Assignment Topic: LIBERALISM AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

SUBMITTED TO: MISS FARHANA

SUBMITTED BY: SHAMS ULLAH

ROLL NO: 44

SUBJECT: POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

SEMESTER: BS 6TH SEMESTER

SESSION: 2020-2024

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF BALOCHISTAN QUETTA

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CONTENTS:
(1). INTRODUCTION TO LIBERALISM
(2). DEFINITION OF LIBERALISM
(3). HISTORY OF LIBERALISM
(4). FEATURES OF LIBERALISM
(5). CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBERALISM

(6). TYPES OF LIBERALISM

1. CLASSICAL LIBERALISM
2. MODERN LIBERALISM
3. NEO LIBERALISM

(7). PRINCIPLE OF LIBERALISM

(8). DEVELOPMENT OF LIBERALISM
(9). CONCLUSION

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INTRODUCTION:

Liberalism is the dominant ideology of the present-day Western world. The history of England,
Western Europe and America for the last 300 years is closely associated with the evolution and
development of liberal thought. Liberalism was the product of the climate of opinion that
emerged at the time of the Renaissance and Reformation in Europe. As an ideology and a way
of life, 'it reflected the economic, social and political aspirations of the rising middle class which
later on became the capitalist class'. In the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, when the
feudal system was cracking up, a new political system was taking its place. The establishment of
the absolute nation-states in England and Europe gave birth to a kind of political system in which
the authority of the king was absolute. The beginning of liberalism was a protest against the
hierarchical and privileged authority and monarchy - a protest which involved every aspect of
life. The main slogan of the protest was freedom - freedom from every authority which is
capable of acting capriciously and arbitrarily along with freedom of the individual to develop all
of his potentialities as a human being endowed with reason. To achieve the liberty of the
individual and to challenge the authority of the state, liberalism demanded liberty in every field
of life: intellectual, social, religious, cultural, political and economic etc.

WHAT IS LIBERALISM?

Liberalism as a political and moral philosophy which is centred on two main principles - these
are individualism and liberty. Firstly, liberalism places the individual at the heart of society and
argues that the highest value social order is one that is built around the individual. Secondly, the
purpose of society is to allow individuals to reach their full potential if they want to, and that the
best way to do this is to give the individual as much liberty as possible. These two key principles
are the foundations upon which the various elements of liberalism spring forth. Liberalism is too
dynamic and flexible a concept to be contained in a precise definition. Right from its inception, it
has been continuously changing, adding something and discarding the other.

By definition, a liberal is a man who believes in liberty, but because different men at different
times have meant different things by liberty, ”Liberalism" is correspondingly ambiguous.

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 Explaining the difficulty of defining liberalism, Hacker, Writes, "Liberalism has become so
common a term in vocabulary of politics that it is a brave man who will try to give it precise
definition. It is a view of the individual, of the state, and of the relations between them." Laski
Writes, What, then, is the liberalism we have here to discuss? "It is not easy to describe, much
less to define, for it is hardly less a habit of mind than a body of doctrine." In the same fashion
Sartori writes that a liberalism is "a concept so amorphous and changeable as to be left readily at
the mercy of arbitrary stipulations.” “Liberalism” is not a static creed or dogma, for dogmatism
provides its own restraints. It is rather a tentative attitude towards social problems which stresses
the role of reason and human ingenuity. On the basis of its changing tendencies, it has been
called negative and positive liberalism. Sometimes it is associated with individualism, and at
others with democracy or social democracy.

DEFINITION OF LIBERALISM:

Liberalism is a group of political, social and economic theories that centres on the values of
individual liberty, equality, economic freedom, limited and democratic government and the rule
of law.

Liberalism, from the Latin liberalis, is a broad political ideology or worldview originated from
the ideas of liberty and equality. According to theorists, Liberalism is a political ideology whose
main concern is to protect and enhance the liberty of individuals. As a political principle,
liberalism did not emerge until the early nineteenth century. However, liberal thoughts and
values had been developed through enormous social changes from the sixteenth century, and can
even be traced back to as early as ancient Greece and Rome, although there are some distinctions
in the main elements.

HISTORY OF LIBERALISM:

Liberalism, the belief in freedom, equality, democracy and human rights, is historically
associated with thinkers such as John Locke and Montesquieu, and with constitutionally
limiting the power of the monarch, affirming parliamentary supremacy, passing the Bill of
Rights and establishing the principle of "consent of the governed".

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The 1776 Declaration of Independence of the United States founded the nascent republic on
liberal principles without the encumbrance of hereditary aristocracy the declaration stated that
"all men are created equal and endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, among
these life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".A few years later, the French
Revolution overthrew the hereditary aristocracy, with the slogan "liberty, equality, fraternity"
and was the first state in history to grant universal male suffrage. The Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of the Citizen, first codified in 1789 in France, is a foundational document of both
liberalism and human rights, itself based on the U.S. Declaration of Independence written in
1776. The intellectual progress of the Enlightenment, which questioned old traditions about
societies and governments, eventually coalesced into powerful revolutionary movements that
toppled what the French called the Ancien Régime, the belief in absolute monarchy and
established religion, especially in Europe, Latin America and North America.

William Henry of Orange in the Glorious Revolution, Thomas Jefferson in the American
Revolution and Lafayette in the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed
overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. The 19th century saw liberal governments
established in nations across Europe, South America and North America. In this period, the
dominant ideological opponent of classical liberalism was conservatism, but liberalism later
survived major ideological challenges from new opponents, such as fascism and communism.
Liberal government often adopted the economic beliefs espoused by Adam Smith, John Stuart
Mill and others, which broadly emphasized the importance of free markets and laissez-
faire governance, with a minimum of interference in trade.

During 19th and early 20th century in the Ottoman Empire and Middle East, liberalism
influenced periods of reform such as the Tanzimat and Nahda and the rise of secularism,
constitutionalism and nationalism. These changes, along with other factors, helped to create a
sense of crisis within Islam which continues to this day this led to Islamic revivalism. During the
20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the
winning side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social
liberalism (often called simply "liberalism" in the United States) became a key component in the
expansion of the welfare state.

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Today, liberal parties continue to wield power, control and influence throughout the world, but it
still has challenges to overcome in Latin America, Africa and Asia. Later waves of modern
liberal thought and struggle were strongly influenced by the need to expand civil rights. Liberals
have advocated for gender equality, marriage equality and racial equality and a global social
movement for civil rights in the 20th century achieved several objectives towards those goals.

FEATURES OF LIBERALISM:
Salient Features of Liberalism are as follows:

1. Recognition of Importance of Individual:

Liberalism accords to the individual a high position of importance. Individual is accepted as the
central point of all political, economic and social activities. It is meaningless to talk of society
minus individuals, because a society is nothing but a large and active group of individuals. The
society is a means to the end, which is the individual. Society is for the individual and not the
individual for the society.

2. Faith in Rationality of Individual:

Liberalism has a firm faith in the intelligence and rationality of individual. Being rational, every
individual knows well what is good for him and what is not. No person can be and should be
forced to accept and follow such conventions, laws and principles as do not conform to his logic
and intellect. The supporters of Liberalism place emphasis upon the organised intellectual power
of human individual as the basis of all human progress and development.

3. Opposition to Blind Faith and Tradition:

Medieval Age was bound down by superstitions and traditions. The political, economic and
religious institutions were looked upon as the ideals. The liberalists opposed these institutions
and prepared the way for further changes. The liberalists had little faith in superstitions and old
dogmatic traditions. They stood for a society free from superstitions and irrational traditions.

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4. Support for Human Rights and Freedom:

The liberal thinkers support human rights and freedom. No State or society should abolish or
restrict them. The State is to protect all the rights. According to them the basic rights are: the
right to life, right to property and the rights to liberty, equality and justice.

5. Firm Support for Liberty:

The liberalists support liberty as the most cherished ideal. It includes the liberty of expression,
liberty of family, liberty of religion, economic liberty and social liberty. However, liberty is
conceptualised in a positive way. It is not defined as absence of restraints. It stands for some
rational restraints and seeks to eliminate irrational ones.

6. State as the means, Individual as the End:

Liberalism regards State only as an institution which has been created for the comfort and full
development of the individuals inhabiting it. The State is the means and its aim is the
development of individual. According to Bentham, the aim of the State was to promote ‘the
greatest happiness of the greatest number’. Modern liberal thinkers consider the State as an
instrument of general welfare and justice.

7. Constitutional and Limited Government:

Liberalism supports constitutional and limited government. While looking upon State as the
means for individual development, liberalism does not favour the end of state or an undue
limitation of the power of the state and its government. Liberalism is opposed only the
absolutism of the rulers.

To begin with, liberalism favoured limiting the powers of the government, but with the passage
of time it changed its own outlook and began to accept the role of the state as a hamonising
factor between individual good and the social welfare. However, it strongly advocates that every
government must function within its constitutional limits.

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8. Support for Democracy:

Liberalism was born as a reaction against the absolutism of the rulers. It upheld democracy
because it alone could really ensure the rights and freedoms of all. According to Locke, “a
government should born out of the people’s consent and should be based on people’s consent.”
Liberalism believes in representative institutions, adult franchise, free and fair elections,
independent, impartial judiciary, rule of law and social welfare.

9. Faith in Secularism:

Liberalism supports the view that there should be no special religion of the state. All religions
must enjoy equal freedom. People belonging to all religions should enjoy equal rights and
freedoms. A very large number of countries all over the world now accept the secular views of
liberalist.

10. Tolerance towards Dissent:

The liberalists tolerate dissent. They welcome opposition as an alternative point of view. They
believe not in the exercise of violence and force in politics, but in persuasion and consultation in
order to arrive at a decision. In a democracy, while the majority rule is an acceptable way of life,
the minorities are to have the right to work for and secure their interests.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIBERALISM:
Following are the Characteristics of Liberalism,

1. Economy Concentrated Around Capitalisation

Liberalism emphasizes the free-market-based economy, which is similar to the capitalistic

ideology. It focuses on private properties, getting production by providing wages to staff, profit
motive, etc. Market forces (demand & supply) will be the controlling means of pricing.

2. Focus on the Welfare of Common Public

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Liberalism emphasizes the welfare of the people. This concept circumstance that the state should
correctly serve the people and ensure the well-being of the people.

3. Limited but Adequate State Power

Liberalism focus that if state power is more than it results in a less free individual. Hence
liberalism focus to have limited but significant power over the state and a proper
political/government structure implementation prohibits misuse of the power to gain a
dictatorship.

4. Value Individual Opinion

Liberalism values the opinion of everyone which creates a good speech of freedom. The
philosophy embraces the importance of tolerating individual differences and diversity, in both
political and social aspects.

5. Focus on Democracy

Liberalism seeks to establish a proper governance structure in the state, which serves the people
and which elects by the people. Liberalism focus on a well-governed democracy in which the
government functions according to the constitution by upholding the rule of law. Liberalism is a
combination of democracy and individualism.

6. Individual Freedom

Liberalism is concentrated to protect and enrich individual rights. Ensure speech of freedom and
good well-being is the essential layers of liberalism.

TYPES OF LIBERALISM:
There are three types of liberalism which are as follow:

1. CLASSICAL LIBERALISM
2. MODERN LIBERALISM
3. NEO LIBERALISM

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(1). CLASSICAL LIBERALISM:
The political basics of classical liberalism entrenched in a series of social changes from the
sixteenth century. The late Medieval visualized the dissolve of feudalism and the upswing of
absolutism. Meanwhile, the power of papacy was declining and religious reformation was seen
in European countries. Rulers had to implement the conformity either to Roman Catholicism or
Protestantism. This process generated conflicts within and among the states. One example was
the Thirty Years' War from 1618 to 1648, which brought Europe to an enormous destruction. In
the next century, as industrialization gained speed, a new social class, specifically the middle
class emerged. They desired for more political participation and economic freedom. These
factors triggered the revolutions in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the most prominent of
which were the Glorious Revolution in England in 1688, the American Revolution from 1775-
83, and the 1789's French Revolution. In this situation, liberalism progressively emerged as a
political principle .

Classical liberalism is a conviction in a 'minimal' state, whose function is limited to the

maintenance of domestic order and personal security. Classical liberals stress that human beings
are essentially self-interested and largely self-sufficient; as far as possible, people should be
responsible for their own lives and circumstances. As an economic principle, classical liberalism
admires the merits of a self-regulating market in which government intervention is seen as both
unnecessary and damaging. Classical liberal ideas are expressed in certain natural rights theories
and utilitarianism, and provide the bases of libertarianism .

In basic form, classical liberalism is a political ideology belonging to liberalism in which

primary emphasis is placed on securing the freedom of the individual by limiting the power of
the government. The philosophy emerged as a response to the Industrial Revolution and
urbanization in the 19th century in Europe and the United States. It advocates civil liberties with
a limited government under the rule of law, private property, and belief in laissez-faire economic
policy.

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In brief, liberal thinking is normally linked with the idea of cooperation within as well as across
the nations boundaries. Classical liberalism is a basic root of approaching to modern
constitutional liberal state.

(2).MODERN LIBERALISM:
In the late nineteenth century, problems had gradually visible in the free market economy in
England and North America. Profits of the prosperous industry were in the hand of giant
companies, while the mass benefited very little. Subsequently, the gap between the rich and the
poor was significantly bloated. Moreover, as the poor people was not able to consume, there
were a large surplus of supply, which led to depressions. Meanwhile, as the rich gained more
power, they were able to influence politic and limit competition. In this circumstance, liberals of
the late nineteenth century and early twentieth (T.H. Green and L.T Hobhouse) planned for
reforms. Their ideas were strongly influenced by J.S Mill, who was generally recognized as the
watershed philosopher in liberalism.

Major attributes of modern liberalism:

 Equality of opportunity
 Positive freedom
 Enabling state
 Developmental individualism
 Qualified welfare

Generally, modern liberals state that freedom does not equal to being left alone. It is left alone,
human beings are weaker instead of stronger. There will be poverty, hunger, illness and helpless
and that less liberty to realize themselves. Hence, Social welfare in particular is to be provided
by the government.

Modern liberalism reached its top in the post war period, when everything, from industries to the
self-respect of individuals, was to be rebuilt. Welfare programs were further expanded
throughout western world, including social insurance, pensions, family allowances, medical care,
and government-funded higher education. In economic sector, "visible hand" of the government

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had attained remarkable results. For example, President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal (1933-
1939) successfully lifted American out of the Great Depression.

It is established in studies that modern liberalism displays a more sympathetic attitude towards
the state, born out of the belief that unregulated capitalism merely produces new forms of
injustice. State intervention can enlarge liberty by safeguarding individuals from the social
problems that afflict their existence. Whereas classical liberals understand freedom in 'negative'
terms, as the absence of constraints upon the individual, modern liberals link freedom to personal
development and self-realisation. This creates clear overlaps between modern liberalism and
social egalitarianism.

(3). NEO LIBERALISM:

Neoliberalism is a repossess of the political economy in classical liberalism. The philosophies
were developed by twenty century's economists, such as Friedrich Hayek and philosophers such
as Robert Nozick. They dealt the problem of the decelerating economic growth which starting
from the mid-1970s in the western world. Neoliberals hold that interference, whether with a good
intention or not, would have negative effects. The best solution should still be found in "self-
help, individual responsibility and entrepreneurialism". Margaret Thatcher's policies were
effective. She also asserted that "there is no such thing as society, only individuals and their
families". Neoliberalism, especially focus mainly after the Second World War. It is categorized
into four main strands of thinking: sociological liberalism, interdependence liberalism,
institutional liberalism, and republican liberalism.

DEVELOPMENT OF LIBERALISM:

Ancient Greek Democracy:

Athens in the 4th to 5th century BCE was a direct democracy, whereby all male citizens had
equal political rights, freedom of speech, and the opportunity to participate directly in the
political arena. This system represented only about 10% of the total population, but was the
most developed early democracy in the Western world.

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Citizens shaped the laws by which they lived and actively served in the institutions that governed
them, directly controlling all parts of the political process.

Athenian democracy was a breakthrough point that has had radiating effects on the direction of
human history. Putting the power in the people's hands on a large scale was previously unheard
of, and set the precedent for future populist movements such as classical liberalism.

Magna Carta:
Created 1215 as a peace treaty between King John of England and rebel barons, the Magna
Carta promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal
imprisonment and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a
council of 25 barons. The King conceded that despite the commonly held divine right of kings,
he was not above the law. The Magna Carta limits the power of rulers, and introduced the right
to due process. The Magna Carta influenced the formation of the American Constitution in 1787.

Renaissance:
The Renaissance period in European history occurred during the 14th to 16th centuries. It was
characterized by a renewed interest in classical Greek and Roman culture.

Humanist scholars revived classical ideas about man's individual worth and agency. They
developed an interpretation of history and human nature based on reason rather than religion.

The fields of art, music, literature and science were now viewed as outlets to celebrate human
accomplishment rather than faith.

These trends spurred the Reformation and served as intellectual basis for the Enlightenment,
profoundly influencing the future development of classical liberalism.

Haudenosaunee Confederacy:
From the 15th century to it's present day incarnation, the Haudenosaunee are considered to be
one of the longest continuously existing participatory democracies in the world. Some historians
believe that the Haudenosaunee peoples influenced liberal thought in North America.

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The various tribes of the confederacy came together in a strong and powerful association known
as the Six Nations: the Mohawk, Onedia, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca and Tuscarira.

These tribes had been at war with each other for centuries until they agreed to abide by an oral
constitution, The Great Law of Peace.

The Great Law of Peace outlined the harmony and unity amongst the Nations, divided powers
between different levels of government, and established the equal participation of the people
(including women) in the government.

The Great Law of Peace is thought to have been an inspiration to such men as Benjamin Franklin
and Thomas Jefferson when composing the constitution of the United States.

Reformation:
The Reformation occurred during the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, coinciding with the tail-
end of the Renaissance. Influenced by humanism, the Reformation was the mass questioning of
the authority, teachings, and practices of the Catholic Church.

Reformers established new religious denominations according to various ideas, especially the
idea that people were capable of making their own decisions based on reason. The power of the
Church waned and faith in the rational nature of human beings grew.

The emphasis upon rationality and religious freedom in classical liberalism originates from the
social and political upheavals of the Reformation.

The Enlightenment:
The Age of Enlightenment began in the late 17th century, continuting through the 18th century.
The rise of the Enlightenment era was directly tied to the advances of the Renaissance and
Reformation.

Europe was in turmoil as a result of the emergence of new ideas concerning the role of the
individual and reason over faith. Peasants sought more lucrative work in cities, eroding the
economic base of the aristocracy. Cities swelled with people as trade expanded overseas. It was
from this chaos that classical liberalism and it's sister economic philosophy, laissez-

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faire capitalism originated. Classical liberalism focused on allowing citizens the right to freedom
in their political and social lives. Lassiez-faire capitalism deemed individual actions and
achievements more productive in economic descision-making than government actions.

Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution was the transition of Britain from an agricultural/mercantile society to
a modern industrial one during the 18 and 19th centuries.

The technological developments that lead to the mechanization of agriculture and industry were
buttressed by liberal principles (economic freedom, individual freedom, private property, self-
interest, and competition) as individual entrepreneurs and inventors tried to become more
efficient and profitable.

The principles of classical liberalism, especially those dealing with economics, provided the
impetus by which capitalism became the dominant economic force in Europe.

American Revolution:
The American Revolution occurred in 1776. The ideas of early liberal thinkers such as John
Locke inspired the American colonists to declare independence from the British crown and
establish a republican form of government where governing authority was invested in the hands
of citizens, not a ruling monarch. Liberal principles were codified in such documents as the
Constitution of the United States and Bill of Rights, and have been perpetuated in American
politics to the present day.

French Revolution:
The French Revolution occurred from 1789 to 1799. Like the American Revolution before it, the
French Revolution was influenced by Enlightenment ideals, particularly the concepts of popular
sovereignty and inalienable rights. Although it failed to achieve all of its goals and at times
degenerated into a chaotic bloodbath, the movement played a critical role in the popularization of
classical liberalism. On August 26, 1789, the Assemblée national approved la Déclaration des
droits de l'Homme et du citoyen (the Declaration of the Rights of Man and if the Citizen). This
was a foundational document for individual freedoms. While the document was later revised and

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not all its principles were followed, it serves as a clear indication of how the principles of
liberalism came to influence French society.

Changes to class system:

One of the most profound impacts of classical liberalism on 19th century society was the change
in the class structure. Previous to the industrial revolution, wealth had been primarily derived
from land ownership, and the aristocratic class that controlled the land dominated the social
structure. As laissez-faire capitalism progressed, a new class dubbed the nouveau riche,
composed of factory owners, bankers, retailers, lawyers, engineers and other professionals arose.

These groups gained substantial wealth and came to challenge the aristocratic classes for power
and position in society.

However, while the nouveau riche enjoyed tremendous economic gains, the labourers working in
their factories endured horrible working conditions and were paid insufficient wages to meet
their basic needs. Urbanization had led to overcrowding and unsanitary living conditions in
cities.

Europe's class system had been completely overhauled. The monarchic structures classical
liberalism had been kicking against had eroded, leading to greater economic opportunity and an
increased emphasis on individualism. However, there was no social safety nets in place to ensure
the poor and vulnerable classes wouldn't be exploited by capitalism's new land barons, the
wealthy industrialists.

CONCLUSION:
Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on the rights of the individual, liberty,
consent of the governed, political equality, right to private property and equality before the law.

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