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Department of Chemistry
Subject: Applied Chemistry CSE Stream.
Subject Code:BCHES102/202
Sem/Sec: II SEM

MODULE 1
Sensors and Energy Systems

1. What are Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)? Explain

the working Principle, Properties and Applications.

QUANTUM DOT SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (QDSSC)

 Quantum dots are considered to be artificial atoms.
 Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor particles a few nanometres in size,
having optical and electronic properties that differ from those of larger particles.
 A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell that uses quantum dots as the
absorbingphotovoltaic material.
 It is used to replace bulky materials such as silicon, or copper indium gallium selenide.
 Quantum dots have band gaps that are adjustable through a wide array of energy levels
bychanging the size of the dots.

Construction:
 Photo Anode: It is conducting glass over
which semiconductor is coated (TiO2).
Outer layer of photoanode is coated
with quantum dots (QDs).
 Electrolyte: Photo anode is contact with
redox electrolyte. It is hole conductor.
Polysulphide is used as electrolyte.
 Cathode Electrode: It is used to
regenerate electrolyte and complete
the circuit.

Working:
1. QDs are exposed to sunlight.
2. QDs absorb solar energy, electrons move from valence band to conduction band.
Theseelectrons are transferred to semiconductor, leaving behind holes on the surface
of QD’s
3. Electrolyte take up the holes from the surface of QD’s and get reduced.
𝑆2– + 2ℎ+ → 𝑆
𝑆 + 𝑆2– → 𝑆2– (𝑥 = 2 𝑡𝑜 5)
x–1 x
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4. Electrons flows from anode to cathode through external circuit.

5. At cathode, electrolyte is regenerated taking up electrons from cathode.

𝑆2– → 𝑆 + 𝑆2–
x x–1

𝑆 + 2𝑒– → 𝑆2–

Advantages of QDSSC:
The following are the benefits of quantum dot solar cells.
 They have a favourable power to weight ratio with high efficiency.
 Their power consumption is low.
 There is an increase of electrical performance at low production costs.
 Their use is versatile and can be used in windows, not just rooftops.
Disadvantages of QDSSC:
 Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar cells are highly toxic in nature and require
avery stable polymer shell.
 Cadmium and selenium ions which are used in the core of quantum dots are known to
becytotoxic.
Applications of QDSSC:
 Used for biological labelling.
 Imaging and detection and as efficient fluorescence resonance energy transfer donors.
 It is used as light-emitting diodes, photoconductors, photodectors and photovoltaic.
 It is used in biomedicine and environment.
 It is used in catalysis and other reactions.

2. Write the principle and working of Lithium ion battery

LITHIUM-ION BATTERY (LIB)

Introduction:
Lithium is the lightest of metals and it is a highly reactive material. The electrochemical properties
of lithium are excellent. These properties give the potential to achieve very high energy and power
densities in high-density battery applications such as automotive and standby power.
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Composition of the battery:

Reactive species at anode :
graphite Reactive species at
cathode :
LiCoO2 Electrolyte :
Lithium salt
Separator : Polypropylene
Output Voltage : 3.6V

Construction:
 Anode is made of carbon material
(graphite) with a high energy density and
large doping capacity of lithium ion.
 Cathodes are metal oxide material
containing lithium with capable of
dedoping lithium ion during charging and
undergo lithium doping during
discharging
 Electrolyte is made of lithium salts (LiPF6, LiBF4or LiClO4) dissolved in organic
solvents suchas ether.
 Separator used is polypropylene.
 The output voltage of this battery is 3.6V.

Working of LIB:
During charging lithium ions in cathodic side (positive electrode) is migrated and
move towardsanodic side (negative electrode)
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 → 𝐿𝑖(1–x)𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒–
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒– + 6𝐶 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶 ↔ 𝐿𝑖(1–x)𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6
During discharging lithium ions move from anode to cathode.
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒– + 6𝐶
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖(1–x)𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒– → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖(1–x)𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6 → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶

Applications of LIB:
The Li - ion batteries are used in mobile phones, cameras, calculators, LCD TVs,
pagers, tooperate laptop computers, in aerospace applications.
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3. What are Electrochemical Sensors? Explain its application in the

measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO):
The oxygen present in the water in dissolved form is called as
dissolved oxygen.Two types of Sensors are used for measurement of
dissolved oxygen (DO)
1. Optical Sensors
2. Electrochemical Sensors

Optical Sensors:
The main component of optical sensors is semi permeable membrane, sensing
element, light-emitting diode (LED) and photo detector. The sensing element contains a
luminescent dye.
Working:
When the dye is exposed to light, it moves to excited state and return to ground state by
emitting light with known intensity. When the DO crosses the semi permeable membrane
and interacts with the dye, it reduces the intensity of the light emitted by dye. The intensity
of the emitted light inversely proportional to the DO concentration. This intensity of light
is measured using photo detector.
Electrochemical Sensors:
In electrochemical sensors, two electrodes
are used.Anode: Zn, Pb or any other active
metal
Cathode: Working electrode-Ag
Electrolyte: KOH, NaOH or any other inert
electrolyteMembrane: Teflon

Working:
The difference in potential between the anode and the cathode should be at least 0.5V.
When electrode is dipped in water to measure DO, anode undergoes oxidation liberating
electrons
2𝑍𝑛 → 2𝑍𝑛2+4𝑒–
At cathode, DO undergo reduction. Ag cathode is inert, it only passes electrons to
oxygen forreduction.
𝑂2 + 2𝐻2𝑂 + 4𝑒– → 4𝑂𝐻–
Overall reaction is
2𝑍𝑛 + 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2𝑂 → 2𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2
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The current produced by the reduction of oxygen at cathode is proportional to the oxygen
in thewater sample.

4. Explain the working principle of Electrochemical sensors,

and mention its applications
Electrochemical Sensors:
These sensors use electrode as transducer component. The main components of
electrochemical sensors are working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter and reference
electrode. Electrolyte is a part of the electrochemical Sensors and role is to transport charge
within the sensors, contact all electrode effectively, it is stable under all conditions.
Following steps are involved in working of an electrochemical sensor
1. Diffusion of the analyte to the electrode/electrolyte interface (in the liquid form)
2. Adsorption onto the electrode surface
3. Electrochemical reaction with electron transfer
4. Desorption of the product
5. Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of
electrolyte or gasphase.

Applications:
1. The oxygen sensors are used to determine dissolved oxygen in boiler
water and tomonitor dissolved oxygen concentrations in hydrogen fuel cell.
2. Used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gases.
3. Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring.
4. Used in diagnostic and health care applications.
5. Used in soil parameter analysis and in agricultural applications.

5. Explain the working principle of Conductometric sensors

(conductometry), and Optical sensors (colorimetry)
Conductometric Sensors
It involves the determination of the concentration
of analyte based on the measurement of changes
occur in electrolyte solution. Here electrodes are
used to measure the conductance of the electrolyte.
Conductance isdepending on
 No. of ions
 Mobility of ions
Working:
Electrode used is conductivity cell. It is made up of two
platinum foils with unit cross sectional area and unit distance between them. Volume between
the electrode is 1cm3. Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called specific
conductance and it is given by
1 l
𝑘= ×
R a

Here l/a is known as cell constant, R is resistance.

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The conductivity is result of dissociation an electrolyte, into ions. The migration of the ions is
induced by an electrical field. When a potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is
an electrical field within the electrolyte, so the positively charged ions move towards cathode
and negatively charged ions are move towards anode. Thus, the current in the electrolyte is
caused by the ion movement towards the electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated
as neutral atoms (or molecules). This chemical change is recognized by working electrode and
transducers converts this chemical change into electrical signal.
Applications:
1. Used to estimate acid, base and mixture in the sample
2. Used to check ionic impurities in water sample
3. Used to measure acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water
Optical Sensors:
1. These sensors based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the
chemical species. Commonly UV-Visible-Infrared electromagnetic radiations
are used. In an optical sensor, the optical signal arises from the interaction of
the analyte with an incident radiation. This interaction could results in
absorption, emission, scattering and reflection of light. The intensity of the
radiation gives the information on the concentration of the analyte.
2. Optical sensors are used to determine the concentration of coloured solution.
It is based on the measurement of absorbance of the coloured solution at
particular wavelength. It is governed by Beer-Lambertz law.
3. The optical sensors components are light source, filters, photocell and display
system.

Working:
A monochromatic light is pass through analyte at particular wavelength. A part of light
is absorbed by the analyte. The absorbance depends on the concentration of the solution
and the path length of the light through the solution. The photocell converts emitted
light into electrical signal These signals are recorded and displayed.
Schematic diagram is as follows

Source: tungsten bulb or lamp is used as a light

source. Filter: It is a device to provide desired
wavelength rangeSample cell: sample is hold in
glass cell.
Photocell: Converts the emitted light into electrical signal.
Applications:
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 Used in the determination of any chemical species which can interact with
electromagneticradiations
 Can be used in environmental, pharmaceuticals, food related applications

6. Describe the application of Electrochemical gas sensors in

sensing SOx and NOx

Applications:
1. Used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gases.
2. Used in Air analysis and environmental monitoring.
3. Automobile gas emission analysis etc
4. Used in diagnostic and health care applications.
5. Used in soil parameter analysis and in agricultural applications.

MODULE 2
MATERIALS FOR MEMORY AND DISPLAY SYSTEM

1. Mention any four properties and applications of LC-displays

Properties of LC display are:
 they exhibit optical anisotropy
 the intermolecular forces are weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field
 LC posses a definite melting point at which they become true liquid
 Liquid crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order
 These are elongated and have some degree of rigidity
 They have less orientational order
 Transition from crystalline solids to liquid crystals caused by a change of temperature.

Applications of LC display are:

 Liquid crystals are used in watches, calculators, mobile telephones, laptops, computers etc.
 These are used in blood pressure instrument, digital thermometers and TV Chanel
indicators.
 These are used in potentiometer, conductometer, Colorimeter etc.

2. Mention any four properties and applications of QLED and OLED

Properties of OLED are:
 Thinness and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable
for use in curved or flexible displays.
 High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can produce
deep blacks and bright whites, resulting in images with vivid and rich colours.
 Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which means that they can switch
on and off quickly, resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video content
 Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the image
quality is maintained even when viewed from different angles.
 Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient as they do not require a back light like
traditional LCD displays, resulting in lower power consumption.
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Applications of OLED are:

 Used in ultra fast and energy efficient communication system
 Used in medical applications such as MRI machines to generate high resolution and
accurate images
 Used in quantum computing
 Used in advertising displays and TV screen.

Properties of QLED are:

 Accurate and vibrant colours: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and
vibrant colours due to their use of quantum dots,
 Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays
 High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios
 Long life span: QLEDs have a longer life span than traditional LCD displays
 Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which mean that they can
display fast-moving images without motion blur or ghosting.
 Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the creation of
flexible displays that can be bent or curved.

Applications of OLED are:

 Used in display of television screen and computer screen
 Used in advertising displays and TV screen
 Used in portable devices such as smart phones

3. What are nanomaterials? Explain any four properties of

Polythiophenes (P3HT) Suitable for optoelectronic devices

Properties of Polythiophene suitable for optoelectronic devices are:

 P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhibits conductivity due to
holes therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.
 Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) has great capability as light-absorbing materials in organic
electronic devices.
 P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport properties required for
Optoelectronics.
 P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of 2.14eV.
 Fundamental band gap of P3HT is 490nm visible region, corresponding to π→π*
transition, giving electron-hole pair.
 P3HT indicates that an increase in the conductivity is associated with an increase in the
degree of crystallinity.

4. What are Memory Devices? Explain the Classiβication of electronic

memory devices with examples
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An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductors which is fast in response and compact in size.

Electronic memory devices can be divided into 4 types depending the type of material it is made of.
1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices
2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory Devices
3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices
4. Charge Transfer Type Electronic Memory Devices

a. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices: A transistor is a miniature electronic component that

can work either as an amplifier or a switch. A computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors;
each transistor
is working as a switch, which can be switched ON or OFF. Each transistor can be in two different
States and store two different numbers, ZERO and ONE. Since chip is made of billions of such
Transistors and can store billions of Zeros and ones, and almost every number and letter can be
Stored.

b. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory Devices: A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are
capable of
storing an electric charge. It is used to store data. It is like a battery that holds data based on energy. If the
capacitor ischarged, it holds the binary numeral, “1” and holds “0” when the cell is discharged.

c. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices: Memory devices containing switchable resistive

materials are classified as resistor-type memory, Resistor-type electronic memory device comprises of an
insulating layer (I) sandwiched
between the two metal (M) electrodes. the device is under high resistance state or “OFF” and logically
“0”state, when resistance changed or under external applied field changes to low resistance state or “ON”
logical value “1”.

d. Charge Transfer Type Electronic Memory Devices: A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as
an electron donor– acceptor (D–A) complex, characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state
in which a partial transfer of charge occurs from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety. The
conductivity of a CT complex is dependent on the ionic binding between the D–A components.

5.Explain the types of organic memory devices by taking p-type and n-

typeSemiconductor materials
The p-Type Organic Semiconductor Material “Pentacene”
An Organic molecule with π conjugated system and possesses holes as major charge carrier is
called p-type semiconductor.
Ex: Pentacene
These molecules show bistable states when external field is applied i.e. ON and OFF state.
It is linearly fused aromatic compound with five benzene rings.
It can be obtained in crystal and thin film form.
It shows good hole mobility, hence it behaves as a p-type semiconductor.

The n-type organic semiconducting material”Perfluoropentacene”

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When all the hydrogen atom of pentacene is replaced by Fluorine atoms, it forms
Perfluoropentacene. Basically Fluorine is electron withdrawing nature. Hence it converts these
molecules into n-type semiconductor.

6. What are photoactive and electroactive materials and explain their

working principle in display system
Organic semiconductors used in electronic and optoelectronic devices are called as electroactive and
Photoactive materials. Photoactive and electroactive organic materials are the semiconductors Composed
of π-electron systems.

Working principle
Photoactive and electroactive material absorb and emit light in UV region to IR region of electromagnetic
spectrum
Display system of OLED consisting of photoactive and electroactive material absorb light and allow
electrons to jump from HOMO of donar to LUMO of acceptor. This Phenomenon generates and Charge
carrier.ss

MODULE 3
Corrosion and Electrode system
.
1.Explain: i) corrosion control by Anodization & ii) Sacrificial
anodic method.
Anodizing of Aluminum:- When aluminum metal is made anodic in an electrolytic bath with
H2SO4 (or) chromic acid as the electrolyte, a thin layer of Al2O3 is formed on the surface. This
process is called Anodizing (or) Anodic oxidation of Aluminum.
The porous coating is obtained by anodic oxidation; it is carried out by making it anode in an
electrolytic bath containing a suitable acid like chromic acid (or) H2SO4 at 350 -400 c. A plate of
lead (or) stainless steel is made the cathode. When current of moderate density is passed, the O
2 liberated at the anode combines with it to form oxide which takes the form of thick film Al2O3
deposits on the surface of the object.
At anode: 2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 6H+ + 6e− (Oxida on)
At cathode: 6H+ + 6e− → 3H2↑
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Over all reaction: - 2Al + 3H2O Al2O3 + 3H2

Al2O3 gets hydrated to Al2O3.H2O which occupies more volume and hence protects the metal
from corrosion.

Sacrificial anodic method: Sacrificial anode method involves the use of a metal which is anodic
to the specimen.
In this method the metallic structure to be protected is connected to a more anodic metal using
a metallic wire. More active metal gets corroded, while the parent metallic structure is protected
from corrosion.
Ex: - when steel metal to be protected, it may be connected to a block of Mg of Zn , in such case,
steel acts as cathode and is unaffected. Mg or Zn act as anode and undergo sacrificial corrosion.
When the sacrificial anode gets exhausted, it is replaced with new ones.
The commonly used sacrificial anodes are Mg, Al, Zn, and their alloys.
Ex: - 1. Protection of ship’s hull by fixing Zinc plates.
2. Protection of an underground pipeline with a magnesium anode.

2.Explain the construction and working of Calomel electrode.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF CALOMEL ELECTRODE
Calomel electrode is a secondary reference electrode. It belongs to the category of metal-
metal insoluble salt
electrode. Calomel is the trade name of Hg2Cl2 and it is sparingly soluble in water. Calomel
electrode consists
of a glass tube in which thin layer of pure mercury is placed at the bottom. It is covered by a
paste of mercury,
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mercurous chloride with KCl. A platinum wire sealed into a glass tube is dipped into
mercury and used to
provide the external electrical contact. A solution of KCl is introduced above the paste
through the side tube
shown on the right. The concentration of KCl solution used is either decinormal, normal or
saturated. The
solution also fills in the side tube on the left. This constitutes calomel electrode. It is
connected to the other

half cell through the side tube having the jet or through a salt bridge.
Calomel electrode is represented as
Hg/Hg2Cl2(s)/Cl–

or Hg, Hg2Cl2 (s)/Cl–

Calomel electrode is a reversible electrode. Depending on the

nature of the other electrode with which it is connected,
calomel electrode can act as anode or cathode.

Electrode Reactions
As anode
2Hg Hg2 2+ + 2 e-
Hg2+ + 2Cl– Hg2Cl2
2Hg + 2Cl–Hg2Cl2 + 2e-
As cathode
The electrode reaction is reverse of the above
Hg2Cl2 Hg2+ + 2Cl–

Hg2Cl2 + 2e-2Hg + 2Cl–

The net reversible electrode reaction is Hg2Cl2 + 2e– ↔ 2Hg + 2Cl–

Nernst equation for calomel electrode is
E = E° + 2.303RT/nFlog [Cl-]

The potential of calomel electrode is dependent on the concentration of chloride ions and
the electrode
potential is reversible with the concentration of chloride ions.

3. Explain: (i) Differential metal corrosion & (ii) Water-line

corrosion
(i) Differential metal corrosion:
Differential metal corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each another
and exposed to a corrosive conducting medium, the metal with lower electrode potential acts as
anode undergoes oxidation and gets corroded and the other metal with higher electrode
potential acts as cathode, Undergo reduction & protected from corrosion. This type of corrosion
is known as galvanic corrosion (or) differential metal corrosion. The rate of corrosion depends
mainly on the difference in potential b/w two metals. Higher the difference faster is the rate of
corrosion. The reactions may be represented as,
At anode: - M  Mn+ + e-
At cathode:- reduction reaction takes place, depending upon the nature of the environment.
2H+ + 2e-H2 (or)
2H2O + O2 +4e- 4OH-
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Ex:-i). When iron is in contact with copper [0.34V], iron [-0.44V] becomes anodic and undergoes
corrosion whereas copper becomes cathodic and remains unaffected.
(ii) Water-line corrosion:
It is observed in steel (or) Iron water tanks partially filled with water.
When a steel tank is partially filled with water for a long time, the inner portion of the tank
below the water line is exposed only to dissolve oxygen, whereas the portion above the water
line is exposed to more oxygen.
Thus the portion below the water line acts as anode and undergoes corrosion. The upper
portion acts as cathode and is unaffected.
A distinct brown line is formed just below the water line due to the deposition of rust.
The cell reactions are At Anode: - MMn+ +ne-
At Cathode: - 2H2O + O2 +4e-4OH-
Finally, the ions combine to form corrosion product.
Ex: - Ships which remain partially immersed in sea water for a long time undergo water line
corrosion.

4. Define metallic corrosion? Describe the electrochemical theory of

corrosion.

metallic corrosion definition:Metallic corrosion can be defined as “The

destruction (or) deterioration (or) loss of metals or alloys by the surrounding
environment through chemical (or) electrochemical reactions”.
Electrochemical Theory taking Iron as example:-
According to electrochemical theory, when a metal such as iron is exposed to
corrosive environment, following changes occur. A large number of tiny galvanic
cells with anodic and cathodic regions are formed.
At the anodic region oxidation reaction takes place and the metal gets converted
into its ions, liberating electrons. Consequently, metal undergoes corrosion at the
anodic region.
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At the cathodic region, reduction reaction takes place. Since the metal cannot be reduced
further, metal atoms at the cathodic region are unaffected by the cathodic reaction.
At Anode:-
At anode ox ideation takes place in which the metal atoms are converted into their ions
liberating electrons
. Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
At Cathode:- The cathodic reaction is based on nature of the environment.
a). In the absence of oxygen.[Libration of Hydrogen]
i) In acidic medium, liberation of hydrogen takes place.
2H+ + 2e- H2
ii) In neutral (or) alkaline medium,
Hydroxide ions are formed with simultaneous liberation of hydrogen.
2H2O + 2e- 2OH- + H2
b). In presence of oxygen:- [Absorption of oxygen]
i). In acidic medium, absorption of oxygen takes place.
4H+ + O2 + 4e-2H2O
ii). In neutral (or) alkaline medium, hydroxide ions are formed.
2H2O + O2 +4e- 4OH-
Then Iron ions (Fe2+) form anode combine with hydroxyl ions from cathode to
form iron hydroxide on the surface, b/w the anode and cathode areas.
Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe (OH) 2 Iron hydroxide further reacts with oxygen and water
forming hydrated iron oxide which is the corrosion product [Rust].
4Fe (OH) 2 + O2 + 2H2O  2[Fe2O3.3H2O]
[Rust]

5.Describe galvanizing and mention its applications.

Galvanization:-
“The process of coating zinc on the base metal [Fe, Steel] surface by hot dipping is known as
galvanization”.
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The galvanization process is carried out as follows

 The metal surface is washed with organic solvent[CCl4, Toulene,Benzene] to remove

organic matters.
 The metal surface is treated with dil.H2SO4 to remove rust and other deposits.
 Then it is well washed with water & it is air dried by passing with hot air.
 The metal is treated with a mixture of zinc chloride and ammonium chloride solution
which prevents the oxidation of the coated metal.  Then the metal is dipped in molten
Zinc at 4500c
 Excess of zinc on surface is removed by passing a pair of hot rollers, which removes
excess of zinc and produced thin coating.

Application: - Galvanized materials are used in fencing wire, buckets, bolts, nuts, nails, screw etc.
Note:- Galvanized sheets cannot be used for preparing (or) storing food because zinc dissolves in
acidic medium and forms toxic compounds.

MODULE 4
1. Explain the construction and working of photovoltaic cells.
Photovoltaic cells (Solar cells):
The device, which converts solar energy into electrical energy, is called photovoltaic cell and
thephenomenon is called photovoltaic effect.

CONSTRUCTION WORKING AND APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR CELLS

Construction:
 The device consists of p-n junction diode
coated with anti-reflective layer (TiO2)
atthe top.
 Two electrical contacts are provided,
one in the form of metallic grid at the
top of the junction and the other is a
silver layer at the bottom of the cell.
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 The antireflective layer coated in

between the metallic grids which allow
light to fall on the semiconductor.
Working:
 The photons of solar radiations enter n-type semiconductor breaks barrier potential
and moves to p-type semiconductor where photons knock the electrons in p type to
form electron hole pair.
 The free electrons so formed will travels through the circuit from n-type and
recombines with holes again in p-region.
 The movement of electrons from n type to p type generates electric current. The
electricalenergy produced from the solar cell is used for various applications
Advantages of PV cells:
 Eco friendly energy conversion device.
 Do not undergo corrode
 No moving parts in PV cell, hence no wear and tear.
Disadvantages of PV cells:
 Installation cost is high.
 Produced only during the day time.
 It generates only DC current.

Applications:
 Used in toys, watches, remote lighting systems
 Used in water pumping, water treatment.
 Used in emergency power, satellites. Etc.

2. Explain the generation of hydrogen by Alkaline water

electrolysis
 It consists of two electrodes i.e. anode
and cathode.
 Both electrodes are made up of Ni based
metal, because it is more stable during
the oxygen evolution.
 These electrodes are immersed in KOH
solution (25-35%).
 Both electrodes are separated by porous
diaphragm prevent gases crossover and
allows only hydroxide ions.
 Cell voltage is 1.3 – 2 V
 When electricity is passed, at anode
hydroxide ions lose electrons1and forms water molecules.
Anode: 2𝑂𝐻− → 𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 + 2𝑒−
2 2 2

 At cathode, water molecules accept electrons and liberate hydrogen gas and
forms
hydroxide ions.
 These hydroxide ions move from cathode to anode through diaphragm and
processcontinues.
Cathode: 𝐻2𝑂 + 2𝑒− → 𝐻2 + 2𝑂𝐻−
 17

Total reaction :2𝐻2𝑂 → 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2

Advantages
 Low cost and well established technology
 Long Stability and stacks in the megawatt range
 Non-noble catalyst
3. Preparation, properties, and commercial applications of
Kevlar
The combination of two or more distinct components to form a new class of material
suitable for structural applications is referred to as composite materials. When one of the
components is a polymer, resulting composite called as polymer composite.

Kevlar: Kevlar is synthesized in solution of N-methyl-pyrrolidone & calcium chloride

from the monomers 1, 4-phenylene-diamine (para-phenylenediamine) & terephthaloyl
chloride through a condensation reaction with liberation of HCl as a byproduct.

Properties:

1. It has very light weight.

2. It has high tensile strength and stiffness.
3. It has very good corrosion resistance.
Applications of Kevlar:

1. It is used to make light weight boat hulls

2. aircraft fuselage panels, pressure vassals, high performance race car, bullet proof vests,
3. Used in puncture resistance bicycle tyres etc.

4. Explain the synthesis of Polyacetylene and mention its

applications
Synthesis of Polyacetylene:
From Acetylene: In this method polyacetylene is synthesized by using monomer gaseous
acetylene in the presence of Ziegler-Natta catalyst such as Titanium isopropaxide
(Ti(OPr))4) and triethyl aluminium (Al(C2H5)3).

Ti(OPr)4/Al(C2H5)3
CH HC
Acetylene Polyacetylene

This polymerization involves metal insertion into the triple bond of the monomer.
Commercial Applications of Polyacetylene:
1. Used in the manufacture of chemical sensors, corrosion inhibitors.
2. Used in compact electronic devices such as polymer based transistors, LEDs etc.
 18

Mechanism of conduction in polyacetylene: Conducting polymers are generally

produced by doping an oxidizing or a reducing agent into an organic polymer with
conjugated back bone consisting of pi-electron system.
An organic polymer can be converted into a conducting polymer if it has
1. Linear structure
2. Extensive conjugation in polymeric back bone (Pi-back bone)

The conducting polymers are synthesized by doping, in which charged species are
introducedin organic polymers having pi-back bone. The important doping reactions are;

1. Oxidative doping (p-doping)

2. Reductive doping (n-doping)
3. Protonic acid doping (p-doping)
1. Oxidative doping (p-doping): In this process, pi-back bone of a polymer is partially
oxidized using a suitable oxidizing agent. This creates positively charged sites on polymer
back bone, which are current carriers for conduction.
The oxidizing agents used in p-doping are iodine vapor, iodine in CCl 4, HBF4, perchloric
acidand benzoquinone.

I
oxidat
ionI2
in
CCl4

- e-, + I3-

I3
II oxidation
- e-, + I3-

Recombination of radicals

I3-

Reactions of p- doping of polyacetylene

The removal of an electron from the polymer pi-back bone using a suitable oxidizing agents
leads to the formation of delocalized radical ion called polaron. A second oxidation of a
chaincontaining polaron followed by radical recombination yields two charge carriers on
each chain. The positive charges sites on the polymer chains are compensated by anions I 3-
formed by the oxidizing agent during doping. The delocalized positive charges on the
polymer chain are mobile, not the dopant anions.
Thus, these delocalized positive charges are current carriers for conduction. These charges
must move from chain to chain as well as along the chain for bulk conduction On doping
polyacetylene using iodine in CCl4, for partial oxidation, the conductivity increases from
 19

10-5S.cm-1 to 103-105 S.cm-1.

Applications:
 Fabrication of organic thin transistors.
 Non-volatile memory devices based on organic transistors.
 Fabrication of organic photovoltaic cells.
 Fabrication of organic light-emitting devices (OLED).
 Conducting polymer actuators and Micropumps.
 Focused upon polymer membranes that incorporated electronically
conductingpolymers and piezoelectric polymers.
5. Describe the hydrogen production by photo catalytic water
splitting method.
Generation of hydrogen by electrolysis of water
It is the process of splitting of water into oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis.
 It consists of two electrodes i.e. anode and cathode.
 Both are separated by membranes.
 When electricity is passed, oxidation takes place
at anode, it gives H+ ions and electron, also
liberates Oxygen gas.
At Anode: 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4e−
 The H+ ions move into cathodic compartment
through membranes and electrons move from
anodeto cathode through external circuit.
 At cathode the H+ ions accepts electrons and
forms H2 gas. This liberated hydrogen gas is
used as a fuel
 At Cathode : 4H+(aq) + 4e− → 2H2(g)

MODULE 5
E-Waste Management
Q1:- Write a brief note on role of stakeholders for example producer,
consumers, recyclers and statutory bodies..
A1:- In the management of electronic waste (e-waste), the following stakeholders
play important unique role in the management of e-waste:

1. Producers - are responsible for designing and producing electronic

products and may also be involved in the collection and recycling of e-
waste.
2. Consumers - play a crucial role in the responsible disposal of e-waste and
making informed choices about the purchase of electronic products.
3. Recyclers - are responsible for safely and responsibly managing e-waste,
including the collection, dismantling, and recycling of electronic waste.
4. Statutory bodies - such as governments, are responsible for creating
andenforcing regulations and policies to manage e-waste and
promoting public awareness and education about e-waste management
 20

Q2:- What are e –waste and explain the need for e –waste management.
A2:- E-waste management refers to the processes and systems used to collect, transport,
treat, and dispose of electronic waste (e-waste) in an environmentally responsible and safe
manner

Need of E- Waste Management:

E-waste management is necessary because it helps to address several

environmental, health, and resource-related concerns, including:

 Protecting the environment: E-waste contains toxic substances, such as

lead, mercury, and cadmium that can have harmful effects on the
environment and human health if not properly managed.
 Conserving resources: E-waste contains valuable resources, such as
metals, that can be recovered and reused through proper recycling.
 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: The production of new electronic
products releases greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the
atmosphere. Proper recycling and disposal of e-waste can reduce the
environmental impact of electronic products.
 Reducing landfilling: Landfilling of electronic waste can result in the
release of toxic materials into the environment and contribute to soil and
water pollution.
 Protecting public health: Improper handling and disposal of e-waste can
expose workers and the general public to hazardous materials and cause
serious health problems.
 E-waste can be toxic, is not biodegradable and accumulates in the
environment, in the soil, air, water and living things.
 Causes air pollution, Soil pollution and water pollution.
 Electronic Recycling Promotes Soil Fertility and Maintain Nutrient.
 E-waste management programs aim to promote responsible recycling
anddisposal of electronic waste and minimize the release of hazardous
Q3:- Explain the health hazard due to exposure to e –waste?
A3:-- Exposure to electronic waste (e-waste) can have serious health
consequences, including:

 Poisoning: E-waste can contain toxic substances, such as lead, cadmium,

and mercury that can cause poisoning if they enter the body.

 Respiratory problems: Exposure to dust and fumes generated during the

dismantling and disposal of e-waste can cause respiratory problems, such
as asthma and bronchitis.
 21

 Neurological effects: Exposure to toxic substances in e-waste, such as

lead and mercury, can cause neurological effects, including memory
loss,tremors, and coordination problems.

 Reproductive problems: Exposure to toxic substances in e-waste, such

as cadmium, can cause reproductive problems, including infertility and
birth defects.

 Cancer: Exposure to carcinogenic substances, such as dioxins and

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), found in e-waste, can increase the risk
of cancer.
It is important to effectively manage e-waste to minimize the exposure of workers and
the public to hazardous materials and to prevent serious health problems.
Q4:- Which all toxic materials used in manufacturing
electrical and electronics product, write their effects on
environment.
A4:- Electronic and electrical products can contain a variety of toxic materials, including:

1. Lead: Lead is a toxic heavy metal commonly used in the manufacture of

batteries, computer monitors, and other electronic components.
2. Mercury: Mercury is used in some fluorescent lights, batteries, and
otherelectronic devices.
3. Cadmium: Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal used in rechargeable
batteries, pigments, and plastic stabilizers.
4. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): PVC is a common plastic used in electronic
cables and other components. It can release toxic chemicals, such as
dioxins, when burned or during disposal.
 22

5. Brominated flame retardants (BFRs): BFRs are used in

themanufacture of electronic products to prevent fires.
However, they are toxic and can harm the environment and human health.
6. Barium: Barium is used in some electronic components, including
cathode ray tubes.
7. Rechargeable Batteries contains Lithium is used in batteries, but it can
be toxic if not handled properly. Cadmium, Lead, Sodium, Lithium,
Nickel etc.,
8. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are toxic chemicals that were widely used as
coolants and solvents in electronic products, such as refrigerators, air
conditioners. They cause ozone depletion.

Q5:- Explain the pyrometallurgical and direct recycling methods?

A5:- pyrometallurgical methods E-waste are recycling:
E-waste pyrometallurgical methods refer to the process of extracting valuable metals and other
materials from electronic waste using high temperatures. Thesemethods include:

1. Smelting: The e-waste is melted in a furnace and then separated

intoindividual metals and other materials.
2. Refining: The metals from the smelted e-waste are further processed
toremove impurities and improve their quality.
3. Incineration: Electronic waste is burned at high temperatures to reduce
itsvolume and recover metals.
Pyrometallurgical methods are effective at recovering valuable metals from e- waste, but they
also generate hazardous byproducts and require significant energy inputs. Additionally, these
methods can pose a risk to the environment and human health if not properly regulated and
monitored.

Direct recycling of e waste: Direct recycling of e-waste refers to the process ofrecovering
valuable materials from electronic waste without the need for intermediate processing steps.
This can include processes such as shredding, granulating, and sorting, which are usedto
separate the different components ofe-waste, such as metals, plastics, and glass. The separated
materials are then processed to extract the valuable components and prepare them for reuse.

Advantages of direct recycling:

Several advantages over other methods of e-waste recycling, including lower energy inputs,
lower environmental impact, and the potential for higher quality end products.

By combining direct recycling with other methods, such as chemical and pyrometallurgical
processing, it is possible to maximize the recovery of valuablematerials from electronic waste
and minimize the environmental impact of e-
waste management.
 23

Q6:- Explain about Sources, composition and characterstics of e –

waste?
A6:- Sources of electronic waste (e-waste):

The main sources of electronic waste (e-waste) include:

1. Consumer electronics such as smartphones, laptops, televisions,
andhousehold appliances.
2. Office equipment such as computers, printers, copiers, and fax machines.
3. Medical equipment such as X-ray machines, monitors, and
diagnosticequipment.
4. Electronic toys and games.
5. Military and government surplus equipment.
6. Obsolete technology such as outdated computer equipment and VCRs.
7. Discarded or broken electronic devices.
8. Colleges often use electronic equipment such as projectors,
computer equipment, and audio-visual equipment in classrooms and
laboratories
Composition of E-waste

The composition of electronic waste (e-waste) can vary depending on the type of device
and its components. In general, e-waste contains a mixture of materials including:
1. Metals: E-waste often contains valuable metals such as copper, gold, silver,
and aluminium.
2. Plastics: Many electronic devices contain plastic components, including
casings, insulation, and cables.
3. Glass: Electronic devices often contain glass components, such as screens
and lenses.
4. Circuit boards: Many electronic devices contain circuit boards, which
contain a mixture of metals and other materials.
5. Batteries: Some electronic devices contain batteries, which can contain
hazardous materials such as lead, mercury, and cadmium.
6. Other hazardous materials: E-waste may also contain other hazardous
materials, such as flame retardants, heavy metals, and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
 24

Characteristics of E-waste:

The characteristics of electronic waste (e-waste) can include:

1. Complexity: E-waste often contains a complex mixture of materials,
making it challenging to recycle and dispose of properly.
2. Hazardousness: E-waste can contain hazardous materials such as heavy
metals, flame retardants, and batteries, which can pose significant
environmental and health risks.
3. Volatility: E-waste is a rapidly growing waste stream due to the increasing
use of electronic devices and the limited lifespan of many electronic
products.
4. Global issue: E-waste is a global issue, as electronic devices are
manufactured, used, and discarded worldwide.
5. Resource depletion: The extraction of raw materials for electronic devices
contributes to resource depletion, and the improper disposal of e- waste
canlead to environmental contamination and waste of valuable resources.
6. Environmental and health impacts: Improper disposal of e-waste can
lead to significant environmental and health impacts, including soil and
water contamination, air pollution, and harm to human health.

Q7:- Explain the extraction of gold from e-waste?

Principle: The principle behind the extraction of gold from e-waste is based on the fact that
gold is a relatively non-reactive metal, which allows it to berecoveredfrom complex electronic
waste matrices through a series of chemical and physicalprocesses.
Experimental procedure:

1. Collection and segregation of e-waste: The first step involves collecting

and segregating the e-waste into different categories, such as computer
motherboards, cell phones, and other electronic devices.
2. Physical separation: The e-waste is physically separated into different
components, such as plastics, metals, and glass.
 25

3. Leaching: The metals, including gold, are leached from the e-waste using a suitable
reagent, such as aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric acid andnitric acid), to dissolve
the gold.
Au + HNO3 + 4HCl → HAuCl4 + NO + 2H2O

4. Precipitation: The dissolved gold is then precipitated out of the solutionthrough the
addition of a suitable reducing agent, such as sodium metabisulfite.
2H[AuCl4] + 3Na2S2O5 + 3H2O → 2Au + 3SO2 + 3Na2SO4 +
8HCl

5. Purification: The precipitated gold is then purified through processes such as ion
exchange, electrowinning, or distillation, to remove impurities and improve its
quality.
6. Recovery: The purified gold is then recovered for reuse.
Advantages:
High yield expected.
Faster extraction of gold is possible.

Disadvantages:
Chemicals are used.

Acid residues are not disposed of properly, which harms the environment.
Flow chart:
E-waste (computer motherboards, cell phones, etc.) -> Physical separation ->Leaching (aqua regia) -> Precipitation
(sodium metabisulfite) -> Purification (ionexchange, electrowinning, distill