The Brain – Test Review

Anatomy of the Brain – Structure and Function

 The Cerebrum:
o Higher brain functions, such as creativity and analytical skills, are centred in the
cerebrum
o The largest part of the brain, consists of the 4 lobes:
1. Frontal: centre of voluntary movement, language, cognitive skill (e.g. impulse
control, problem solving, social interaction)  located in the front, largest lobe
2. Temporal: centre of emotions, recognition, and memory  longest, under
frontal
3. Parietal: integration of information from the senses (i.e. coordination)  next to
frontal
4. Occipital: receives projections from the retina (i.e. visuals)  smallest, located
opposite from frontal
o Divided from the cerebellum and the brain stem
o Divided into two cerebral hemispheres: controls speech, thought, learning…
 Right: controls muscle movement on left side of the body
 Left: controls muscle movement on the right side of the body
 Corpus callosum: the large fibre tract that connects the two hemispheres
o Cerebral cortex: the 6 layers of nerve cells consisting of billions of neurons
o Cerebral aqueduct: canal filled with CSF that connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles
o Choroid plexus: the network of blood vessels that forms the CSF
 Fissures (sunken): increases surface area in the brain allowing more cerebral cortex matter (i.e.
gray matter) to fit into the skull
o Central fissure: located between the parietal and frontal lobes
o Lateral fissure: divides the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes (cuts across
lengthwise)
o Parieto-occipital fissure divides the occipital lobe from the rest of the brain
 Gyrus (raised): structure allows same function as fissures, located in the frontal lobe
o Post-central gyrus: perceives somatic sensations (e.g. touch, pressure, temperature,
pain), located in the parietal lobe
 Somatosensory cortex found here, processes bodily senses
o Pre-central gyrus: responsible for the control of voluntary motor movement, located in
the frontal lobe
 Primary motor cortex located here, generates signals to direct the movement of
the body
 Brain Stem:
o Pons: located above the medulla oblongata, associated with breathing and respiratory
rhythms
o Medulla: below pons, maintains homeostasis in the body and regulates heartbeat and
blood pressure
 Cerebellum: the folded part of the brain located below the temporal lobe and next to the brain
stem, regulates automatic motor movement (i.e. Posture and skeletal muscles)
  The Limbic System: controls behavioural and emotional response
o Thalamus: enclosed in the 3rd ventricle, relays information between the cortex and
brainstem
o Hypothalamus: located beneath the thalamus, signals the production of hormones that
regulate autonomic functions like hunger, the sleep-wake cycle, and body temperature
o Amygdala: adjacent to the hippocampus, processes emotions
o Hippocampus: memory formation and storage
 Hormones in the brain:
o Pineal body: responsible for melatonin production, located above the cerebellum and
adjacent to the thalamus
o Pituitary gland: creates, secretes, and stores hormones that are required for growth and
metabolism, located below the hypothalamus (the hypothalamus tells the pituitary
gland when to secrete)

The Effect of Drugs on the Brain

 Mouse Party Examples:
o Heroin/Marijuana binds to opiate/cannabinoid receptors, preventing the release of
inhibitory neuroreceptors that stop dopamine from being released
o Ecstasy mimics serotonin and can pass through serotonin transporters, this causes
serotonin to be moved out from the cell instead of in
 Meth does the same thing except with dopamine transporters
 Stimulant drugs stimulate the release of a neurotransmitter (i.e. dopamine or serotonin) or
inhibits the reuptake of neurotransmitters
o Increases heartrate, blood pressure, and alertness
 Depressant drugs enhance the activity of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter than reduces
neural transmission
o Impairs motor and cognitive function, relaxes muscle, and can lead to respiratory failure
 Effects on parts of the neuron:
1. Presynaptic Cells (produce neurotransmitters like dopamine): exposure to drugs
results in an overproduction or underproduction
2. Synaptic Cleft: if neurotransmitter transporters (responsible for reuptake) are failing
due to drugs, too much of the neurotransmitter stays in the cleft
3. Postsynaptic Cells: neurotransmitters lingering in the cleft will repeatedly bind to
receptors, causing the signal of the neurotransmitter to be disrupted

The Story of Phineas Gage

 Railway constructor that was impaled with a metal rod through his frontal lobe (i.e. frontal
lobotomy)
 Limbic system, frontal cortex, and connections between the two damaged
 The limbic system is controlled and regulated by the frontal cortex
 After the accident, the severed connections between the two systems allowed for his limbic
system to express itself without the control of the frontal cortex
o This completely changed his character/personality
o Limbic system is free to fire its messages of emotion uninhibited by the frontal cortex 
irrational and unpredictable behaviour
 Gage survived physically, but never regained his emotional and intellectual self-control, balance,
and judgement
  Sparked research on how physical changes in the brain affect behaviour

The Eye
 Ciliary muscles contract when using near vision and relax when using far vision
 Photoreceptors in the eye allow us to see light
o Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels
 Depolarized in the dark, hyperpolarized in the light
o Cones are active during higher light levels and allow for colour visual
 The cornea directs light rays into the eye and focuses them into the retina
 The iris controls the amount of light that enters the eye by adjusting the size of the pupil
o Shrinks pupil if too much light and widens it if not enough
 The retina converts images from the lens into electrical signals and sends them along the optic
nerve to the brain
 Aqueous humor is the clear liquid inside the front part of the eye that nourishes it and keeps it
inflated

The Ear
 Sound travels to the eardrum, which vibrates and send the vibrations to three tiny bones, first of
which is the malleus (hammer)
 The malleus then hits the incus (anvil)
 The incus then hits the stapes (stirrups)
 From the stapes, sound enters semicircular canals to the cochlea
 The cochlea is filled with tiny hairs and fluid, the hairs movement from the sound creates an
electrical signal which is carried by the auditory nerve to the brain

The Brain that Changes Itself

 Neuroplasticity: the brain’s ability to rehabilitate and rewire itself
 The brain can rewire itself by recruiting more neurons, activating more genes to create more
receptor proteins, and by converting “side road” neural pathways into efficient “highways”
 Excessive neuroplasticity is described as overstimulation/autism