1.1.

1: Systems of Linear Equations

 Coefficient Matrix: Given a system of linear equations a coefficient matrix is a matrix of the coefficient of the linear
equations.
 Augmented Matrix: Given a system of linear equations a augmented matrix is a matrix of the coefficients and the right hand
value of the equal sign.
 Linear equations: An equation that can be written as a x 1+ a2 x 2+ a3 x 3 +…+ an x n=b where a x 1+ a2 x 2+ a3 x 3 +…+ an x n
can be real or complex numbers.
 System of Linear Equations: A collection of two or more linear equations using the same variable.
 Solution: A list of numbers (s1 , s 2 , s3 , …) that makes each equation in the system true when substituting for
( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , … ) respectively.
 Solution set: The set of all possible solutions.
 Each system of linear equations has one of the following:
 No solution (Inconsistent)
 One solution (Consistent)
 Infinite Solutions

Example:
x 1+ x2 =5
3 x 1−2 x 2=10
Augmented Matrix

[ 13 −21 ]
Coefficient Matrix

[−31 1 ¿5
−2 ¿ 10 ]
1.2.1: Row Reduction and Echelon Form
 Leading Entry: The first non-zero element in a collum.
 Echelon Form has the following:
 All non-zero rows are above all rows of zeros.
 Each leading entry of a row is in a collum to the right of the leading entries of the row above it. (Think identity
matrix.)
 All entries in a collum below a leading entry are zeros.
 Reduced Row Echelon Form has the following:
 Has to be in Echelon Form.
 The leading entry in each non-row row is 1.
 Each leading 1 is the only non-zero entry in the collum.
 Pivot Position: Corresponds to the leading 1 in RREF.
 Pivot Colum: The collum that contains the pivot.
 Pivot: Nonzero number in pivot position used to create zeros in row operations.

Example
Echelon Form

[ ]
2 1 1 4
0 7 −2 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
Reduced Row Echelon Form

[ ]
1 0 3 0
0 1 7 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

1.2.2 Solution Sets and Free Variables

  Free variables can take on any value one you choose a value for your free variable, it will determine the values of the other
(basic) variables.
 Consider the following augmented matrix:

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 0 −5 ¿ 1 x1 −5 x 3=1 x1 =5 x 3 +1
 0 1 1 ¿ 4 written as a system of equation it is x 2−x 3=4 , rewritten it is x 2=4−x 3 .
0 0 0 ¿0 0=0 x 3 is free
 Any system with a free variable has infinite solutions.
 Any collum that doesn’t have a pivot value is a free variable.
 A system with no solution will have a false identity usually in the form of 0={x E R∨x ≠ 0 }.

Example:

 The matrix, [ 00 1
0
0 ¿−3
1 ¿−7 ]
, has infinite solution, because there is no pivot in the first collum, so x 1 is free.

[ ]
1 0 19 ¿ 0
 The matrix, 0 1 10 ¿ 0 , has no solution because there is a false identity of 0=1, in the last row.
0 0 0 ¿1

 The matrix,
1
0 [ 0
1
¿−15
¿−11 ]
, has only one solution, because there aren’t any free variables and no inconsistencies.

 The matrix,
1
0 [ 0
0
0 ¿ 18
1 ¿−2 ]
, has infinite solution, because there is no pivot in the second collum, so x 2 is free.

1.3.1: Vector Equation

 Vector: An ordered list of numbers.
 Column Vector: A vector with only one collum, we often use these for ordered pairs, triples, etc...
 Vectors in R2: The set of all vectors with two entries, R → real numbers, 2 → numbers of entries. This is the set of all points
in a plane.
 Operations with vectors are the same as matrices which involve the following:
 Scalar multiplication which involves multiplying a vector with a constant.
 Addition of corresponding values.
 Multiplication only if the dimensions work out.
 If n E R , then Rn is the collection of all lists of ordered n-tuples of n real numbers written as n∗1 collum matrices.
 Zero Vector: The vector whose entries are all 0s.
 Vectors have the following properties.
 u+ v=v+ u
 u+0=0+u=u
 ( u+ v ) +w=u(v+ w)
 u+ (−u )=(−u ) +u=0
 c ( u+v ) =cu+ cv
 c ( du ) =( cd ) u
 ( c +d ) u=cu+du
 1 u=u

Example

u=
[ 23] and v=
[−12]
 Find u+ v and −2 u+4 v

[
u+ v= 2+(−1)
3+2 ]
−2 u+4 v=
[ ][ ][
−2 ( 2 ) 4 (−1 )
−2 ( 3 )
+
4 (2)
=
(−2 ( 2 ) ) + ( 4 (−1 ) )
(−2 ( 3 ) ) + ( 4 ( 2 ) ) ]
1.3.1: Linear Combinations
 The vector defined by y=c1 v 1 +c 2 v 2 +…+ c n v n where c i are scalers and v i are vectors is called a linear combination of
v 1 , v 2 , … , v n with weights c 1 , c2 , … , c n.
 A vector equation, x 1 a1+ x2 a2 +…+ xn a n=b has the same solution set as the linear system whose augmented matrix is
[a1 , a2 , … , an ]. Therefore, a vector equation only has a solution if the system is consistent.
 If v 1 , v 2 , … , v p are in Rn , then the set of linear combination is denoted as span {v 1 , v 2 , … , v n } and is called the subset of
R spanned. Essentially span {v 1 , v 2 , … , v n } is all vectors that can be written in the c 1 v 1 +c 2 v 2+ …+c n v n with c i
n

scalars.
 If a pivot already exits above a nonzero number, then the last row can be made all 0s to solve for the span.

Example:

[ ] [] []
1 2 7
 If v 1= −2 and v 2= 5 , determine weather b= 4 can be written as a linear combination of v 1 and v 2, then
−5 6 −3
determine the weights such that c 1 v 1 +c 2 v 2=b .

([ ]) ([ ]) [ ]
1 2 7
c 1 −2 + c 2 5 = 4
−5 6 −3
1 c 1+2 c 2=7
−2 c 1+ 5 c2 =4
−5 c 1+ 6 c 2=−3
c 1=3 , c 2=2

([ ]) ([ ]) [ ]
1 2 7
( 3 ) −2 + ( 2 ) 5 = 4
−5 6 −3

[ ] [ ] []
1 −2 4
 a
Let 1 = a =
4 , 2 −3 , and b= 1 . For what values of h is b in the span of a 1 and a 2?
−2 7 h

[ ][ ][ ]
1 −2 ¿4 1 −2 ¿−4 1 −2 ¿−4
4 −3 ¿1 → 0 1 ¿−3 → 0 1 ¿−3
−2 7 ¿h 0 3 ¿ 8+h 0 0 ¿17 +h
 Because the third collum already has a pivot of the 1, that last collum can be negated, leaving the equation,
17+ h=0 and h=−17. Therefore, h must be −17 for b to be in the span of {a1 , a2 }.
 [ ] [ ] [] [ ]
w= −33 , v 1= −3 , v 2= 5 , v 3 1 . If possible, write w as a linear combination of the vectors, v 1 , v 2 , v 3.
−20 −1 3 −2
For example, the answer w=4 v 1 +5 v 2 +6 v 3.

[
−3 5 1 ¿−33
−1 3 −2 ¿−20 ]
→ RREF →
[
1 0 −3.25 ¿−0.25
0 1 −1.75 ¿−6.75 ]
v 1=−0.25+3.25 v 3
v 2=−6.75+1.75 v 3
v 3 → free because there is no pivot at the third collum
w=(−0.25+ 3.25 ) v 1 + (−6.75+1.75 ) v 2 + v 3

1.4.1: The Matrix Equation Ax=b

 If A is an m∗n matrix with columns, a 1 , a2 , … , an and if x E R n. Then Ax is the linear combination of the columns of A
using the corresponding entries in x as weights.
 Let A be an m∗n matrix. Then these statements are logically equivalent:
 For each b in Rm, the equation Ax=b has a solution.
  Each b in Rm is a linear combination of the colums of A.
 The columns of A span Rm
 A has a pivot position in every row (A must be a coefficient matrix – not augmented)

Example:

[]
2
 Find Ax if A= [2 −1 0
3 4 1 ]
and x=
−1
3 .

[] [ ]
Ax=( 2 ) 2 + ( 3 ) −1 + (−1 ) 0 = 1
3 4 [][ ]
1 17
 Write the linear combinations 2 v i −3 v 2 + 4 v 3 as a matrix times a vector.

[]
2
Ax=[v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ] −3
4
 Consider the system of equations:
2 x1 +3 x 2−x 3=3
2 x 2+3 x 3=4
Augmented Matrix:

[ 20 32 −13 ¿¿ 34]
Vector Equation:

( x ) [ 2 ]+ ( x ) [3 ]+ ( x ) [−1 ]=[ 3 ]
1 2 3
0 2 3 4
Matrix Equation:

[]
x
[ 2 3 −1 1
0 2 3 ] []
x2 =
x3
3
4

[ ] []
1 3 4 b1
 Let A= −4 2 −6 and b= b 2 . Is the equation Ax=b consistent for all possible B?
−3 −2 −7 b3

[ ][ ][ ]
1 3 4 ¿ b1 ssssssssssssssssssss 1 3 4 ¿ b 1 sssssssssss
1 3 4 ¿ b1
0 14 10 ¿ b 2+ 4 b 1 ssssssssssssss 0 14 10 ¿ b 2+ 4 b 1 sssss
−4 2 −6 ¿ b2 → →
1 1
−3 −2 −7 ¿ b3 0 0 0 ¿ b3 +3 b 1− ( b2 + 4 b1 ) 0 0 0 ¿ b1− b 2+ b3
2 2
1
The solution is not consistent for all possible B only for some possible B where b 3+3 b 1− ( b 2+ 4 b1 ) =0 holds
2
true.

1.4.1: Computation of Ax
 If A x is defined, the i th entry in A x is the sum of the products of corresponding entries from row i of A from the vector x .

Example:

[]
2
 Find Ax if A= [
2 −1 0
3 4 1
and x=
]3 .
−1
2
2 +3
3 [] [ ] [][ ]
−1
4
0
±1 =
1
1 17
 Find A(u+ v ) if A= [
−4 2 2 ] [ ] [ ]
2 1 , u= −4 , v = 3
−1
.
 [ ] u+ v= −1
1

[ ] [][ ] −1 2 +1 1 = −1
−4 2 6
Au+ Av A=[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 1
 Find if ,u= −4 , v = 3 .
−4 2 2 −1

[ ] [] [ ] Au=−4 2 +2 1 = −6
−4 2 20

[ ] [][ ] Av=3 2 ±1 1 = 5
−4 2 −14

[ ] Au+ Av= −1
6
A(cu) A=[ ] [ ]
2 1
 Find if ,u= −4 , c=2 .
−4 2 2

[ ][ ] cu=2 −4 = −8
2 4

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
A ( cu )=
2 1 −8
−4 2 4
=−8 2 + 4 1 = −12
−4 2 40
c ( Au) A=[ ] [ ]
2 1
 Find if ,u= −4 , c=2 .
−4 2 2

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
Au=
2 1 −4
−4 2 2
=−4 2 +2 1 = −6
−4 2 20

[ ][ ] c ( Au ) =2 −7 = −12
18 40

Linear Algebra 1.5.1: Homogeneous System Solutions

 A system of linear equations that can be written in the form Ax=0 is called homogeneous.
 In a homogenous system where Ax=0, there must be at least one free variable.
 Its best practice to convert any matrix to its RREF form to find all the pivots to find the free variable.
 Trivial Solution: x=0 .
 Non-trivial Solution: x ≠ 0
 The only thing included in the span is the free variables.

Example:
 Describe all solution of Ax=0.

[ ] [ ]
1 3 2 −3 −3 1 1 3 0 −9 0 8
0 0 1 3 0 −2 0 0 1 3 0 −2
→ RREF →
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
x 2, x 4 , x 6 are free because at collum 2, there is no leading 1, thus no pivot. At collum 4, there is no leading 1, thus
no pivot, at collum 6, there are leading 1s but it should be in echelon form, so the 1 should be the last entry of
collum 3.
x 1+ 3 x 2−9 x 4 + 8 x6 =0 → x 1=−3 x 2 +9 x 4−8 x 6
x 2 → free
x 3 +3 x 4−2 x 6=0 → x 3=−3 x 4+ 2 x 6
x 4 → free
x 5 + x 6=0 → x 5=−x6
x 6 → free
 [ ][][][]
x1 =−3 x2 +9 x 4 −8 x 6 −3 9 −8
x 2 → free 1 0 0
x 3=−3 x 4 +2 x 6 =x 2 0 +x −3 + x 2
4 6
x 4 → free 0 1 0
x5 =−x 6 0 0 −1
x 6 → free 0 0 0

{[ ] [ ] [ ]}
−3 9 −8
1 0 0
0 , −3 , 2
The solution set may also be written as: Span .
0 1 0
0 0 −1
0 0 0

Linear Algebra 1.5.2: Non-Homogeneous System Solutions

 Solutions to non-homogeneous are in the form of Ax=b compared to homogenous solutiolns which are Ax=0, Ax=b is
just a translation, meaning the solution is nonzero.

Example:

[ ]
3 5 −4 ¿−7
 Consider the matrix, −3 −2 4 ¿−1 .
6 1 −8 ¿−4

[ ]
−4

[ ]
3 5 −4 ¿−7 1 0 ¿−1
3
−3 −2 4 ¿−1 → RREF →
0 1 0 ¿−2
6 1 −8 ¿−4
0 0 0 ¿−0
4 4
x 1− x 3=−1 → x 1=−1+ x 3
3 3
x 2=2
x 3 → free

[][ ][ ] []
4 4
x 1 −1+ x 3 −1
x= x 2 = 3 = 3
2 + x3
2 0
x3 0
x 3 1

 Consider the matrix, [ 12 4 −5 ¿ 0

−1 8 ¿ 9
. ]
[
1 4 −5 ¿ 0
2 −1 8 ¿ 9
→ RREF →
]
1 0 3 ¿−4
0 1 −2 ¿−1 [ ]
x 1+ 3 x 3=4 → x1 =4−3 x 3
x 2−2 x3 =−1→ x 2=−1+2 x 3
x 3 → free

[][ ][ ] [ ]
x1 4−3 x 3 4 −3
x= x 2 = −1+2 x = −1 + x3 2
x3 x3 0 1

Linear Algebra 1.7.1: Linear Independence

 Linear Independent: A set a vectors { v 1 , … , v m } ⊆ R is linearly dependent if x 1 v 1+ …+ x m v m=0 has only the trivial
n

solution. Otherwise, the set is linearly dependent.
 If A is a matrix then the following the equivalent:
 Ax=0 has only the trivial solution.
 Ax=0 has no free variables
 Every collum of A is a pivot collum.
 Every collum of A contains a pivot position.
 The columns of A are linearly independent.
 If one of the above conditions do not hold they are linearly dependent.
 The following are equivalent:
 Ax=0 has infinitely making solution.
 Ax=0 has a free variable.
 A has less pivot than columns.
 The columns are linearly dependent.

Example:

 Let A be a 3 x 2 matrix with linearly independent columns. Suppose we know that u= [−45 ] [−11 ]
and v= satisfy

the equation Au=a and Av=b find the solution x to Ax=5 a−4 b .

[ ]
x y
A= x 2 y2
x3 y3

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
x y x y −4 x+5 y
Au= −4 x2 y 2 =(−4 ) x 2 + ( 5 ) y 2 = −4 x 2+5 y 2 =a
5
x3 y3 x3 y 3 −4 x 3+5 y 3

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
x y x y x− y 1
Av= 1 x2 y 2 =( 1 ) x 2 + (−1 ) y 2 = x2− y 2 =b
−1
x3 y3 x3 y3 x 3− y 3

Ax=5 a−4 b

[ ][ ]
−4 x +5 y −20 x+ 25 y
5 a=( 5 ) −4 x2 +5 y 2 = −20 x 2+ 25 y 2
−4 x3 +5 y 3 −20 x 3+ 25 y 3

[ ][ ]
x− y 1 −4 x+ 4 y 1
−4 b=(−4 ) x 2− y 2 = −4 x 2 +4 y 2
x3 − y 3 −4 x 3 +4 y 3

Ax=5 a−4 b

[ ][ ][ ][ ]
x y −20 x +25 y −4 x +4 y 1 −24 x 1 +29 y 1
'
x2 y 2 x = −20 x2 +25 y 2 − −4 x 2+ 4 y 2 = −24 x 2 +29 y 2
x3 y3 −20 x3 +25 y 3 −4 x 3+ 4 y 3 −24 x 3 +29 y 3

[ ][ ]
x y −24 x 1+ 29 y 1
'
x2 y 2 x = −24 x 2+ 29 y 2
x3 y3 −24 x 3+ 29 y 3

[ ]
−24 x 1+ 29 y 1

−24 x 3+ 29 y 3
'
Therefore, a vector that must be multiplied by the matrix to equal −24 x 2+ 29 y 2 is x =
−24
29
. [ ]
 [] [] [ ]
4 2 2
 Let v 1= 2 , v 2= 3 , v 3= −5 . Determine if {v 1 , v 2 , v 3 } is linearly independent. If not, exhibit a linear
3 1 3
dependence.

[ ][ ] [ ]
4 2 2 0 4 2 2 1 0 2
2 3 −5 0 = 2 3 −5 → RREF → 0 1 −3
3 1 3 0 3 1 3 0 0 0
 Less pivot columns than columns are linearly dependent.
x 1+ 2 x 3=0 → x 1=−2 x3
x 2−3 x 2=0 → x 2=3 x 3
x 3 → free
−2 v 1 +3 v 2 + v 3=0
 Determine if the columns of A are linearly dependent.

A=
[ 21 63] → RREF →[ 10 30]
 There is no pivot position in collum 2. Therefore, linearly dependent.
x 1+ 3 x 2=0→ x 1=−3 x 2
x 2 → free

[][][]
−3 2 + 6 = 0
1 3 0
 Determine if the columns of A are linearly dependent.

[ ] [ ]
3 4 1 2
A= 3 6 → RREF → 0 4
4 12 0 0
 There is a pivot position in both columns. Therefore, linearly independent.
 Determine if the matrix is linearly independent or linearly independent.

[ ][ ]
−5 −15 1 3
−2 −6 0 0
1. A= ∼ There is no pivot on column so linearly dependent.
1 3 0 0
5 15 0 0

[ ][ ]
111 0
2 −6 −19 −1
0 1
−2 −6 18 2
2. A= There is a pivot in a all columns so linearly independent.
5 −15 −45 5
0 0
5 −16 −47 2
0 0 1
 Let A=¿ 2 ,−4 ,10> , B=¿ 1 ,3 ,−4 >,and C=¿ 9 , 17 ,−46>¿ . Determine whether or not the three vectors
listed above are linearly independent or linearly dependent.

[ ] [ ]
2 −4 10 1 0 −5
1 3 −4 → RREF → 0 1 −1
9 17 −46 0 0 0
a 1=5 a3
a 2=a3
a 3 → free
5 A +1 B+ C=0
 Let u , v , w be three linearly independent vectors in R7 . Determine the value of k , so that the set
S={u−5 v , v−6 w , w−ku }
a 1 ( u−5 v ) +a2 ( v −6 w )+ a3 ( w−ku ) → ( a1 u−a1 5 v ) + ( a2 v −6 w a 2 ) +(a3 w−ku a3 )
 u ( a 1−a3 k ) + v (−5 a1 +a 2) + w(−6 a2 +a 3)
a 1−a3 k =0 → a1=a 3 k
−5 a1 + a2=0 → a2=5 a 1
−6 a 2+ a3=0 → a3 =6 a2
a 1= ( 6 a 2) k
1
a 2=5 ( 6 a2 ) k → a2=30 a2 k → 1=30 k → k =
30

Linear Algebra 1.8.1: Matrix Transformation

 Matrix Transformation: A function that acts upon vector x by multiplication by A , and maps it to b .
 T (x) from Rn to Rm is a rule that assigns each vector x in Rn to a vector T (x) in Rm.
 Rn is the domain.
 Rm is the codomain/image.

Example

[ ] []
1 −3 3
A= 3
−1 7
5 u=
−1[ ]
2 b=
2
−5
T : R → R by T ( x )= Ax
2 3

 Find T (u), the image of u under T

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ] [ ][]
1 −3 1 −3 2+ 3 5
2
Au= 3 5 → 2 3 + ( −1 ) 5 → 6+(−5) → 1
−1
−1 7 −1 7 −2+(−7) −9
 The transformation transforms the matrix from 2 rows ( R2) to a matrix with 3 rows ( R3 ¿. Thus, the matrix
with 2 rows is in the domain and the matrix with 3 rows is in the codomain.
 Find an x in R2 whose image under T is b .

[ ] [ ]
1 −3 ¿−3 1 0 ¿−1.5
Ax= 3 5 ¿−2 → RREF → 0 1 ¿−0.5
−1 7 ¿−5 0 0 ¿−−0
x 1=1.5
x 2=−0.5

Linear Algebra 1.8.2: Introduction to Linear Transformation

 Transformation: The process that preserve the operation of vector addition and scalar multiplication. T is linear if:
 T ( u+ v )=T ( u ) +T ( v )
 T ( cu )=cT (u)
 T ( 0 )=0
 T ( cu+dv )=cT ( u ) + dT (v )
 Every matrix transformation is a linear transformation but not every linear transformation is a matric transformation.

Example

 Suppose that T is a linear transformation such that T

([ 10 ])=[ 67] T ([ 01 ])=[−6
,
−2 ]

[ ]A=
a 1 b1
a 2 b2

[ ][ ] [
1 a 1 b1
]= 1
a 0 ¿6
0 a2 b2 a2 0 ¿ 7
a 1=6 , a2=7
 [ 01][ aa bb ]=[ 00
1 1

2 2
]
b1 ¿−6
b2 ¿−2
b 1=−6 , b2=−2

[A=
]
6 −6
7 −2


([ ]) [ ] ([ ]) [ ]
Suppose that T is a linear transformation such that T
2
−2
=
−4
10
,T
−6
−5
=
45
14

[ ]
A= 1 1
a b
a 2 b2

[ ][
2 a 1 b1
−2 a 2 b2 ][ = 1
2 a −2b 1 ¿−4
2 a2 −2b 2 ¿ 10 ] [
→ SIMPLIFIED →
1 a1 −1 b1 ¿−2
1 a2 −1 b2 ¿ 5 ]
b 1=2+a1
b 2=−5+a 2

[ ][ ][
−6 a1 b 1 −6 a1 −5 b 1 ¿ 45
=
−5 a2 b 2 −6 a2 −5 b 2 ¿ 14 ]
−6 a 1−5 ( 2+a1 ) =45
a 1=−5
−6 a 2−5 (−5+a 2 )=14
a 2=1
b 1=−3
b 2=−4

[A=
]
−5 −3
1 −4