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AS Level Physics
Chapter # 2
MEASURMENT TECHNIQUES

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Dimensions and Errors
Any experiment will involve a series of measurements, and each of these

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measurements will be made to a certain degree of accuracy.
For example, the calculation of a velocity requires the measurement of a time and a
distance.

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Using a stopwatch you may measure the time to the nearest tenth of a

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second, and using a metre rule, you may find the distance to the nearest
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millimetre. Experimental errors cause a measurement to differ from its true value.
There are two basic types of error.
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Random Errors Systematic Errors
Result from unknown and Are associated with particular
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unpredictable variations that arise in all measurement, instruments or

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experimental measurement situations. techniques, such as improperly

They can never be eliminated entirely, calibrated instrument or bias on the
but reducing them, by repeating a part of observer.
measurement several times increase the The term systematic implies that the
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precision of the result. (May fluctuate same magnitude and sign of

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between positive and negative) experimental error are obtained when

the measurement is repeated several
times. Conditions from which
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systematic errors can result include:

1. An improperly "zeroed" instrument,
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2. A faulty instrument,
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3. Personal error.
Systematic errors can be reduced or
eliminated entirely.
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Accuracy and Precision

The term accuracy applies to a measuring instrument. How close its
measurement to the true value (how correct it is).
Manufactures quote the accuracy of an instrument such as a voltmeter, usually in
percentage terms. There is nothing that a user can do to improve the accuracy of a
measuring instrument, though some instruments need frequent calibration to ensure

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that the accuracy stays within a certain limit.

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The precision of a physical measurement depends on, how the instrument is used.
Depending on the scale, most instruments are read by rounding off to the nearest

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scale division or estimating the position of a pointer.
Precision refers to the agreement among repeated measurement (how close
together)

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Fig. Accuracy and Precision

The true value in this analogy is the bull's eye. The degree of scattering in an
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indication of precision, the closer together a dart grouping, the greater the
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precision. A group (or symmetric grouping with an average) close to the true value
represents accuracy.
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Note: A measurement with a small random with a very small systematic error
is accurate is precise. A measurement
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Measurement Uncertainty
Whenever a measurement of a physical quantity is made, some measuring
instrument has to be used to make that measurement.
The instrument may be as ordinary, as a ruler or as sophisticated as a modern mass
spectrometer, for chemical analysis.
In using the instrument, an experimenter has to make use of his or her own skill to

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obtain as accurate a reading as possible.

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Built-in to the instrument, however is a limit of accuracy within which, the
experimenter is working. The result of this is, that the readings that the

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experimenter takes have a degree of uncertainty. Physical quantities cannot be
measured exactly with any instrument.

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A ruler used to measure a certain length, the reading will probably be taken to the

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nearest millimeter. The uncertainty (possible error) is 1mm, or 0.1cm. The reading
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might then be stated as (210 1) mm.
This implies that the person taking the reading thinks that the best value is 210mm,
and that the value will not fall outside the range from 209mm to 211mm.
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The mm is called the uncertainty of the reading. Sometimes people refer to this
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as the error in the reading, but the word 'error' seems to imply that a mistake has
been made. This is not the case. Any reading always has an uncertainty.
Using a ruler uncertainty is 1mm, using vernier, its 0.1mm and using
micrometer the uncertainty is 0.01mm.
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Absolute, Fractional and Percentage Uncertainties

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The size of an uncertainty needs to be considered together with the size of the
quantity being measured. The example given above of the ruler measuring a
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distance of 210mm with an uncertainty of 1mm may be an acceptable uncertainty

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for a particular experiment.

However, an uncertainty of 1mm will not be acceptable if the actual distance you
are trying to measure is itself only 2mm.
In other words:
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(210 1) mm is a fairly accurate measurement

(3 1) mm is highly inaccurate

In order to compare uncertainties, use is made of absolute, fractional and

percentage uncertainties. For the reading (210 1) mm:

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1mm is the absolute uncertainty

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is the fractional uncertainty (= 0.0048)

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0.48% is the percentage uncertainty

Note: Absolute uncertainty has units, mm in this case, but that the fractional

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and percentage uncertainties are ratios and therefore do not have units.

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Calculating Uncertainties
1. When adding or subtracting
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When adding or subtracting quantities, you just add their uncertainties. The
diagram shows 2 resistors in series. If you have to work out their total
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resistance, what will be the uncertainty in your calculation?

The nominal value for the total resistance = 30.0
But it could be as low as 9.5 + 195 = 29
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Or as high as 10.5 + 20.5 = 31

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Since we are adding the quantities, we just add their uncertainties So: (10.0
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0.5) 20.0 0.5) = (30.0 1.0)

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2. When multiplying or dividing

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When multiplying or dividing quantities, you add their percentage uncertainties to
get the total percentage uncertainty.
Look at the diagram:
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Resistance
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To find the uncertainty in this value, we need to find the percentage uncertainties
in V and I.
Percentage uncertainty in ( )
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Percentage uncertainty in ( )
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The total percentage uncertainty in the resistance is found by adding the

4.7% of 83.3 = 0.047 83.3 = 3.9
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So, we can write: Resistance = (83.3 3.9)

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3. When dealing with power

When squaring a quantity, you multiply
the percentage uncertainty by 2 to get the
total percentage uncertainty.
When cubing a quantity, you multiply the

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percentage uncertainty by 3. When

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finding a square root, you multiply by 0.5.
What is the area of the circle shown in the

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diagram?

Area of circle = πr2 = (1.000)2 = 3.142 m²

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Percentage uncertainty in r = ( )

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Percentage uncertainty in r2 =2 0.5% = 1.0%
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Uncertainty in the area is 1.0% of 3.142 = 0.031m2
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Area = (3.142 0.031) m²
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Example:
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A student finds the density of a liquid by measuring its mass and its volume.
The following is a summary of his measurements.
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Mass of empty beaker = (30 1)g

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Mass of beaker + liquid = (90 1)g

Volume of liquid (15.0 ± 0.6) cm3
He correctly calculated the density of the liquid as 4.0gcm-3
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What is the uncertainty in this value ?

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Mass of liquid = 90 – 30 = 60g

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Uncertainty is 2g (addition) i.e. m = (60 2)g

Percentage uncertainty in the mass =
Percentage uncertainty in the volume =
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Percentage uncertainty in the density =

Uncertainty in the density =

Another Method
Mass of liquid = 60 2

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Volume of liquid = 15 0.6

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Maximum density =

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Minimum density =
Average uncertainty =

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Standard form
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It is accepted practice to express numerical quantities as a number between 1 and
10 multiplied by the oppropriate power of 10. This is known as standard form.
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Some examples are given in table,
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Number Number in Standard Form

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1000
140 000 000
128 600
0.015
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0.003 86
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Significant Figures
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At first glance the values 2cm, 2.0cm and 2.00cm may appear identical.
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There is, however, a very important difference between them.

The first value is given to just one significant figure. This indicates that the true
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value of this length lies between 1.5cm and 2.5cm.

The second value is given to two significant figures, the true value of this length
lies between 1.95cm and 2.05cm.
The third value is the most precise of the figure as it is given to three significant
figures, indicating that its true value lies between 1.995cm and 2.005cm.
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The greater the number of significant figures given the greater the implies
precision of the measurement.
Note: The number of significant figures given and the number of decimal
places are not necessarily the same. Writing the above values in m or km
would alter the number of decimal places but not the number of significant
figures or the implies precision of the values.

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When calculating, the final answer should not be stated to more significant figures

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than the least precise of the given figures.

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Your answers cannot be any more precise than the data you use.
This means that should round your answer to the same number of significant
figures as those used in the calculation. If some of the figures are given less

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precisely than others, then round up to the lowest number of significant figures.

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Make sure you get into the habit of rounding all your answers to the correct
numbers of significant figures. You may lose marks in an examination if you don't!
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Example
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A swimmer covers a distance of 100.0m in 68s. Calculate her average speed. .

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Solution:
Speed
This is the answer according to your calculator.
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How many significant figures should we round to?

The distance was given to 4 significant figures. But the time was given only 2
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significant figures. Our answer cannot be any more precise than this, so we need to
round to 2 significant figures.
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Our answer should be stated as 1.5 m/s (2 s.f)

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9 PRACTICE SHEET 2: MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 1
Question # 1
A coin is made in the shape of a thin cylinder, as shown in Fig. 1.1

diameter

thickness

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.2 shows the measurements made in order to determine the density ρ of the material used to
make the coin.

quantity measurement uncertainty

mass 9.6 g ± 0.5 g
thickness 2.00 mm ± 0.01 mm
diameter 22.1 mm ± 0.1 mm

Fig. 1.2

(a) Calculate the density ρ in kg m–3.

ρ = ...............................................kg m–3 [3]

(b) (i) Calculate the percentage uncertainty in ρ.

percentage uncertainty = ......................................................... [3]

(ii) State the value of ρ with its actual uncertainty.

ρ = ........................................................ ± ........................................... kg m–3 [1]

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Question # 2
The volume V of liquid flowing in time t through a pipe of radius r is given by the equation

V
=
π Pr 4
t 8Cl

where P is the pressure difference between the ends of the pipe of length l, and C depends
on the frictional effects of the liquid.

An experiment is performed to determine C. The measurements made are shown in Fig. 2.1.

V
/ 10–6 m3 s–1 P / 103 N m–2 r / mm l /m
t

1.20 ± 0.01 2.50 ± 0.05 0.75 ± 0.01 0.250 ± 0.001

Fig. 1.1

(a) Calculate the value of C.

C = ..................................... N s m–2 [2]

(b) Calculate the uncertainty in C.

uncertainty = ..................................... N s m–2 [3]

(c) State the value of C and its uncertainty to the appropriate number of significant figures.

C = ........................................... ± ........................................... N s m–2 [1]

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Question # 3

3 (a) Distinguish between systematic errors and random errors.

systematic errors .............................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

random errors ..................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

(b) A cylinder of length L has a circular cross-section of radius R, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 1.1

The volume V of the cylinder is given by the expression

V = πR 2L .

The volume and length of the cylinder are measured as

V = 15.0 ± 0.5 cm3

L = 20.0 ± 0.1 cm.

Calculate the radius of the cylinder, with its uncertainty.

radius = ........................ ± ........................ cm [5]

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Question # 4
4 One end of a wire is connected to a fixed point. A load is attached to the other end so that the wire
hangs vertically.

The diameter d of the wire and the load F are measured as

d = 0.40 ± 0.02 mm,

F = 25.0 ± 0.5 N.

(a) For the measurement of the diameter of the wire, state

(i) the name of a suitable measuring instrument,

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

(ii) how random errors may be reduced when using the instrument in (i).

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................[2]

(b) The stress σ in the wire is calculated by using the expression

4F
σ= .
πd 2

(i) x 108 N m–2.

Show that the value of σ is 1.99 ×

[1]

(ii) Determine the percentage uncertainty in σ.

percentage uncertainty = .......................................................% [2]

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(iii) Use the information in (b)(i) and your answer in (b)(ii) to determine the value of σ, with
its absolute uncertainty, to an appropriate number of significant figures.

σ = ..................................... ± ..................................... N m–2 [2]

[Total: 8]
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Question # 5
5 (a) The diameter d of a cylinder is measured as 0.0125 m ± 1.6%.

Calculate the absolute uncertainty in this measurement.

absolute uncertainty = ...................................................... m [1]

(b) The cylinder in (a) stands on a horizontal surface. The pressure p exerted on the surface by
the cylinder is given by
4W
p= .
πd 2

The measured weight W of the cylinder is 0.38 N ± 2.8%.

(i) Calculate the pressure p.

p = ................................................ N m−2 [1]

(ii) Determine the absolute uncertainty in the value of p.

absolute uncertainty = ................................................ N m−2 [2]

[Total: 4]
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Question # 6
6 (a) Define density.

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [1]

(b) Fig. 6.1 shows a solid pyramid with a square base.

pyramid,
density ρ
mass m

x
x

Fig. 6.1

The mass m of the pyramid is given by

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m= ρhx2
3
where ρ is the density of the material of the pyramid,
h is the height, and
x is the length of each side of the base.

Measurements are taken as shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1

percentage
quantity measurement
uncertainty
m 19.5 g ± 2%
x 4.0 cm ± 5%
h 4.8 cm ± 4%

(i) Calculate the absolute uncertainty in length x.

absolute uncertainty = ................................................... cm [1]

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(ii) The density ρ is calculated from the measurements in Table 6.1.

Determine the percentage uncertainty in the calculated value of ρ.

percentage uncertainty = ..................................................... % [2]

(c) The square base of the pyramid in (b) rests on the horizontal surface of a bench.

Use data from Table 6.1 to calculate the average pressure of the pyramid on the surface of
the bench. The uncertainty in your answer is not required.

pressure = .................................................... Pa [3]

[Total: 7]
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Question # 7
7(a) A smooth pebble, made from uniform rock, has the shape of an elongated sphere as
shown in Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.1

The length of the pebble is L. The cross-section of the pebble, in the plane perpendicular to L,
is circular with a maximum radius r.

A student investigating the density of the rock makes measurements to determine the values
of L, r and the mass M of the pebble as follows:

L = (0.1242 ± 0.0001) m
r = (0.0420 ± 0.0004) m
M = (1.072 ± 0.001) kg.

(i) State the name of a measuring instrument suitable for making this measurement of L.

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Determine the percentage uncertainty in the measurement of r.

percentage uncertainty = ..................................................... % [1]

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(c) The density ρ of the rock from which the pebble in (b) is composed is given by
Mr n
ρ =
kL
where n is an integer and k is a constant, with no units, that is equal to 2.094.

(i) Use SI base units to show that n is equal to –2.

[2]

(ii) Calculate the percentage uncertainty in ρ.

percentage uncertainty = ..................................................... % [3]

(iii) Determine ρ with its absolute uncertainty. Give your values to the appropriate number of
significant figures.

ρ = ( ...................................... ± ...................) kg m–3 [3]

[Total: 11]
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Question # 8
8 (a) A unit may be stated with a prefix that represents a power-of-ten multiple or submultiple.

Complete Table 8.1 to show the name and symbol of each prefix and the corresponding
power-of-ten multiple or submultiple.

Table 8.1

power-of-ten multiple
prefix
or submultiple
kilo (k) 103
tera (T)
( ) 10–12
[2]

(b) In the following list, underline all the units that are SI base units.

ampere coulomb metre newton [1]

(c) The potential difference V between the two ends of a uniform metal wire is given by
4ρLI
V=
πd 2
where d is the diameter of the wire,
I is the current in the wire,
L is the length of the wire,
and ρ is the resistivity of the metal.

For a particular wire, the percentage uncertainties in the values of some of the above
quantities are listed in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2

quantity percentage uncertainty

d ± 3.0%
I ± 2.0%
L ± 2.5%
V ± 3.5%
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The quantities listed in Table 8.2 have values that are used to calculate ρ as 4.1 × 10 –7 Ω m.

For this value of ρ, calculate:

(i) the percentage uncertainty

percentage uncertainty = ......................................................% [2]

(ii) the absolute uncertainty.

absolute uncertainty = .................................................. Ω m [1]

[Total: 6]