional
autonomy, but the basic characteristic remains: the environment is more-or-less constrained and
can be adapted to the robot.
Additional flexibility is required when industrial robots interact with humans and this introduces
strong safety requirements, both for robotic arms and for mobile robots. In particular, the speed of
the robot must be reduced and the mechanical design must ensure that moving parts are not a
danger to the user. The advantage of humans working with robots is that each can perform what
they do best: the robots perform repetitive or dangerous tasks, while humans perform more
complex steps and define the overall tasks of the robot, since they are quick to recognize errors
and opportunities for optimization.

Fig. 8 Robots on an assembly line in a car factory. Source

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AKUKA_Industrial_Robots_IR.jpg by Mixabest (Own work). CC BY-SA 3.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), via Wikimedia Commons
1.5 AUTONOMOUS MOBILE ROBOTS
Many mobile robots are remotely controlled, performing tasks such as pipe inspection, aerial
photography and bomb disposal that rely on an operator controlling the device. These robots are
not autonomous; they use their sensors to give their operator remote access to dangerous, distant
or inaccessible places. Some of them can be semi-autonomous, performing subtasks automatically.
The autopilot of a drone stabilizes the flight while the human chooses the flight path. A robot in a
pipe can control its movement inside the pipe while the human searches for defects that need to be
repaired. Fully autonomous mobile robots do not rely on an operator, but instead they make
decisions on their own and perform tasks, such as transporting material while navigating in
uncertain terrain (walls and doors within buildings, intersections on streets) and in a constantly
changing environment (people walking around, cars moving on the streets).
The first mobile robots were designed for simple environments, for example, robots that cleaned
swimming pools or robotic lawn mowers. Currently, robotic vacuum cleaners are widely available,
because it has proved feasible to build reasonably priced robots that can navigate an indoor
environment cluttered with obstacles.
Many autonomous mobile robots are designed to support professionals working in structured
environments such as warehouses. An interesting example is a robot for weeding fields (Fig. 9).
This environment is partially structured, but advanced sensing is required to perform the tasks of
identifying and removing weeds. Even in very structured factories, robot share the environment
with humans and therefore their sensing must be extremely reliable.
Perhaps the autonomous mobile robot getting the most publicity these days is the self-driving car.
These are extremely difficult to develop because of the highly complex uncertain environment of
motorized traffic and the strict safety requirements.
 Fig. 9 Autonomous mobile robot weeding a field (Courtesy of Ecorobotix)
An even more difficult and dangerous environment is space. The Sojourner and Curiosity Mars
rovers are semi-autonomous mobile robots. The Sojourner was active for three months in 1997.
The Curiosity has been active since landing on Mars in 2012! While a human driver on Earth
controls the missions (the routes to drive and the scientific experiments to be conducted), the rovers
do have the capability of autonomous hazard avoidance.
Much of the research and development in robotics today is focused on making robots more
autonomous by improving sensors and enabling more intelligent control of the robot. Better
sensors can perceive the details of more complex situations, but to handle these situations, control
of the behavior of the robot must be very flexible and adaptable. Vision, in particular, is a very
active field of research because cameras are cheap and the information they can acquire is very
rich. Efforts are being made to make systems more flexible, so that they can learn from a human
or adapt to new situations. Another active field of research addresses the interaction between
humans and robots. This involves both sensing and intelligence, but it must also take into account
the psychology and sociology of the interactions.
1.6 HUMANOID ROBOTS
Science fiction and mass media like to represent robots in a humanoid form. We are all familiar
with R2-D2 and 3-CPO, the robotic characters in the Star Wars movies, but the concept goes far
back. In the eighteenth century, a group of Swiss watchmakers—Pierre and Henri-Louis Jaquet-
Droz and Jean-Frédéric Leschot—built humanoid automata to demonstrate their mechanical skills
and advertise their watches. Many companies today build humanoid robots for similar reasons.
Humanoid robots are a form of autonomous mobile robot with an extremely complex mechanical
design for moving the arms and for locomotion by the legs. Humanoid robots are used for research
into the mechanics of walking and into human-machine interaction. Humanoid robots have been
proposed for performing services and maintenance in a house or a space station. They are being
considered for providing care to the elderly who might feel anxious in the presence of a machine
that did not appear human. On the other hand, robots that look very similar to humans can generate
repulsion, a phenomenon referred to as the uncanny valley.
Humanoid robots can be very difficult to design and control. They are expensive to build with
multiple joints that can move in many different ways. Robots that use wheels or tracks are preferred
for most applications because they are simpler, less expensive and robust.

Fig. 10 a Thymio robot. Source https://www.thymio.org/en:mediakit by permission of École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne and École
Cantonale d’Art de Lausanne, b Dash robot. Source https://www.makewonder.com/mediakit by permission of Wonder Workshop

1.7 EDUCATIONAL ROBOTS

Advances in the electronics and mechanics have made it possible to construct robots that are
relatively inexpensive. Educational robots are used extensively in schools, both in classrooms and
in extracurricular activities. They could be used to provide a more personalized learning
experience for students. Educational robots could adapt to each student's individual needs and
learning style, providing tailored instruction and feedback. This could potentially lead to improved
learning outcomes for students. Additionally, educational robots could potentially reduce the cost
of education by reducing the need for human teachers. They could also allow for more students to
be taught simultaneously, leading to increased efficiency and lower costs.
However, the large number of educational robots makes it impossible to give a complete
overview. Here we give few examples that are representative of robots commonly used in
education.
Pre-Assembled Mobile Robots
Many educational robots are designed as pre-assembled mobile robots. Fig. 10a shows the Thymio
robot from Mobsya and Fig. 10b shows the Dash robot from Wonder Workshop. These robots are
relatively inexpensive, robust and contain a large number of sensors and output components such
as lights. An important advantage of these robots is that you can implement robotic algorithms
“out of the box,” without investing hours in mechanical design and construction. However, pre-
assembled robots cannot be modified, though many do support building extensions using, for
example, LEGO® components.
Robotics Kits
The LEGO® Mindstorms robotics kits (Fig. 11a) were introduced in 1998. A kit consists of
standard LEGO® bricks and other building components, together with motors and sensors, and a
programmable brick which contains the computer that controls the components of the robot. The
advantage of robotics kits is that they are

Fig. 11 a LEGO® Mindstorms EV3 (Courtesy of Adi Shmorak, Intelitek), b Poppy Ergo Jr
robotic arms (Courtesy of the Poppy Project)
flexible: you can design and build a robot to perform a specific task, limited only by your
imagination. A robotics kit can also be used to teach students mechanical design. The
disadvantages of robotics kits are that they are more expensive than simple pre-assembled robots
and that exploration of robotics algorithms depends on the one’s ability to successfully implement
a robust mechanical design.
A recent trend is to replace fixed collections of bricks by parts constructed by 3D printers. An
example is the Poppy Ergo Jr robotic arm (Fig. 11b). The use of 3D printed parts allows more
flexibility in the creation of the mechanical structure and greater robustness, but does require
access to a 3D printer.
Robotic Arms
To act on its environment, the robot needs an actuator which is a component of a robot that affects
the environment. Many robots, in particular robotic arms used in industry, affect the environment
through end effectors, usually grippers or similar tools. The actuators of mobile robots are the
motors that cause the robot to move, as well as components such as the vacuum pump of a vacuum
cleaner.
Educational robots are usually mobile robots whose only actuators are its motors and display
devices such as lights, sounds or a screen. End effectors can be built with robotics kits or by using
additional components with pre-assembled robots, although educational robotic arms do exist (Fig.
11b). Manipulation of objects introduces

Fig. 12 Blockly software for the Thymio robot

complexity into the design; however, since the algorithms for end effectors are similar to the
algorithms for simple mobile robots, most of the activities in the book will assume only that your
robot has motors and display devices.
Software Development Environments
Every educational robotics system includes a software development environment. The
programming language can be a version of a standard programming language like Java or Python.
Programming is simplified if a block-based language is used, usually a language based upon
Scratch or Blockly (Fig. 12).
To further simplify programming a robot by young students, a fully graphical programming
notation can be used. Fig. 13 shows VPL (Visual Programming Language), a graphical software
environment for the Thymio robot. It uses event-action pairs: when the event represented by the
block on the left occurs, the actions in the following blocks are performed.
Figure 2-4 shows the graphical software environment for the Dash robot. It also uses events and
actions, where the actions are represented by nodes and events are represented by arrows between
nodes.

Fig. 13 VPL software for the Thymio robot

Fig. 14 Wonder software for the Dash robot. Source https://www.makewonder.com/mediakit