Helping Children Learn Mathematics,

11th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/helping-children-learn-mathematics-11th-edition-eboo
k-pdf-version/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Wong’s Nursing Care of Infants and Children – E-Book

11th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/wongs-nursing-care-of-infants-and-
children-e-book-11th-edition-ebook-pdf-version/

Mathematics with Applications In the Management,

Natural, and Social Sciences 11th Edition – Ebook PDF
Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/mathematics-with-applications-in-
the-management-natural-and-social-sciences-11th-edition-ebook-
pdf-version/

Guidance of Young Children – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/guidance-of-young-children-ebook-
pdf-version/

Understanding Business 11th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/understanding-business-11th-
edition-ebook-pdf-version/
International Relations 11th Edition – Ebook PDF
Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/international-relations-11th-
edition-ebook-pdf-version/

Criminal Investigation 11th Edition – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/criminal-investigation-11th-
edition-ebook-pdf-version/

Introduction to 80×86 Assembly Language and Computer

Architecture – Ebook PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/introduction-to-8086-assembly-
language-and-computer-architecture-ebook-pdf-version/

Creative Activities and Curriculum for Young Children

11th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

https://ebookmass.com/product/creative-activities-and-curriculum-
for-young-children-11th-edition-ebook-pdf/

Young Children with Special Needs 6th Edition – Ebook

PDF Version

https://ebookmass.com/product/young-children-with-special-
needs-6th-edition-ebook-pdf-version/
 Helping Children Learn
Mathematics
Robert Reys | Mary Lindquist | Diana Lambdin | Nancy Smith
Edition
vi Preface
Test Bank
Password protected in the instructor’s section of www.wiley.
com/college/reys, a test bank of over 500 items features both
objective and open-ended questions with varying levels of
complexity.
PowerPoint Slides
Our PowerPoint™ presentations contain a combination of
key concepts allowing you to illustrate important topics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Marilyn Suydam for her hard work and insights
during the early years of this text’s development. Marilyn is
now retired, but her legacy of significant contributions
remains a vital part of this book.
In preparation for this edition, the authors interviewed
several faculty members who were using the book to solicit
ideas and suggestions for making it better. In that regard, we
thank the following people for taking the time to talk with us
and offer valuable feedback:
JULIE BAUSMAN, Waynesburg University
BRENDA DOLL, McKendree University
PATRICIA EMMONS, Bridgewater State University
JANINE FERMINDER, St. Josephs University
DIANNE SEHIE AND CARY TUCKEY, Fontbonne University
MERCEDES TICHENOR, Stetson University
We also welcome any ideas you have for improving and
strengthening this 11th edition of Helping Children Learn
Mathematics.
Finally, we give a special thanks to Joe Champion,
Boise State University, and Erin Krupa, Montclair State
University, for their contributions to this book. They did a
careful search of links and apps that would be useful for
helping elementary school teachers. You will find many of
their recommendations reflected in the Tech Connect boxes
that appear throughout the book.
Reflecting on the many people who have helped shape
this book, we say THANKS for your help and contributions.
We also wish to acknowledge the many colleagues,
friends, and students who have contributed in various ways
to the development of this book over the years. In particular,
we thank Barbara Reys, of the University of Missouri, Frank
Lester, of Indiana University, and Paul Lindquist for their
help and support.
We also wish to recognize the help of many reviewers
and contributors of ideas and suggestions for prior editions,
including:
RODA AMARIA, Salem State College
KIMBERLY ARP, Cabrini College
PETER APPELBAUM, Arcadia University
TOM BASSAREAR, Keene State College Jennifer Bay-
Williams, University of Louisville
MARTHA BOEDECKER, Northwestern Oklahoma State
University
CAROL BONILLA BOWMAN, Ramapo College
DANIEL BRAHIER, Bowling Green State University
CHRISTINE BROWNING, Western Michigan University
LECRETIA BUCKLEY, Purdue University
GRACE BURTON, University of North Carolina, Wilmington
RICK CALLAN, Franklin College
RICHARD CAULFIELD, Indiana University
DELTA CAVNER, Southwest Baptist University
ASTRIDA CIRULIS, National-Louis University
SANDI COOPER, Baylor University
BOB DRAKE, University of Cincinnati
MARTHA EGGERS, McKendree University
DIANNE ERICKSON, Oregon State University
SKIP FENNELL, McDaniel College
MARVEL FROEMMING, Moorhead State University
JEFF FRYKHOLM, University of Colorado
K. GADDIS, Lewis & Clark College Lowell
GADBERRY, Southwestern Oklahoma State University
ENRIQUE GALINDO, Indiana University Madeleine Gregg,
University of Alabama
ELSA L. GESKUS, Kutztown
YVELYNE GER-MAIN-MCCARTHY, The University of
New Orleans
CLAIRE GRAHAM, Framingham State College
ANDREA GUILLAUME, California State University
JANET HANDLER, Mount Mercy College
KIM HARRIS, University of North Carolina-Charlotte
KIM HARTWEG, Western Illinois University
EDITH HAYS, Texas Woman’s University
RUTH M. HEATON, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
KAREN HIGGINS, Oregon State University
ELLEN HINES, Northern Illinois University
ROBERT JACKSON, University of Minnesota
GAE JOHNSON, Northern Arizona University
SUSAN JOHNSON, Northwestern College
TODD JOHNSON, Eastern Washington University
MARY KABIRI, Lincoln University
HENRY S. KEPNER, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
DIANE H. KLEIN, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
MICHELE KOOMEN, Gustavus Adolphus College
RICK KRUSCHINSKY, University of St. Thomas
WILLIAM LACEFIELD, Mercer University
VENA LONG, University of Tennessee
MARGIE MASON, College of William and Mary
DAVID MARTIN, Florida Atlantic University
ROBERT MATULIS, Millersville University
SUEANNE MCKINNEY, Old Dominion University
WILLIAM MERRILL, Central Michigan University
ALICE MILLS, Quincy University
JEAN MITCHELL, California State University-Monterey Bay
EULA EWING MONROE, Brigham Young University
SARAH MURRAY, Centre College
MARGARET (MAGGIE) NIESS, Oregon State University
JAMAR PICKREIGN, Rhode Island College
DON PLOGER, Florida Atlantic University
SARA POWELL, University of Charleston (SC)

FRANK POWERS, University of Idaho
JACELYN MARIE REES, McNeese State University
GAY RAGAN, Southwest Missouri State University
DENISE M. REBOLI, King’s College (PA)
ANDY REEVES, University of South Florida-Tampa
BARBARA RIDENER, Florida Atlantic University
CANDICE L. RIDLON, Towson University
TOM ROMBERG, University of Wisconsin
THOMAS E. ROWAN, University of Maryland, College Park
MARY ELLEN SCHMIDT, Ohio State University-Mansfield
LINDA SHEERAN, Oklahoma State University
JASON SILVERMAN, Drexel University
TINA SLOAN, Athens State University
MARIAN SMITH, Florida A&M University Marilyn Soucie,
University of Missouri
FRANCES STERN, New York University
Preface vii
DAVID L. STOUT, University of West Florida
JANE STRAWHECKER, University of Nebraska at Kearney
GERTRUDE R. TOHER, Hofstra University
FREDERICK L. UY, California State University, Los Angeles
JUAN VAZQUEZ, Missouri Southern State College
ELSA VILLA, The University of Texas at El Paso
BETH VINSON, Athens State
KAY WALL, University of Central Oklahoma
PAT WALL, Northern Arizona University
JUDY WELLS, Indiana State University
TAD WATANABE, Kennesaw State University
DOROTHY Y. WHITE, University of Georgia
MARGARET WYCKOFF, University of Maine-Farmington
JOHN YANG, Lakeland College
BERNARD YVON, University of Maine
Contents

Preface iv Building Behavior 19

Acknowledgments vi
CHAPTER 1
School Mathematics in a Changing World 1
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 1
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 1
INTRODUCTION 1
What is Mathematics? 2 to Abstract 25
What Determines the Mathematics Being Taught?
Historical Influences 2
Recent Influences 4
Where Can You Turn? 6
National Guidelines for School Mathematics 7
State and Local Guidelines 7
Research 7
Cultural and International Resources 8
Text Books and Other Materials 8
Electronic Materials 8
Professional Organizations 9
Professional Development 9
Other Teachers 9
Yourself 9
What is Your Role Now? 9
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 9
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 9
CHAPTER 2
Helping All Children Learn
Mathematics with Understanding 11
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 11
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 11
INTRODUCTION 12
What do We Know About Learning Mathematics?
How Can We Support the Diverse Learners in Our
Classroom? 12
Creating a Positive Learning Environment 13
Avoiding Negative Experiences that Increase Anxiety 14
Establishing Clear Expectations 15
Treating all Students as Equally Likely to Have
Aptitude for Mathematics 15
Helping Students Retain Mathematical Knowledge
and Skills 16
Helping Children Acquire Both Procedural and
Conceptual Knowledge 17
How do Children Learn Mathematics? 18
Constructing Understanding 20
Learning Trajectories 22
How Can We Help Children Make Sense of
Mathematics? 22
Recommendation 1: Teach to the Developmental
Characteristics of Students 22
Recommendation 2: Actively Involve Students 23
Recommendation 3: Move Learning from Concrete
2 Recommendation 4: Use Communication to Encourage
Understanding 27
Cultural Connections 28
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 28
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 29
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 29
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 30
CHAPTER 3
Planning and Teaching 31
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 31
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 31
INTRODUCTION 31
Preparing to Teach: Questions to Ask 32
Do I Understand the Mathematics I Am Teaching? 32
What Do My Students Know? 33
Where are My Students Developmentally? 34
What Kinds of Tasks Will I Give My Students? 34
How Will I Encourage My Students to Communicate? 35
What Materials Will We Use? 37
Planning for Effective Teaching 43
Levels of Planning 44
Planning Different Types of Lessons 44
Assessment and Analysis in Planning 51
12 Meeting the Needs of all Students 52
Cultural Connections 55
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 56
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 56
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 57
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 57
CHAPTER 4
Using Assessment to Enhance Learning and
Teaching 58
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 58
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 58
INTRODUCTION 59

viii

Summative and Formative Assessments
Four Phases of Formative Assessment 59
Purposes for Formative Assessment 61
Making Instructional Decisions 62
Monitoring Student Progress 62
Evaluating Student Achievement 62
Ways to Assess Students’ Abilities and
Dispositions 62
Observation 63
Questioning 65
Interviewing 65
Performance Tasks 67
Self-Assessment and Peer Assessment 68
Work Samples 70
Portfolios 70
Writing 72
Teacher-Designed Written Tests 72
Standardized Achievement Tests 74
Keeping Records and Communicating About
Assessments 74
Recording the Information 74
Communicating the Information 77
Cultural Connections 77
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 78
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 79
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 79
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 80
CHAPTER 5
Practices and Processes of Doing
Mathematics 81
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 81
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 81
INTRODUCTION 81
Mathematical Practices from the Common
Core State Standards for
Mathematics—CCSSM 83
Practice 1: Problem Solving 83
Practice 2: Reasoning 83
Practice 3: Argumentation 83
Practice 4: Modeling 85
Practice 5: Using Tools 86
Practice 6: Precision 86
Practice 7: Structure 86
Practice 8: Regularity 86
Mathematical Processes from NCTM’s Principles and
Standards for School Mathematics 87
Problem Solving 87
Reasoning and Proof 90
Communication 92
Connections 93
Representations 94
Cultural Connections 96
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 97
Contents ix
59 THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 98
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 98
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 99
CHAPTER 6
Helping Children with Problem
Solving 100
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 100
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 100
INTRODUCTION 101
What is a Problem and What is Problem
Solving? 101
Teaching Mathematics Through Problem Solving 103
Factors for Success in Problem Solving 104
Choosing Appropriate Problems 105
Finding Problems 109
Having Students Pose Problems 110
Using Calculators and Computers 111
Strategies for Problem Solving 112
Act It Out 113
Make a Drawing or Diagram 113
Look for a Pattern 113
Construct a Table 114
Guess and Check 116
Work Backward 116
Solve a Similar but Simpler Problem 116
The Importance of Looking Back 119
Looking Back at the Problem 119
Looking Back at the Answer 119
Looking Back at the Solution Process 119
Looking Back at One’s Own Thinking 119
Helping All Students with Problem Solving 120
Managing Time 120
Managing Classroom Routines 120
Managing Student Needs 120
Cultural Connections 121
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 123
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 123
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 123
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 124
CHAPTER 7
Developing Counting and Number Sense 125
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 125
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 125
INTRODUCTION 125
Number Sense 125
Prenumber Concepts 127
Classification 127
Patterns 130
Early Number Development 131
Conservation 131
Subitizing 132
Comparing and Ordering 132
x Contents
Counting Principles 134
Counting Strategies 136
Developing Benchmarks 139
Cardinal, Ordinal, and Nominal Numbers
Writing Numerals 141
Integers 142
Cultural Connections 143
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 144
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 145
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 145
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 146
CHAPTER 8
Place Value and Decimals 147
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 147
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 147
INTRODUCTION 147
Our Numeration System 148
Nature of Place Value 149
Modeling—Ungrouped and Pregrouped 150
Modeling—Proportional and Nonproportional 150
Grouping or Trading 151
Beginning Place Value 152
Extending Place Value 155
Counting Higher and Patterns 160
Decimals 162
Connecting Decimals to Place Value 163
Rounding 165
Cultural Connections 167
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 168
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 168
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 168
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 169
CHAPTER 9
Operations: Meanings and Basic Facts 170
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 170
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 170
INTRODUCTION 171
Helping Children Develop Number Sense and
Computational Fluency 172
Facility with Counting 172
Experience with a Variety of Concrete Situations 172
Familiarity with Many Problem Contexts 172
Experience in Talking and Writing About
Mathematical Ideas 173
Developing Meanings for the Operations 173
Situations that Lead to Addition or Subtraction 174
Situations that Lead to Multiplication or Division 175
Mathematical Properties 177
Overview of Basic Fact Instruction 178
Start Where the Children Are 179
Build Understanding of the Basic Facts 180
Focus on How to Remember Facts 181
Thinking Strategies for Basic Facts 183
Thinking Strategies for Addition Facts 183
Thinking Strategies for Subtraction Facts 187
141 Thinking Strategies for Multiplication Facts 188
Thinking Strategies for Division Facts 191
Cultural Connections 193
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 194
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 195
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 195
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 196
CHAPTER 10
Computation Methods: Calculators,
Mental Computation,
and Estimation 197
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 197
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 197
INTRODUCTION 197
Balancing Your Instruction 198
Calculators 199
Using Calculators Requires Thinking 200
Using Calculators Can Raise Student
Achievement 200
Calculators are Not Always the Fastest Way of Doing
Computations 200
Calculators are Useful for More than Just Doing
Computations 200
Mental Computation 202
Strategies Using Compatible Numbers
and Decomposition 202
Encouraging Mental Computation 204
Estimation 207
Background for Estimating 207
Front-End Estimation 208
Adjusting 208
Compatible Numbers 209
Flexible Rounding 210
Clustering 212
Choosing Estimation Strategies 212
Cultural Connections 213
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 214
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 215
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 215
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 216
CHAPTER 11
Standard and Alternative Computational
Algorithms 217
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 217
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 217
INTRODUCTION 218
Teaching Algorithms with Understanding 220
Using Materials 221
Using Place Value 221

Addition 221
Standard Addition Algorithm 222
Partial-Sum Addition Algorithm 223
Higher-Decade Addition 224
Subtraction 225
Standard Subtraction Algorithm 225
Partial-Difference Subtraction Algorithm 227
Multiplication 228
Multiplication with One-Digit Multipliers 228
Multiplication by 10 and Multiples of 10 230
Multiplication with Zeros 230
Multiplication with Two-Digit Multipliers 231
Multiplication with Large Numbers 232
Division 232
Division with One-Digit Divisors 233
Distributive Algorithm 233
Subtractive Algorithm 234
Division with Two-Digit Divisors 235
Making Sense of Division with Remainders 236
Beyond Learning Computational Algorithms
Choosing Appropriate Methods 237
Checking 237
Building Computational Proficiency 238
Cultural Connections 238
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 239
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 240
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 240
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 241
CHAPTER 12
Fractions 242
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 242
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 242
INTRODUCTION 242
Background Knowledge 243
Differences Between Fractions and Whole Numbers 243
Three Meanings of Fractions 243
Models of the Part–Whole Meaning 244
Making Sense of Fractions 245
Partitioning Models 245
Words for Equal Parts and Counting Parts 247
Symbols 247
Drawing Models 248
Extending Understandings of Fractions 249
A Closer Look at the Models 249
A Closer Look at the Whole 250
Fractions Greater than One 251
Comparing Fractions and Equivalent Fractions 252
From Models to Symbols 252
Extending Ways to Compare Fractions 254
Extending Ways to Find Equivalent Fractions 255
Adding and Subtracting Fractions 256
Multiplying and Dividing Fractions 258
Multiplication 258
Division 260
Contents xi
Cultural Connections 261
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 261
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 262
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 262
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 262
CHAPTER 13
Ratio, Proportion, and Percent: Meanings
and Applications 263
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 263
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 263
INTRODUCTION 263
Ratios 264
Proportions 267
Percents 271
Understanding Percents 272
Applying Percents 274
Cultural Connections 277
237 A Glance at Where We’ve Been 277
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 278
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 278
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 279
CHAPTER 14
Algebraic Thinking 280
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 280
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 280
INTRODUCTION 280
Problems, Patterns, and Relations 281
Problems 281
Patterns 282
Relations 284
Language and Symbols of Algebra 287
Equality and Inequality 288
Variables 288
Expressions and Equations 289
Representing, Generalizing, and Justifying 289
Routine Problems 289
Patterns 292
Nonroutine Problems 293
Relations: Functions 295
Relations: Properties of Numbers 295
Another Look at Representing, Generalizing, and
Justifying 297
Cultural Connections 298
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 299
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 299
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 299
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 300
CHAPTER 15
Geometry 301
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 301
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 301
INTRODUCTION 301
xii Contents

Three-Dimensional Shapes 303 Experiments 354

Describing and Sorting 304 Simulations 354
Constructing to Explore and Discover 306 Analyzing Data: Graphical Organization 354
Two-Dimensional Shapes 309 Quick and Easy Graphing Methods 355
Sides and Angles 310 Plots 355
Symmetry 313 Picture Graphs 358
Parallel and Perpendicular 314 Bar Graphs and Histograms 358
Other Attributes 314 Pie Graphs 359
Line Graphs 359
Space 317
Graphical Roundup 360
Transformations 319 Misleading Graphs 361
Visualization and Spatial Reasoning 320 Analyzing Data: Descriptive Statistics 363
Using Geometric Physical and Pictorial Materials 321 Measures of Central Tendency or Averages 363
Using Mental Images 322 Measures of Variation 366
Cultural Connections 323 Interpreting Results 368
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 323 Data Sense 368
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 323 Communicating Results 369
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 324 Probability 369
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 324 Probability of an Event 370
Randomness 373
CHAPTER 16 Independence of Events 373
Measurement 325 Cultural Connections 374
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 325 A Glance at Where We’ve Been 375
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 325 THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 375
INTRODUCTION 325 THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 376
The Measurement Process 326 BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 377
Identify Attributes by Comparing 327
Choose a Unit and Compare the Unit to an Object 332 CHAPTER 18
Find and Report the Number of Units 334 Number Theory 378
Other Aspects of Measuring 340 SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 378
Estimating Measurements 340 CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 378
Creating Objects Given the Measurement 342 INTRODUCTION 378
Comparing Measurements 342 Why Study Number Theory 379
Conversions 343 Number Theory in Elementary School
Connecting Attributes 344 Mathematics 381
Area and Shape 344 Odds and Evens 381
Volume and Shape 344 Factors and Multiples 383
Perimeter and Area 344 Primes and Composites 385
Volume and Surface Area 345 Divisibility 387
Cultural Connections 346 Other Number Theory Topics 389
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 347 Relatively Prime Pairs of Number 389
THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 347 Polygonal Numbers 390
THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THIS BOOK 347 Modular Arithmetic 390
BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 348 Pascal’s Triangle 391
Pythagorean Triples 391
Fibonacci Sequence 392
CHAPTER 17
Cultural Connections 393
Data Analysis, Statistics, and
A Glance at Where We’ve Been 393
Probability 349 THINGS TO DO: FROM WHAT YOU’VE READ 394
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON 349 THINGS TO DO: GOING BEYOND THE BOOK 394
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES 349 BOOK NOOK FOR CHILDREN 394
INTRODUCTION 349
Formulating Questions 351 References 395
Collecting Data 353 Appendix 407
Surveys 353 Index 409
 CHAPTER
SCHOOL MATHEMATICS IN A
1 CHANGING WORLD
“The schools ain’t what they used to be and probably never were.” —Will Rogers
SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON
KEY IDEAS
1. Setting expectations for students’ responses.
2. Managing a classroom of young students.
BACKGROUND
This snapshot, Silent Signals in a Math Classroom, is from
the Teaching Channel and is available at https://www.
teachingchannel.org/videos/student-silent-signals
OVERVIEW
Jen Saul is a third-grade teacher. In this brief part of a
longer video, she shares ways she manages her students as
they respond to questions in a math lesson. She has several
hand silent signals that her students use to tell they are
thinking, have an answer, or have a different answer, or to
cheer for the student chosen to answer.
INTRODUCTION
A s Will Rogers said, schools are not what they used to
be, but our romantic view of the past is often flawed.
Our young students today are as eager to learn as they ever
were. We, as teachers, need ways to make that possible for
all students. The teacher in the snapshot shared some of
her techniques in fostering an environment that valued
all students. Not only do we need to value all students,
we need to value the subjects, in this case mathematics, we
are teaching.
You have the opportunity to provide a positive and mean-
ingful experience for those you help to learn mathematics.
What is your vision of the mathematics you will be teaching?
What is your vision of the classroom? Many of you will
remember your experiences in elementary school. You
remember memorizing multiplication tables, operating with
fractions, and doing long division. Or, you may remember
REFLECTING ON THE LESSON
1. What benefits and what drawbacks do you see in using
these silent signals?
2. Think of yourself in elementary school. How would you
have reacted to such signals?
3. If you were to adopt these signals in your classroom,
how would you begin (would you introduce all of them,
only one at a time, or modify them in some other way)?
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Contrast your view of mathematics to the five different
views presented in this chapter.
2. Which of the three needs that influence what and how
mathematics is taught is most important today? Why?
3. List the resources that are available to you to help
children learn mathematics.
exploring patterns, doing geometry projects, and solving
problems. Mathematics in elementary school may have been
a positive experience for you, or it may have been filled with
anxiety and frustration. Why were you learning mathematics
and when would you use it? Teachers want students to learn
mathematics and to learn that it is a useful subject. How can
they make sure this happens?
This book is designed to expand your vision of teaching
and learning mathematics and to help you help students
learn mathematics. The book interweaves three main themes:
• Theme 1. Best Practices and Research. These best
practices and research provide a basis for you to
understand what mathematics children are expected to
learn and how children learn mathematics.
• Theme 2. Sense Making. Mathematics should make
sense to children. If children make sense of the
mathematics they are learning, they can build on this
understanding to learn more mathematics and use the
mathematics to solve problems.
1
2 Chapter 1 • School Mathematics in a Changing World
• Theme 3. Practical Experiences. Learning to teach
mathematics requires experience. This theme is
explicated by the many suggestions and ideas from
teachers and our own experiences for you to use now
and later in the classroom.
Learning to teach is a lifelong journey. During that jour-
ney, you will often ask questions such as these:
• What mathematical knowledge and understanding does
each student bring to the class?
• What mathematics do students need to learn?
• How can I teach each unique child so that he or she
will learn?
• How important is my own attitude toward mathematics?
Your answers to these questions will influence what you
do when you are teaching. No matter what the age of the
children you teach, we recommend three general goals:
• To help children make sense of specific mathematical
content, including both procedures and concepts
• To help children learn how to apply mathematical ideas
to solve problems
• To foster positive dispositions, such as persistence,
flexibility, willingness to learn, and valuing mathematics
Developing ways to help you reach these three goals is
considered in later chapters of this book. This first chapter
focuses on what mathematics is and what determines the
mathematics that is taught in schools. We also share where
to turn for additional suggestions and help.
WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
T he view of mathematics in elementary school has
changed from being mainly about numbers, especially
computation, to a broader view. Numbers are essential, but
algebra, geometry, measurement, and data analysis are also
important.
Although we can consider mathematics as a collection
of separate strands such as geometry and algebra, this may
not be the best way of looking at it. It may be helpful to
broaden your view of mathematics. Five views are presented
to help you think of mathematics as being more than a col-
lection of strands. Before reading these different views, take
a minute to look at the quilt on the cover of this book. Do you
see patterns and relations among the different parts of the
quilt? Do you see the thinking underlying the quilt—the
careful placement of the cloth pieces to make a whole? Do
you see the quilt as art? What words or symbols would you
use to describe the quilt? Do you see the quilt as a tool—
something that would keep you warm? Similarly, you can
look at mathematics in these ways:
1. Mathematics is a study of patterns and relationships.
Mathematics is filled with patterns and relationships
providing threads that unify the curriculum. Children
should come to see how one idea is like another. For
example, children in first grade can see how one basic
fact (say, 3 ⫹ 2 ⫽ 5) is related to another basic fact (say,
5 ⫺ 3 ⫽ 2). Older children can relate measuring to the
nearest centimeter to rounding to the nearest hundred.
2. Mathematics is a way of thinking. Mathematics
provides people with strategies for organizing,
analyzing, and synthesizing information. Often
symbolizing a real-life problem reduces it to a
well-known mathematical procedure, making the
problem easier to solve.
3. Mathematics is an art, characterized by order and
internal consistency. Many children think of mathe-
matics as a confusing set of discrete facts and skills
that must be memorized. Children need guidance to
recognize and appreciate the underlying orderliness
and consistency to understand and use mathematics.
4. Mathematics is a language that uses carefully defined
terms and symbols. Learning these terms and symbols
enhances our ability to communicate about science,
real-life situations, and mathematics itself. As with
any language, you need to understand the meaning of
these words and when it is appropriate to use them.
5. Mathematics is a tool. Mathematics has become an
essential part of our world, both in everyday life and
in the workplace. Children appreciate why they are
learning mathematics if they know it is useful.
WHAT DETERMINES THE
MATHEMATICS BEING TAUGHT?
M athematics plays a prominent role in the elementary
school program. It is second only to reading in the
amount of time devoted to it and in the amount of money
spent for curricular materials. Its importance is reflected in
the degree of concern about school mathematics voiced by
parents, politicians, and other social groups.
HISTORICAL INFLUENCES
Three factors—the needs of the subject, the child, and the
society—have influenced what mathematics is to be taught in
schools. Many people think that “math is math” and never
changes. A brief discussion of these three factors paints a dif-
ferent picture: mathematics is a subject that is ever changing.
Needs of the subject The nature of mathematics helps deter-
mine what is taught and when it is taught in elementary grades.
For example, number work begins with whole numbers, then

fractions and decimals. Length is studied before area. Such
seemingly natural sequences are the result of long years of cur-
ricular evolution. This process has involved much analysis of
what constitutes a progression from easy to difficult, based in
part on what is deemed necessary at one level for the develop-
ment of ideas at later levels. Once a curriculum is in place for a
long time, however, people tend to consider it the only proper
sequence. Thus, omitting a topic or changing the sequence of
topics often involves a struggle for acceptance. However, re-
search shows that all students do not always learn in the se-
quence that has been ingrained in our curriculum.
Sometimes the process of change is the result of an
event, such as when the Soviet Union sent the first Sputnik
into orbit. The shock of this evidence of another country’s
technological superiority sped curriculum change in the
United States. The “new math” of the 1950s and 1960s was
the result, and millions of dollars were channeled into math-
ematics and science education to strengthen school pro-
grams. Mathematicians became integrally involved. Because
of their interests and the perceived weaknesses of previous
curricula, they developed curricula based on the needs of the
subject. The emphasis shifted from social usefulness to such
unifying themes as the structure of mathematics, operations
and their inverses, systems of notation, properties of num-
bers, and set language. New content was added at the ele-
mentary school level, and other topics were introduced at
earlier grade levels.
Mathematics continues to change; new mathematics is
created, and new uses of mathematics are discovered. As
part of this change, technology has made some mathematics
obsolete and has opened the door for other mathematics to
be accessible to students. Think about all the mathematics
you learned in elementary school. How much of this can be
done on a simple calculator? What mathematics is now
important because of the technology available today?
Needs of the child The mathematics curriculum has been
influenced by beliefs and knowledge about how children
learn and, ultimately, about how they should be taught.
Before the early years of the twentieth century, mathematics
was taught to train “mental faculties” or provide “mental dis-
cipline.” Struggling with mathematical procedures was
thought to exercise the mind (like muscles are exercised),
helping children’s brains work more effectively. Around the
turn of the twentieth century, “mental discipline” was re-
placed by connectionism, the belief that learning established
bonds, or connections, between a stimulus and responses.
This led teachers to the endless use of drills aimed at estab-
lishing important mathematical connections.
In the 1920s, the Progressive movement advocated inci-
dental learning, reflecting the belief that children would
learn as much arithmetic as they needed and would learn it
better if it was not systematically taught. The teacher’s role
was to take advantage of situations when they occurred nat-
urally as well as to create situations in which arithmetic
would arise.
What Determines the Mathematics Being Taught? 3
During the late 1920s, the Committee of Seven, a commit-
tee of school superintendents and principals from midwestern
cities, surveyed pupils to find out when they mastered various
topics (Washburne, 1931). Based on that survey, the commit-
tee recommended teaching mathematics topics according to
students’ mental age. For example, subtraction facts under 10
were to be taught to children with a mental age of 6 years
7 months and facts over 10 at 7 years 8 months; subtraction
with borrowing or carrying was to be taught at 8 years
9 months. The recommendations of the Committee of Seven
had a strong impact on the sequencing of the curriculum for
years afterward.
Another change in thinking occurred in the mid-1930s,
under the influence of field theory, or Gestalt theory. A
1954 article by William A. Brownell (2006), a prominent
mathematics education researcher, showed the benefits of
encouraging insight and the understanding of relationships,
structures, patterns, interpretations, and principles. His
research contributed to an increased focus on learning as a
process that led to meaning and understanding. The value
of drill was acknowledged, but it was given less importance
than understanding; drill was no longer the major means of
providing instruction.
The relative importance of drill and understanding is
still debated today. In this debate, people often treat under-
standing and learning skills as if they are opposites, but
this is not the case. Clearly, drill is necessary to build speed
and accuracy and to make skills automatic. But equally
clearly, you need to know why as well as how. Both skills
and understanding must be developed, and they can be
developed together.
Changes in the field of psychology have continued to
affect education. During the second half of the twentieth cen-
tury, educators came to understand that the developmental
level of the child is a major factor in determining the sequence
of the curriculum. Topics cannot be taught until children are
developmentally ready to learn them. Or, from another point
of view, topics must be taught in such a way that children at a
given developmental level are ready to learn them.
Research has provided increasing evidence that children
construct their own knowledge. In so doing, they make sense
of the mathematics and feel that they can tackle new prob-
lems. Thus, helping children learn mathematics means being
aware of how children have constructed mathematics from
their experiences both in and out of school.
Read more about the influence of psychological theo-
ries, in the chapter by Lambdin and Walcott (2007).
Needs of society The usefulness of mathematics in every-
day life and in many vocations has also affected what is taught
and when it is taught. In early America, mathematics was
considered necessary primarily for clerks and bookkeepers.
The curriculum was limited to counting; the simpler proce-
dures for addition, subtraction, and multiplication; and some
facts about measures and fractions. By the late nineteenth
century, business and commerce had advanced to the point
4 Chapter 1 • School Mathematics in a Changing World
that mathematics was considered important for everyone.
The arithmetic curriculum expanded to include such topics as
percentage, ratio and proportion, powers, roots, and series.
This emphasis on social utility, on teaching what was
needed for use in occupations, continued into the twentieth
century. One of the most vocal advocates of social utility
was Guy Wilson. He and his students conducted numerous
surveys to determine what arithmetic was actually used by
carpenters, shopkeepers, and other workers. He believed that
the dominating aim of the school mathematics program
should be to teach those skills and only those skills.
In the 1950s, the outburst of public concern over the
“space race” resulted in a wave of research and development
in mathematics curricula. Much of this effort was focused on
teaching the mathematically talented student. By the mid-
1960s, however, concern was also being expressed for the
disadvantaged student, as U.S. society renewed its commit-
ment to equality of opportunity. With each of these changes,
more and better mathematical achievement was promised.
In the 1970s, when it became apparent that the promise
of greater achievement had not fully materialized, another
swing in curriculum development occurred. Emphasis was
again placed on the skills needed for success in the real
world. The minimal competency movement stressed the
basics. As embodied in sets of objectives and in tests, the
basics were considered to be primarily addition, subtrac-
tion, multiplication, and division with whole numbers and
fractions. Thus, the skills needed in colonial times were
again being considered by many to be the sole necessities,
even though children were now living in a world with cal-
culators, computers, and other features of a much more
technological society.
By the 1980s, it was acknowledged that no one knew
exactly what skills were needed for the future but that every-
one needed to be able to solve problems. The emphasis on
problem solving matured through the last 20 years of the
century to the point where problem solving was not seen as
a separate topic but as a way to learn and to use mathematics
(see Chapter 6).
Today, one need of our society is for a workforce that is
competitive in the world. There is a call for school mathe-
matics to ensure that students are ready for workforce train-
ing programs or college.
RECENT INFLUENCES
NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF MATHE-
MATICS (NCTM) In the late 1980s, the NCTM, the world’s
largest professional organization of teachers of mathematics,
led the way in developing standards for school mathematics.
It began a movement and all other curriculum professional
organizations followed with standards for their subjects. The
NCTM developed standards for curriculum and for evalua-
tion, teaching, and assessment (NCTM, 1989, 1991, 1995).
Because states and localities in the United States have the
right to determine their own school policies, these standards
were not prescriptive, but provided vision and direction for
schools. Many states and districts used these documents in
preparing their guidelines.
In 2000, the NCTM updated the standards with the pub-
lication of Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
(NCTM, 2000). The standards described the mathematical
content and mathematical processes that should be taught in
school mathematics. These influenced the development of the
Common Core State Standards, the most recent guidelines.
The principles represent fundamental beliefs about the char-
acteristics of a high-quality, equitable mathematics program.
The six NCTM principles represent fundamental beliefs
about the characteristics of a high-quality, equitable mathe-
matics program. We have included a brief discussion about
each principle because of their relevance to today.
The Equity Principle Excellence in mathematics educa-
tion requires equity—high expectations and strong support
for all students.
The Equity Principle states clearly that excellence in
mathematics education means ensuring that all students learn
mathematics. This vision can be realized only if each person
involved in education firmly believes that all children can learn
mathematics and that each child should be expected to do so.
Every child must be given the opportunity to learn worthwhile
mathematics. This means designing instructional programs
that can encompass all the different interests, strengths, needs,
cultures, and mathematical backgrounds of students. Plenty of
evidence supports the idea that all students can learn mathe-
matics. High-quality instructional programs are needed that let
well-prepared teachers and other school personnel respond to
students’ varied strengths and needs.
Our schools are characterized by diversity—students
from many different cultures and languages and from many
different economic and home backgrounds, with different
strengths, ways of learning mathematics, and past experi-
ences with mathematics. Equity does mean that all children
must learn worthwhile mathematics, but it does not mean that
all should have the same instruction. In fact, it means that
children can reach the high expectations set for them only if
we meet the individual needs of each child. Your repertoire of
ways to reach children will grow as you teach and learn. At
this point, you can begin by challenging the popular belief
that only some children can learn mathematics. This is an
important first step in becoming a teacher who can help every
child learn mathematics.
The Curriculum Principle A curriculum must be coher-
ent, focused on important mathematics, and well articulated
across the grades.
• Coherent. A curriculum that fits mathematical ideas
together in a meaningful way
• Focused. A curriculum that focuses on the important
mathematics topics and ideas at each grade, not on
every possible topic
• Well articulated. A curriculum that builds on previous
learning and grows across the grades

No one knows exactly what mathematics will be needed as
the twenty-first century progresses, but it is clear that students
will need to know how to reason mathematically and how to
apply mathematical thinking to a wide range of situations. How
you view mathematics will determine how you view teaching
mathematics. If you view mathematics as a collection of facts
to learn and procedures to practice, then you will teach that to
your students. If you view mathematics as a logical body of
knowledge, you will design your program to guide children in
making sense of mathematics. Chapters 7–18 look at specific
content and ways to help you help children.
The Learning Principle Students must learn mathematics
with understanding, actively building new knowledge from
experience and prior knowledge.
What it means to learn mathematics has changed a great
deal over the past century. Currently, the phrase mathematical
proficiency is used to describe what it means to learn mathe-
matics successfully. Ideas about developing mathematical
proficiency are considered in more depth in Chapter 2.
In a changing world, learning mathematics with under-
standing is essential in order to meet this goal of mathemat-
ical proficiency. Research has shown that if children are able
to make sense of the mathematics they are learning, they can
build on this understanding to learn more mathematics and
use that mathematics to solve problems in order to become
mathematically proficient.
The Teaching Principle Effective mathematics teaching
requires understanding what students know and need to learn
and then challenging and supporting them to learn it well.
To teach mathematics effectively, teachers must know
more than just mathematics. They need to know their students
as learners, and they must adjust their pedagogical strategies in
response to students’ varying experiences. Teachers must
design lessons that reveal to them what students already know,
that reveal students’ misunderstandings, and that guide students
to construct more complex understandings of mathematics.
Teachers must create challenging and supportive classroom
learning environments that help children make sense of mathe-
matics. Teachers must also encourage students to think, ques-
tion, solve problems, and discuss their ideas. Chapter 3 initiates
the discussion of teaching, and succeeding chapters focus on
ways to teach and on useful types of activities.
The Assessment Principle Assessment should support the
learning of important mathematics and furnish useful infor-
mation to both teachers and students.
People often think of assessment as testing to see what
students have learned. The Assessment Principle presents a
much broader view of assessment. Helping all students learn
mathematics requires that assessment be an integral part of
the instructional program. But assessment should not be
something that is done to students; rather, a mathematics
program must include assessments that are done for students,
to guide and enhance their learning. The Assessment Princi-
ple is considered in more detail in Chapter 4.
What Determines the Mathematics Being Taught? 5
The Technology Principle Technology is essential in
teaching and learning mathematics; it influences the mathe-
matics that is taught and enhances students’ learning.
You will teach at a time when technology dominates
activities both in and out of school. The Technology Prin-
ciple acknowledges that technology will continue to be
important in teaching and learning mathematics, as long as
it enhances what is being learned and how it is being
taught. As you teach your classes, you should keep asking
three questions:
1. How can I help children use technology appropriately?
2. What mathematics do children need in order to use
technology wisely?
3. What mathematics is no longer necessary because of
technology?
Some parents continue to be concerned about the use
of calculators in learning mathematics in elementary
schools. A meta-analysis of 54 research studies on the use
of and attitudes toward calculators (Ellington, 2003) sug-
gests that using calculators does not hinder the develop-
ment of mathematical skills and that students who used
calculators had better attitudes toward mathematics than
those who did not. Of course, children need to learn to use
calculators appropriately, as they do any other tool (see
Chapter 10).
COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS FOR MATHE-
MATICS (CCSSM) The most recent effort, the Common
Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) to set standards
and associated assessments, was led by the National Gover-
nors Association for Best Practices and the Council of
Chief State School Officers. These standards for reading
and for mathematics were informed by the NCTM stan-
dards, state standards, and standards from around the world.
The Common Core State Standards for Mathematics defines
the mathematical knowledge and skills students should
obtain from kindergarten through high school.
This is an attempt to have a common understanding
across the United States of what students are expected to
learn at each grade level. The states that choose to adopt
these standards (and most have) will have a period of time
to align their standards with these. Common assessments,
both summative and formative, are being developed by
centers (Smarter Balanced and Partners for Assessment
of Readiness for College and Careers) with consortia of
the states that will use these assessments beginning in
2014. These assessments will be available electronically
with the expectation that students will be familiar with
technology. The technology can allow for many innova-
tions in testing.
As with any change, there are many questions raised
when states, schools, and teachers begin to implement these
standards. Helpful and thoughtful suggestions can be found
in Curriculum Issues in an Era of Common Core State Stan-
dards for Mathematics (Hirsch, Lappan, & Reys, 2012).
6 Chapter 1 • School Mathematics in a Changing World
CCSSM Notation
Mathematics Standards
Example: 4.OA.B.3
Grade 4
Domain OA (Operations & Algebraic Thinking)
Cluster B (Gain familiarity with factors and multiples)
Objective 3 (more specific statement)
Mathematics Practices (MP)
Example: MP2
The practices are the same for Kindergarten through
Grade 12, so MP2 represents the second (2) practice.
Figure 1-1 Notation used with CCSSM. (Source: Copyright
2010 by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and
Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.)
The NCTM (2014) has published a document entitled,
Principles to Action: Ensuring Mathematical Success
for All. This document builds on the six principles dis-
cussed in the previous section adding a seventh principle
on professionalism. It describes the barriers that must
be overcome in order for a successful implementation
of CCSSM.
In this text, we have included the relevant standards in
the content-focused chapters. It is important that you
understand these standards and begin to use them in your
preparation for teaching. The CCSSM also includes a list
of eight mathematical practices that are fundamental to the
vision and implementation. These are fully discussed in
Chapter 4.
Abbreviations are commonly used in referring to a spe-
cific standard or mathematical practice; Figure 1-1 provides
a guide to reading these abbreviations.
Federal legislation A serious effort to hold schools ac-
countable for student learning began with the new century.
Accountability was one of the pillars of the No Child Left
Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001, which required states to show
that each school is making yearly progress in academic
subjects and that all students are becoming mathematically
proficient. However, it was left to the states to decide what
is meant by mathematically proficient. The No Child Left
Behind legislation, which calls for annual testing in read-
ing and mathematics each year in grades 3–8 and once in
grades 10–12, provides “an example of federal funding that
is linked, at least in part, to the results of standardized
achievement tests at the state level. Every state has now
instituted some sort of statewide testing program, partly in
response to this legislation” (Wilson, 2007, p. 1099). The
plan now is to base many of these testing programs on
the CCSSM.
Along with its focus on accountability, the NCLB
called for supporting supplementary services and profes-
sional development for teachers. Unfortunately, the major-
ity of the available funds have gone into testing for
accountability. Poorly performing schools are still strug-
gling and are still in need of well-prepared teachers to
meet the challenge of helping all students become mathe-
matically proficient.
High stakes assessments Today’s society is focused on
assessments in the form of tests that are used to compare
students’ performance across schools, states, and nations.
These summative assessments are primarily designed to
document what students know and are able to do. Tests are
sometimes given to make decisions about students—which
class to place students in, what grade to record on their
report card, or whether to promote them to the next grade.
When assessments have serious consequences such as these,
we call them “high-stakes assessments.” In the situations
just described, high-stakes decisions about the students
themselves are being made as a result of the assessments.
It is not just the individual students, however, who are
affected by the consequences of high-stakes assessments.
Tests may be administered in order to document the achieve-
ment of a group of students or to compare one group of stu-
dents with another. Individual teachers, or schools, or dis-
tricts, may be held accountable for their students’ test scores,
taken as a group. Teachers and schools may be rated or
ranked according to the results of such tests. Many schools,
districts, and states now use student test results to make
funding decisions, to help determine teacher’s pay, or even to
decide who will keep their jobs.
Teachers feel pressure to “teach to the test.” This is not
all bad if the tests actually measure what is important and
allow students access to show what they really know and can
do. However, many of the tests focus only on lower level
skills. While mathematics proficiency requires a level of
skill, say, in computation, it requires much more. If children
have the opportunity to learn the content on the tests in a
manner that makes sense to them, they will do well on such
tests. Teach to the standards that are set for your school
district and community.
WHERE CAN YOU TURN?
T here are many places you can turn to develop your
knowledge of mathematics and of mathematics learning
and teaching. In this section, we discuss a few of the resourc-
es that we reference throughout this book and that you can
use now and in teaching.
 Where Can You Turn? 7

NATIONAL GUIDELINES FOR 500

SCHOOL MATHEMATICS
300
We have discussed the role of The Common Core State Stan- 290 285
279* 281* 283* 284*
dards for School Mathematics (CCSSI, 2010) previously in 280 273*
278*
Grade 8

Scale score
this chapter. The relevant standards are discussed in the 270
remaining chapters, but you may access the full document as 260
shown in Tech Connect 1.1. 250 240* 242
235* 238* 240* 241*
240
230 226* Grade 4
Tech Connect 1.1 220

You can access The Common Core State Standards

for Mathematics from http://www.corestandards.org/ or
from this book’s Web site. 0
2000 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
www.wiley.com/college/reys Year

We also frequently refer to the Principles and Standards for
School Mathematics (NCTM, 2000). In this chapter, we have
briefly discussed the principles. The five process standards along
with CCSSM mathematical practices are included in Chapter 5.
The five content standards provide structure to Chapters 7–18
which are elucidated through the CCSSM standards.
STATE AND LOCAL GUIDELINES
Almost every state has a document with standards, guide-
lines, or frameworks for school mathematics. Although there
is much commonality among states, a study (Reys, 2006) of
the grade-level expectations of states found a wide variety in
the specificity and in the grade in which a skill was targeted.
For example, expectation of mastery of basic addition
facts ranges from grade 1 to grade 3. Of the 38 states that
specify the grade level, 21% indicate grade 1, 74% indicate
grade 2, and 5% indicate grade 3 (Reys, 2006). Consequently,
textbooks often contain material not appropriate for your
state’s guidelines. One reason for developing CCSSM is the
vast difference among states. Ask yourself if it is fair for chil-
dren from one state to have less of an opportunity to learn
mathematics than children from another state.
You need to become familiar with your state document
and use it to plan when you are teaching. Links to state math-
ematics curriculum frameworks are available from the Cen-
ter for the Study of Mathematics Curriculum (http://www.
mathcurriculumcenter.org/states.php). Many localities have
their own versions of the state’s document. They often expect
more of students than the state documents and connect the
expectations to their mathematics program.
RESEARCH
Research is referenced throughout this book, not only to acquaint
you with research in mathematics education, but also to illus-
trate or support discussions in the text. There is a substantial
body of research in mathematics education, both about chil-
dren’s learning and about teaching. We often use the following
two sources: Second Handbook for Research on Mathematics
Figure 1-2 Trends in mathematics performance. (Source:
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National
Center for Education Statistics.)
Learning and Teaching (Lester, 2007), and Teaching and Learn-
ing Mathematics: Translating Research for Elementary School
Teachers (Lambdin, 2010). The second reference is written
especially for easy and practical access to research.
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP,
pronounced “nape”) is the nation’s measure of students’
achievement and trends in achievement in the academic sub-
jects. With the passage of the NCLB in 2001, NAEP has
become more prominent. The present framework for NAEP
elementary mathematics is closely aligned with the NCTM’s
standards. The NAEP assessment contains a variety of types of
items (multiple choice, short response, and open-ended
response). The mathematics assessment is given to a sample of
students at grades 4 and 8 in every state. Results are reported
by states as well as by race, gender, and socioeconomic status.
Figure 1-2 shows the overall national results for the years 1990
through 2011. Note that both grades showed significant
improvement over this period.
Tech Connect 1.2
More information about NAEP, including sample
items, may be found at http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreport-
card/mathematics or from this book’s Web site.
www.wiley.com/college/reys
Research reports appear in many journals. We often use
articles from the research journal of the NCTM, Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education (JRME), to guide our
recommendations in this book. JRME articles often lead
directly to the classroom ideas and recommendations found
in other NCTM journals, such as Teaching Children Mathe-
matics. The Research Clips and Briefs found on NCTM’s
Web site give snippets of recent and relevant research.
8 Chapter 1 • School Mathematics in a Changing World
Tech Connect 1.3
The NCTM provides a wealth of research and refer-
ences. You can access this from http://www.nctm.org
(either as a member of NCTM or via the 120-day free
access) or from this book’s Web site.
www.wiley.com/college/reys
CULTURAL AND INTERNATIONAL
RESOURCES
The Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), an
international study, is given at grades 4 and 8. The results of
a recent TIMSS study, in 2011, showed that U.S. fourth-grade
students were above the international average. The average
score for fourth-grade students in 8 countries were higher,
6 countries were the same, and 42 countries were lower.
Eighth-grade U.S. students were also above the international
average. Performance varies greatly within the United States
and is closely linked to economic status.
The TIMSS study also collects information about cur-
riculum, teaching, and teachers. These results suggest that
U.S. educators can learn much from analyzing how other
countries teach mathematics.
Many of the other chapters in this book suggest resources
that will help you understand how mathematics is taught and
learned in other cultures and that show you ways to use cul-
turally oriented activities as you strive to reach each child.
Tech Connect 1.4
You can find more information about TIMSS, in-
cluding sample items, at http://www.nces.ed.gov/timss
or from this book’s Web site.
www.wiley.com/college/reys
TEXT BOOKS AND OTHER MATERIALS
There are many different types of textbooks. Some provide a
lot of drill and practice but offer little help in developing under-
standing and using mathematics. Others may do the opposite,
providing a great deal of help in developing students’ under-
standing but falling short on practice of necessary skills. As
you gain experience, you will be better able to judge the quality
of a textbook and better able to depart from it as appropriate. If
you have not had much experience, you may want to stick with
the textbook until you become more comfortable with teach-
ing. But be sure always to ask why you need to teach a given
lesson. Does it help children develop the mathematics they
need? Does it help children make sense of the mathematics?
Today’s textbooks provide supplementary materials
such as assessments, problems to solve, and extra practice.
Teachers’ manuals also provide a wealth of materials and
teaching suggestions.
ELECTRONIC MATERIALS
The kind and amount of materials readily available are
increasing every day. The Web provides immediate access
to lesson plans, help with the mathematics itself, assess-
ment items, and information that can be used in teaching
mathematics. Additionally, many sites have videos of
mathematics classes. Each chapter of this book begins
with a Snapshot of a Lesson. These snapshots are excerpts
from videos that illustrate teaching related to the topic of
the chapter and to CCSSM. Watching the entire video will
give you a better feel for interactions of the teacher
and students.
The Tech Connects included in each chapter recommend
sites that are worth investigating. A simple search of the
Internet for information about mathematics for elementary
students will lead you to many other Web sites. Availability
on the Web is no guarantee of quality. A prospective teacher
cited an activity from a Web site in which young children
found the capacity of their mouths by filling them with
marshmallows! The mathematics is questionable because the
unit of measurement could change as the marshmallows are
squashed. More importantly, children could easily choke on a
mouthful of marshmallows. Teaching involves making good
judgments on many fronts.
Tech Connect 1.5
The Math Forum Web site includes a mathematics
library, a discussion board for teachers, lesson plans, ac-
tivities created and submitted by teachers, Problems of
the Week for students, and answers to math problems
from Ask Dr. Math. You can access this Web site at
http://www.mathforum.org/ or from this book’s Web site.
www.wiley.com/college/reys
There are many electronic sites related to CCSSM. In
particular, you should become familiar with the sites of the
consortiums producing the assessments. Partners for Assess-
ment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) and
Smarter Balanced are both working with many states to
design assessments that will be delivered electronically.
Think about the possibilities of electronic assessments to
accommodate the diverse needs of students.
Tech Connect 1.6
PARCC and Smarter Balanced sites include a list of
states in their consortia, their philosophy, and sample ques-
tions for assessing the CCSSM standards in grades 3–8.
You can access these sites at http://www.parcconline.org
and at http://www.smarterbalanced.org or from this book’s
Web site.
www.wiley.com/college/reys

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Professional association with others and the support you can
find from being a part of a professional organization will
enhance your teaching career. Journals, conferences, and
other materials of a professional organization are often avail-
able through schools.
The NCTM (www.nctm.org) offers many publications,
including a journal for elementary teachers of mathematics
(Teaching Children Mathematics) and one for middle school
teachers (Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School). You
will find many references in this book to these journals. The
NCTM also sponsors conferences, e-workshops, and other
support activities. There are many affiliated state and local
groups of NCTM that offer publications and programs.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Start taking advantage of professional development oppor-
tunities. Some of these will be formal, such as workshops,
college courses, and conferences; others will include infor-
mal study groups. Your school, district, or state will provide
some opportunities for you. Others will be commercially
sponsored or sponsored by a professional organization. An
increasing number of opportunities on the Web are designed
so you can participate as your schedule permits.
Often, schools or districts have funds set aside for
professional development that are available on request.
Some districts have teachers design their own professional
development plans and support them in carrying out
those plans.
OTHER TEACHERS
Teachers learn from each other. You will learn from your
school experiences, but do not let learning stop there. Look
for schools where sharing ideas about helping students learn
mathematics and sharing teaching tips and materials are the
norm. Look for teachers in other schools, either near you or
far away but connected electronically, who are willing to dis-
cuss and to share. A good teacher who is willing to work
with you is an invaluable resource.
Things to Do: From What You’ve Read
1. What are the three general goals mentioned in the introduc-
tion? Which do you think is the most important? Explain why?
2. What is the purpose of CCSSM? What does it include?
3. Which of the resources in Where Can You Turn have you
already used? Which ones do you think will be most helpful to
you? Why?
4. Explain in your own words the six principles that underpin
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Which is
the most important to you? Why?
Things to Do: Going Beyond This Book 9
YOURSELF
One of the most important resources is you. As you prepare for
teaching mathematics, be sure to think about the broader con-
text of your work and carefully consider these three challenges:
• Examine your own disposition toward mathematics
and your beliefs about who can learn mathematics. Be
ready to question your beliefs, to evaluate proposed
changes, and to make a difference in helping children
learn mathematics.
• Take seriously the title of this book. Teaching means
helping students learn, not merely giving out informa-
tion. As you begin working with children, stop and listen
to them, individually and collectively. Reflect on what
you are hearing, and learn with and from the children.
• Realize that doing mathematics and teaching mathemat-
ics are different. Teaching mathematics requires a depth
of understanding about mathematics, about students,
about schools, about curriculum, and about pedagogy. If
you come to this realization and actively seek knowledge
and experiences that integrate these areas, you are well
on your way to becoming a good teacher.
WHAT IS YOUR ROLE NOW?
T eaching mathematics in a changing world means that the
curriculum and instruction must change to reflect the
needs of the subject, the child, and society. In this chapter, you
have been challenged to consider your view of mathematics
as a subject. You have seen a glimpse of the changes through
the past as well as recommendations for teaching mathemat-
ics in the twenty-first century. The six principles put forth by
the NCTM underpin many of the recommendations for today.
Resources have been identified to support your study through-
out the rest of this book and, more important, as you teach.
The challenge is to keep an open mind and continue your own
learning about teaching children mathematics. Prepare to help
your students make sense of mathematics.
Things to Do: Going Beyond This Book
In the Field
1. Mathematics in the School. As you observe in a school, look
for signs of the role that mathematics plays in that school.
Does it differ from class to class?
2. Equity: Interview the Teacher. What does the statement “all
children can learn mathematics” mean to you? Interview a
teacher and compare his or her answer to yours.
10 Chapter 1 • School Mathematics in a Changing World
In Your Journal
3. The Technology Principle recommends that technology should
support effective mathematics teaching. Write a statement of
your experience using calculators and describe your philoso-
phy regarding calculators in learning elementary mathematics.
4. Give an illustration (different from those in this chapter) of
how mathematics is a study of patterns and relationships, a
way of thinking, an art, and a language.
With Additional Resources
5. Find a recent issue of Teaching Children Mathematics or
Teaching Mathematics in Middle Grades. Select an article that
describes a classroom application.
With Technology
6. Visit the Illuminations site (illuminations.nctm.org) and watch
the short video, Common Core State Standards Myths and
Facts. Make a list of the myths and facts. Chose one myth that
you may consider a fact and tell why.
7. Navigate the Web site in Tech Connect 1.5 “Ask Dr. Math”
Web site. Review the questions that elementary teachers and
students send for Dr. Math to answer. Send a question to
Dr. Math. How long is it before your question is answered?
Was the answer helpful?
 CHAPTER
HELPING ALL CHILDREN

2 LEARN MATHEMATICS WITH

UNDERSTANDING
“I never teach my pupils; I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they
can learn.”
—Albert Einstein, Physicist and Nobel Prize winner, 1879–1955

SNAPSHOT OF A LESSON
United States and the implications it has for promoting
KEY IDEAS
changes in mathematics programs.
1. Engaging students in exploring multiples of four.
2. Extending patterns of multiple of four to larger
numbers.
REFLECTING ON THE LESSON
1. How was the number line useful in promoting patterns
3. Using games and technology to help develop
for multiples of four?
multiplication.
2. How was 22 ⫻ 4 decomposed to produce a product?
4. Changes in mathematics programs and teaching are
How was a similar procedure used to find 45 ⫻ 4?
happening around the world.
3. How was technology and the hundred chart used to
promote additional pattern exploration?
Lesson Objective related to CCSSM: 3.OA.A.1
and 3.OA.A.2 4. How did Jason explain that 196 was a multiple of four?
5. Explain how double-double relates to multiplication
by four?
BACKGROUND
6. Describe one of the challenge questions that Ms. Hill
This 14-minute lesson clip is entitled Sense Making and
used with the children.
Multiplication. It is from the Teaching Channel and is avail-
able at https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/teaching- 7. What do you think the teachers meant when they talked
multiplication about “fusing and applying math”?

OVERVIEW CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES

Sally Hill is a fourth-grade teacher in a school in the United
Kingdom that is undergoing changes in their primary
mathematics program. The video captures things she does
in helping children explore multiples of four in ways that
made sense to them. She provides opportunities for the
children to recognize and explore patterns and then uses
these patterns to explore more challenging multiplication
problems. The video shows how other primary teachers are
facing the challenges of focusing on sense making and
helping students understand the mathematics they are
learning. The video is a reminder of the challenges teachers
constantly face in their careers—whether they are teaching
in the United Kingdom and their revised primary frame-
work for math or the Common Core State Standards in the
1. Explain some ways children learn mathematics.
2. Identify ways teachers can support diverse learners in
the classroom.
3. Describe how teachers can help children acquire
procedural and conceptual knowledge.
4. Compare ways children learn mathematics from a
behaviorist and constructivist approach.
5. Characterize four recommendations for helping children
make sense of mathematics based on what is known
about how children learn mathematics.
6. Identify some implications for learning and teaching
mathematics based on the SES research findings.

11
12 Chapter 2 • Helping All Children Learn Mathematics with Understanding
INTRODUCTION
H ow do children learn mathematics? This important ques-
tion has no simple answer, but the safest response is
“Children learn mathematics in very different ways.” The
Snapshot shows how Ms. Hill used modeling and materials to
help the students understand the problem and move toward
solutions. She got her students actively engaged in the prob-
lem, and challenged them to describe their solutions. Often
children have a difficult time describing the thinking process-
es used, which makes our jobs as teachers more like a detec-
tive as we look for clues to better understand what they did
and how they did it.
Each elementary classroom is filled with children who
have different backgrounds, interests, strengths, and needs. It
is important for teachers not only to know the children in
their classroom well but also to answer the question, “How
will my students best learn mathematics?” Teachers provide
their answers through classroom practices. In fact, every
instructional activity within the classroom expresses the
teacher’s view of learning. The way in which you plan les-
sons, present topics, and handle questions reflects how you
perceive learning and influences what happens in the class-
room. This chapter will build on your previous knowledge
from educational psychology and stimulate your thinking
about how to help all children learn mathematics.
WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT
LEARNING MATHEMATICS?
D ifferent models have evolved to describe important
dimensions for learning mathematics. Figure 2-1
shows the processes that NCTM posed for mathematics
learning. About the same time the Adding it Up document
from the National Research Council (Kilpatrick, Swafford,
& Findell, 2001) built onto the habits of mind (Cuoco,
Glodenberg, & Mark, 1996) and offered five intertwined
strands to characterize mathematical proficiency. Notice
the parallels between the NCTM processes and the five
strands. Each of these models illustrates that mathematical
learning is not one dimensional, but has multiple elements
that are intertwined together.
About a decade later, the CCSSM put forth eight math-
ematical practices, and a close examination of Figure 2-1
illustrates relationships across all three models. For exam-
ple, “Problems solving,” “Strategic competence,” and “Make
sense of problems” address a single theme and is a reminder
that problem solving should always remain front and center
when mathematics learning is being discussed. In a similar
way, “Reasoning” connects to “Adaptive reasoning” that
connects to “Reasoning abstractly and quantitatively.” These
four models illustrate that while different terms may be used
to highlight important dimensions of mathematics learning,
looking closer reveals parallels and similarities.
HOW CAN WE SUPPORT THE
DIVERSE LEARNERS IN OUR
CLASSROOM?
E ach school year brings a new mix of children with
varying personalities, strengths, and needs. Elementary
classrooms are becoming increasingly more diverse.
Nationwide, the last decade has seen large increases in the
number of students who are members of ethnic minorities,
are English-language learners, and receive services for
disabilities. Data from the National Center for Educational
Statistics indicate that a typical classroom of 25 students
includes approximately:
• 11 students who are members of a minority group
• 4 students who speak a language other than English
at home
• 10 students who qualify for free or reduced-cost
lunches
• 6 students who live in poverty
• 4 students with disabilities who receive special
services, a little more than half of whom spend more
than 80% of their school day in a regular classroom
The students in our classrooms also vary in their cogni-
tive, physical, and social development and abilities. They
come from different cultures and family structures. They
have different background experiences, interests, levels of
motivation, and styles of learning. In the end, every child in
every class is unique. As teachers, we are charged with
helping each and every one of these children learn mathe-
matics and develop to their maximum potential. The cur-
rent national focus on accountability in education reinforces
that responsibility.
NCTM’s vision, described in the Equity Principle, is that
“All students, regardless of their personal characteristics,
backgrounds, or physical challenges, must have opportunities
to study—and support to learn—mathematics. Equity does
not mean that every student should receive identical instruc-
tion; instead, it demands that reasonable and appropriate
accommodations be made as needed to promote access and
attainment for all students” (NCTM, 2000, p. 12). As Albert
Einstein said providing an environment and appropriate learn-
ing opportunities for all the children in your mathematics
classroom is a challenge.
There are many strategies you can use to support all
students without having to individualize instruction for each
child. Here are five of these strategies.
 How Can We Support the Diverse Learners in Our Classroom? 13

NCTM Processes Adding It Up CCSSM Practices NCTM Teaching Practices

Competencies

• Problem solving • Strategic competence— • Make sense of problems • Establish mathematical

Ability to formulate, and persevere in solving goals to focus learning.
represent, and solve them.
mathematical problems.

• Reasoning • Adaptive reasoning— • Reasoning abstractly and • Implement tasks that

Capacity for logical thought, quantitatively. promote reasoning and
reflection, explanation, and problem solving.
justification.

• Connections • Conceptual understanding— • Look for and express • Use and connect
Comprehension of regularity in repeated mathematical
mathematical concepts, reasoning. representations.
operations, and relations.

• Communication • Procedural fluency—Skill in • Construct viable arguments • Facilitate meaningful

carrying out procedures and critique the reasoning mathematical discourse.
flexibly, accurately, of others.
efficiently, and appropriately.

• Representations
• Productive disposition— • Look for and make use of • Pose purposeful questions.
Habitual inclination to see structure.
mathematics as sensible,
useful, worthwhile, coupled
with a belief in diligence
and one’s own efficacy.

• Use appropriate tools • Build procedural fluency

strategically. from conceptual
understanding.

• Attend to precision. • Support productive struggle

in learning mathematics.

• Model with mathematics. • Elicit and use evidence of

student thinking.

Figure 2-1 Mathematical processes, competencies, and practices. (Sources: Based on information from Kilpatrick et al., 2001;
Cuoco et al., 1996; CCSSI, 2010; and NCTM, 2000, 2014.)

CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT
Creating a positive learning environment means being con-
cerned both with the physical setting and with other factors:
“If we want students to learn to make conjectures, experiment
with alternative approaches to solving problems, and construct
and respond to others’ mathematical arguments, then creating
• Make sure the classroom atmosphere is intellectually
an environment that fosters these kinds of activities is essen-
tial” (NCTM, 1991, p. 56). The teacher is largely responsible
for creating an appropriate environment that provides oppor-
tunities for student involvement (Nebesniak & Heaton, 2010).
Here are some of the things you should do.
• Make sure the classroom arrangement is safe and
comfortable and that it supports the lesson’s learning
activities. When you do a demonstration, be sure all
students can see you, the board, or the screen. When
students are working in small groups, arrange their
desks in clusters before the lesson begins. If they need
to use manipulatives or other supplies, have them
packaged and available for easy access or distribution.
Consider a room arrangement that lets both you and
the students move around the room easily.
stimulating for learning mathematics. Encourage
intellectual risk-taking, and help children feel safe about
taking risks. Help children understand that confusion,
partial understanding, incorrect answers, conceptual
errors, and some frustration are natural as they construct
their mathematical knowledge. Children who do not
inhibit their intuitive responses and are not overly
concerned about giving wrong answers are more likely to
search for patterns, feel free to make conjectures, engage
in discussions, and take risks when doing mathematics.
14 Chapter 2 • Helping All Children Learn Mathematics with Understanding

TABLE 2-1 • Five Shifts in Classroom Environment

Mathematics Instruction Should Shift:

Toward Away from

• Classrooms as mathematics communities • Classrooms as collections of individuals

• Logic and mathematical evidence as verification
• Mathematical reasoning
• Conjecturing, inventing, and problem solving
• Connecting mathematics, its ideas, and its
applications
• The teacher as the sole authority for right answers
• Mere memorizing of procedures
• Finding answers mechanistically
• Treating mathematics as a body of isolated concepts
and procedures

Source: Adapted from Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM, 1991).

• Make sure students understand that they will not all
learn the same things at the same time and that they
will not all be equally proficient, but that everyone can
indeed become proficient. Learning mathematics is a
long-term process. Sometimes progress will be slow;
sometimes learning will jump ahead in moments of
aha and insight, when they will say, “I’ve got it!” or
“Now I understand!”
• Reward students for critical thinking and creative
problem solving so that students learn to value and
respect those approaches. Research shows that students
who experience a problem-solving approach to
mathematics consistently perform higher than those
who experience a focus on skills and procedures
(Sutton & Krueger, 2002). Table 2-1 shows some
additional recommendations from NCTM for shifting
the classroom learning environment so it better
supports all students.
AVOIDING NEGATIVE EXPERIENCES THAT
INCREASE ANXIETY
Many children experience some degree of mathematics anxi-
ety, or “mathophobia”—a fear of mathematics or other nega-
tive attitudes toward mathematics. Mathematics anxiety can be
expressed as poor performance, more than the usual number of
misunderstandings, lack of confidence about doing mathemat-
ics, and so on (see Figure 2-2). Data from the Early Childhood
Longitudinal Study suggest that primary-grade children gener-
ally express positive attitudes about mathematics, but attitudes

Anxiety Gorge
(Also known as mathematics anxiety and mathophobia
)

ETE
N CR Modeling
CO Generalizing
Manipulating
Representing
Communicating
Symbolizing

Communicating
T
C
Misunderstandings A
R
Poor performance
on math tests B ST
Uncertainty A
Apathy
Lack of confidence
Dislike of
mathematics
Low motivation
Classroom behavior problems

Figure 2-2 Bridges linking meaning to mathematics.

 How Can We Support the Diverse Learners in Our Classroom?
toward mathematics tend to become progressively more nega-
tive as children move into middle school and high school
(Lubienski, Robinson, Crane, & Ganley, 2013). Students who
experience mathematics anxiety tend to take less mathematics
during secondary school, thereby blocking their access to
many careers.
What can be done about mathematics anxiety? Here are
some suggestions for ways you can help students cope with
this problem:
• Emphasize meaning and understanding rather than
memorization. Children attempting to memorize
mathematics without understanding are likely to fall
into the “anxiety gorge” in Figure 2-2. Helping
students make connections between the concrete (e.g.,
models and manipulatives) and the abstract (e.g.,
generalizations and symbolic representations) facili-
tates understanding, promotes success at learning, and
helps relieve mathematics anxiety.
• Model problem-solving strategies rather than presenting
finished solutions. Help students realize that using
incorrect strategies and taking unnecessary steps are a
natural part of developing problem-solving skills. Focus-
ing on the process rather than the answer helps reduce the
anxiety associated with getting “wrong” answers.
• Show a positive attitude toward mathematics. Students’
attitudes are greatly influenced by the attitudes of their
teachers. Research has shown that teachers who enjoy
teaching mathematics and who share their interest and
enthusiasm for the subject tend to produce students
who like mathematics (Sutton & Krueger, 2002).
• Give students mathematical experiences they will enjoy
and that will interest and challenge them while allowing
them to be successful. Successful experiences in
learning mathematics result in self-confidence, which
greatly influences the persistence that students will
exhibit when confronted with challenging problems.
• Encourage students to tell you how they feel about
mathematics. What do they like, and why do they like
it? This self-reflective (or metacognitive) diagnosis can
help you detect symptoms of mathematics anxiety.
• Don’t overemphasize speed tests or drills in your
classroom. Some children may enjoy the challenge of
Tech Connect 2.1
To address the myth “I’m bad at math”—go to http://
www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/10/
the-myth-of-im-bad-at-math/280914/
To explore some issues promoting math anxiety—go
to http://joboaler.com/the-role-played-by-timed-math-tests-
in-the-development-of-math-anxiety-evidence-from-
neuroscience-and-a-us-school-district/
Each site may be accessed from the Web address
above or from this book’s Web site.
www.wiley.com/college/reys
15
competition, but others are uncomfortable with it—for
these students, timed races breed apprehension and fear
of mathematics. Use diagnostic techniques to identify
students who are experiencing particular difficulty or
need special help, and provide this help quickly to get
them back on track.
ESTABLISHING CLEAR EXPECTATIONS
Students want to meet teacher expectations, so teachers must
make sure their expectations are clearly understood. To
make their expectations clear, “teachers must think through
what they really expect from their students and then ensure
that their own behavior is consistent with those expecta-
tions” (Good & Brophy, 2010, p. 127). Some ways to estab-
lish clear expectations include the following:
• Make it clear that you respect and value student ideas
and ways of thinking; also make it clear that you expect
your students to respect and value each other.
• Establish a mathematics class motto for your students:
“Do only what makes sense to you.” This motto
encourages students to question, reflect, and seek
explanations that make sense to them. It also paves the
way for constructing knowledge that students find
meaningful and that they understand.
• Another class motto might be: “Maybe one answer—
certainly many paths.” This motto will help your
students realize that the process is just as important as
the answer. Ask students to explain their thinking so
you can see what path they took to get to their answers.
As they share their thinking, other students may learn a
different way to solve the problem.
• Encourage children to reflect on their learning—not
just on what they have learned, but also on how they
learned it, their thought process. Metacognition is an
important part of learning. Individual reflection or
interaction with others (both teachers and peers)
encourages students to communicate and explain their
thinking. Ms. Hill in the lesson snapshot encouraged
children to share their thought processes.
TREATING ALL STUDENTS AS EQUALLY
LIKELY TO HAVE APTITUDE FOR
MATHEMATICS
Do not let your words or actions suggest that some students—
for example, boys or students of Asian background—are
more likely than others to excel in mathematics. Doing so
sends a message to those other students that you expect them
not to succeed. Make it clear that you expect students to suc-
ceed in mathematics regardless of their gender, economic,
racial, or cultural and ethnic background. Expecting high
achievement from everyone sends a powerful message that
mathematics is for everyone. Research consistently confirms
that teacher expectations greatly affect student performance
(Good & Brophy, 2010; NCTM, 2014).
16 Chapter 2 • Helping All Children Learn Mathematics with Understanding
To be an effective teacher, you must have high expecta-
tions for all students, and you must challenge all students
equally. You must also consider minority students’ languages,
cultures, and community backgrounds as assets, not as liabil-
ities. If you develop flexible assignments and assessments
that help you identify and use student strengths, you can
increase the cognitive level of interactions of minority stu-
dents. Research has shown that teachers can help minority
students, indeed all students, to succeed in mathematics, and
this should include providing immediate and effective reme-
diation when needed (Holloway, 2004).
A complex assortment of social forces produces or
influences inequities related to mathematics. For example,
parents of young children may indicate that they expect their
sons to be better at mathematics than their daughters. School
counselors may subtly discourage students from particular
ethnic or socioeconomic backgrounds from studying mathe-
matics or pursuing careers where mathematics is important.
Research suggests that teachers may actually treat girls
and boys differently in the mathematics classroom (Sutton &
Krueger, 2002). For example, teachers may call on boys
more and may be less likely to praise girls for correct
responses and less willing to prompt girls who give wrong
answers. Teachers also tend to attribute boys’ failure at
mathematics to a lack of motivation, whereas they tend to
attribute girls’ failure to a lack of talent. Girls may take such
criticism to heart and think that it truly indicates their math-
ematical abilities.
Girls are less impulsive than boys and are better able to
sit still and read. In general, girls are better at literacy. Boys
are usually more competitive (King & Gurian, 2006). The
willingness of students to take risks—to take a chance on
answering a question when they are not certain of the
answer—may be a factor behind gender differences on tests.
Gender differences also arise with respect to learned helpless-
ness—the belief that the individual cannot control outcomes
and is destined to fail without the existence of a strong safety
net. Learned helplessness includes feelings of incompetence,
lack of motivation, and low self-esteem. It usually develops
from what is perceived as failure or lack of success in learn-
ing, and it is often associated with mathematics. Students feel
there is little sense in trying because the opportunity for suc-
cess is beyond their control. Both boys and girls experience
learned helplessness, but girls seem particularly susceptible
to this syndrome.
Here are some actions you can take to confront and
address inequities:
• Dispel myths (such as “mathematicians work in
complete isolation” or “only white males do mathe-
matics”) that discourage women and some minorities
from pursuing careers in mathematics (Mewborn &
Cross, 2007).
• Have equally high expectations for all students, and
clearly communicate those expectations to both
students and their parents.
• Communicate to parents the importance of encourag-
ing all their children—both girls and boys—to aspire to
success in mathematics (Moschkovich, 2011).
• Engage both boys and girls in solving difficult prob-
lems, raising questions, and communicating their math-
ematical thinking—that is, making sure boys and girls
participate equally in the class discussion and receive
equal shares of your time and attention.
• Make relevant connections between mathematics and
students’ lives (Coates, 2007).
• Call attention to role models of both genders and the
widest range of racial, cultural, and ethnic back-
grounds, in both mathematics and science; also,
helping students increase their awareness of career
opportunities for people with strong mathematics
backgrounds. (For example, the Book Nook at the end
of this chapter includes books that will help you find
biographies and stories about mathematicians and
scientists of varied backgrounds.)
• Discuss learned helplessness with students having
problems and develop ways to prevent learned help-
lessness or to remedy it.
• Use a variety of ways to assess student performance
(e.g., a range of test formats, interviews, and portfolios).
HELPING STUDENTS RETAIN
MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Retention reflects the degree to which students can hold onto
and use what they have learned. For example, if students can
read a clock in class but have forgotten how to do so by the
time they get home, we would say that their retention of this
skill is very limited. Clearly, retention of knowledge and
skills is an important aspect of learning.
Forgetting is a problem in all disciplines, but the cumu-
lative nature of mathematics increases its importance. For-
getting occurs over a summer, a spring vacation, a weekend,
a day, or even shorter periods. It can make the retention of
skills and specific knowledge decrease dramatically from the
peak during instruction. For instance, the knowledge that
lets students answer questions like the following is quickly
forgotten if it is not used regularly:
What is a prime number?
What is the transitive property?
How many pints are in a gallon?
Skills, too, are quickly lost if not used regularly. For example,
students may have trouble doing exercises like these:
What is the quotient of 2/3 and 1/5?
Use the formula to find the area of a trapezoid.
Thus, classroom and achievement tests of mathematical
skills and knowledge often report very changeable levels of
performance.
 Helping Children Acquire Both Procedural and Conceptual Knowledge
Performance at problem solving, in contrast, is more
stable over time and less susceptible to big declines. One
reason is that problem solving is a complex behavior sup-
ported by several higher-level thinking processes. Such pro-
cesses take time to develop, but once established, they are
retained longer than many skills, and problem solving often
improves over time.
Retention is an important goal and instruction should be
geared to maximize it. Research suggests several ways you
can help children improve their retention:
• Meaningful learning is the best way to increase
retention. All phases of mathematics (knowledge,
skills, and problem solving) that have been developed
with meaning and learned with understanding are
retained longer (Brownell, 1935; Skemp, 2006).
• The manner in which a concept was learned can aid
long-term retention (National Research Council, 1999).
For example, physically measuring the diameter and
circumference of many different circles, observing
patterns, and recording them helps students remember
that the ratio of the diameter and circumference is
constant more than simply being told by the teacher.
• Establishing connections aids long-term retention.
Connections help children see how mathematical ideas
are related to each other and to the real world. Mathe-
matical topics must not be taught in isolation, but in
conjunction with problem solving and with applica-
tions in meaningful, real-world contexts. Research
documents the value of establishing connections, not
only to gain better understanding but also to promote
retention (Kilpatrick et al., 2001).
• Periodically reviewing key ideas helps anchor knowl-
edge and can contribute substantially to retention. The
spiral development of high-quality mathematics
programs reflects the importance of periodic reviews of
mathematical topics for children at every age. These
reviews may be explicit or implicit. Some teachers
spend the first few minutes of each math lesson
explicitly reviewing previously learned concepts;
others implicitly incorporate reviews of previous topics
in discussions of new topics. In either case, reviews
help remove rustiness, reinforce and refresh knowledge
in ways that improve immediate performance, and
contribute to higher achievement and greater retention.
HELPING CHILDREN ACQUIRE
BOTH PROCEDURAL AND
CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE
T he overriding goal for mathematics education is for stu-
dents to become mathematically proficient. The intertwin-
ing strands associated with being mathematically proficient
17
were highlighted earlier in Figure 2-1. In this section, we will
elaborate on procedural fluency and conceptual understand-
ing. In mathematics education, the relative importance of
teaching students procedural knowledge or fluency versus
conceptual knowledge or understanding has long been debat-
ed. But this debate involves a false dichotomy. Clearly, not
only are both procedures and concepts necessary for expertise
in mathematics but they too are intertwined. As teachers, we
need to understand what constitutes procedural knowledge and
conceptual knowledge and the importance of helping students
make meaningful connections between them. Both types of
knowledge are essential in order for students to be able to learn
mathematics with understanding.
Procedural knowledge is reflected in skillful use of
mathematical rules or algorithms. A student with procedural
knowledge can successfully and efficiently use a rule or
complete a process, a sequence of actions. For example, a
student who has procedural knowledge of two-digit division
can perform the steps in the long-division algorithm quickly
and accurately.
Conceptual knowledge involves understanding what
mathematical concepts mean. For example, one aspect of
conceptual knowledge for division is that one meaning of
division means forming equal groups. Students with concep-
tual knowledge can link ideas in networks of connected
meanings, incorporate new information into those networks,
and see relationships among different pieces of information
(Hiebert & Grouws, 2007).
Procedural knowledge alone helps students answer spe-
cific questions, but it may lack important connections. Con-
ceptual knowledge requires the learner to actively think
about relationships and make connections, while also mak-
ing adjustments to fit the new learning into existing mental
structures. Research shows that conceptual knowledge not
only doesn’t diminish skills but may even help students
recall and use skills (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). For example,
in response to the question “What is a square?” procedural
knowledge might lead a student to respond, “A square is a
figure with four congruent sides and four right angles.” Pro-
cedural knowledge would not, however, help the student
understand other relationships—for example, that any square
is also a rectangle, a parallelogram, a regular polygon, and
an equilateral quadrilateral. In the Classroom 2–1 requires
that students demonstrate conceptual knowledge—that is, a
deeper understanding of four-sided figures.
There is a negative consequence of teaching procedural
knowledge without conceptual knowledge. If teachers indi-
cate that the only important thing is to get the right answer,
then students will have no motivation to learn why algo-
rithms work. The addition algorithm for 23 ⫹ 49 could be
memorized as: “Add the 3 and the 9 to get 12. Bring down the
2 and carry the 1 . . .” Rote learning (memorization without
meaning) has no place in school mathematics, but it high-
lights one of the ever-present dangers associated with teach-
ing algorithms. Research suggests that students with highly
developed rules or procedures for manipulating symbols are
18 Chapter 2 • Helping All Children Learn Mathematics with Understanding
In the Classroom 2–1
DIFFERENT KINDS OF
FOUR-SIDED FIGURES
Objective: Classify four-sided figures.
Grade Level: 4–5.
A B
C
D
E Early in the twentieth century, John Dewey asserted that
• Squares ___
• Rectangles ___
• Parallelograms ___
• Regular polygons ___
• Equilateral quadrilaterals ___
reluctant to make the effort to connect these rules to other
representations that might help them understand the mathe-
matical meaning of the algorithms (Sutton & Krueger, 2002).
In addition, a student who learns a procedure without mean-
ing will have difficulty knowing when to use it, remembering
how to do it, applying it in new situations, and judging if the
results are reasonable.
As teachers of mathematics, we must help students
establish connections and see relationships between concep-
tual and procedural knowledge. Students may not do it auto-
matically. Research suggests that instruction that focuses on
developing conceptual understanding can also yield efficient
skills (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). One way to focus on con-
ceptual understanding is to focus on students’ explanations
and encourage them to think aloud. Our challenge as teach-
ers is to construct an open classroom environment along
with learning experiences that help students build connec-
tions between mathematical ideas. A closer look at what we
know about how children learn mathematics will help you
meet this challenge.
HOW DO CHILDREN LEARN
MATHEMATICS?
O ur vision is for all children to learn mathematics with
understanding. More specifically, the NCTM Learning
Principle says: “Learning with understanding is essential to
enable students to solve the new kinds of problems they will
inevitably face in the future” (NCTM, 2000, p. 21).
The premise that mathematics must be learned with
understanding is based on research that has been accumulat-
ing for many years and reflects advances in mathematics
education, psychology, and other areas of science. Mathe-
matics builds on itself, becoming more abstract and symbol
oriented as the ideas build (e.g., from arithmetic to algebra).
Evidence from science suggests that learning changes the
physical structure of the brain, and different parts of the
brain may be ready to learn different things at different times
(National Research Council, 1999). Ultimately, to learn
more abstract mathematical concepts, children need to have
developed enough—both physically and psychologically—
to handle the abstraction.
learning comes from experience and active involvement by
the learner. Much has been discovered since then about how
children learn mathematics, but the importance of meaning-
ful experience remains unchallenged. Later, Jean Piaget
argued that learners actively construct their own knowledge.
This view of learning, known as constructivism, suggests
that rather than simply accepting new information, students
interpret what they see, hear, or do in relation to what they
already know. Thus, students learn mathematics with under-
standing by actively building new knowledge from their per-
sonal experiences and prior knowledge.
Teachers develop their lessons based on how they believe
children learn. There are currently two prevailing theories of
learning: behaviorism and constructivism. Behaviorism
focuses on observable behaviors and is based on the idea that
learning means producing a particular response (behavior) to
a particular stimulus (something in the external world). From
this perspective, students learn specific skills (behaviors) by
observing teachers demonstrating those skills in relation to
specific stimuli (e.g., a mathematics problem). For example,
a teacher demonstrates how to find the mean of a set of num-
bers, and students learn to produce that type of response
(finding the mean) when given that type of stimulus (a second
set of numbers). Behaviorism’s focus on behaviors may
exclude consideration of any thought processes students may
use to arrive at their answers.
Constructivism has a different focus: It concentrates on
what happens between the stimulus and the response. That is,
the focus is on the thinking students do. From this perspec-
tive, learning depends not only on what the teacher does but
also on the students themselves—how they integrate new
ideas with their experiences and with what they already know.

Both views of learning hold implications for teaching
mathematics. Both are keys to a further understanding of
how children learn mathematics.
BUILDING BEHAVIOR
Behaviorism focuses on external actions and observable
behaviors—on stimuli and responses. The main advocates
of the behaviorist perspective over the years include Edward
L. Thorndike, B. F. Skinner, and Robert Gagné; today, few
learning theorists argue for an exclusively behaviorist
approach to mathematics learning. Behaviorism has had a
significant impact on mathematics programs, and teachers
must consider behaviorist psychology when developing
instructional goals and planning lessons. Nevertheless,
strict adherence to a behaviorist approach to mathematics
learning in elementary school is inappropriate because of its
lack of consideration of the child’s own thinking. Thus, as
teachers, we can draw on behaviorist ideas, but we must do
so wisely and with an awareness of their limitations. Keep-
ing this point in mind, we will examine behaviorism a bit
more closely.
A major tenet of behaviorism is that behavior can be
shaped through reinforcement—that is, through rewards and
punishments. Teachers can use reinforcement (e.g., feedback
on a student’s performance, praise, or criticism in class) to
get students to practice desired behaviors (e.g., written algo-
rithms). It is well documented that meaningful practice has
great value and power in mathematics learning, but exces-
sive practice, premature practice, or practice without under-
standing is associated with negative effects. Such practice
often leads to a fear or dislike of mathematics and an attitude
that mathematics does not need to make sense, despite the
fact that making sense of mathematics should be a major
goal of mathematics learning.
A behaviorist approach can be useful in helping chil-
dren learn a fixed set of skills in a fixed order—that is, to
help children acquire procedural knowledge. Many behav-
iorists think of mathematics as being sequenced in a linear
fashion, where one idea builds on another and where profi-
ciency in one skill is used to develop proficiency in the next
skill. For example, the concept of multiplication as repeated
addition suggests that students need to master addition
before moving to the concept of multiplication. This hierar-
chical view of mathematics learning makes it a popular can-
didate for a behaviorist approach.
The first consideration in planning a lesson from a behav-
iorist perspective is to state precisely the objectives, or goals,
of instruction. Such statements give the teacher direction in
planning lessons and give the students clear expectations—
both valuable outcomes that are consistently supported by
research. Then, once an objective has been clearly stated, the
teacher should identify the prerequisites for achieving that
goal and use those prerequisites as building blocks in plan-
ning instruction. For example, suppose you have stated this
objective: Apply the formula A ⫽ 1/2ba to find the area of a
triangle. Some prerequisite questions would be:
How Do Children Learn Mathematics? 19
What is a triangle?
What is a triangle’s base?
What is a triangle’s altitude?
Clear answers to these prerequisite questions are neces-
sary in order to reach the objective; however, the following
questions could also be considered prerequisites:
What is area?
How do you multiply two numbers?
How do you multiply by a fraction?
This indicates the difficulty in constructing a complete
set of prerequisites for any objective in mathematics, no mat-
ter how simple the objective may seem. This is similar to the
challenge faced when constructing learning trajectories that
will soon be discussed. Of course, you have to consider pre-
requisites when preparing lessons, but you must be guided
by common sense, not by zeal to state every prerequisite or
construct a complete learning trajectory.
From the behaviorist perspective, clarifying the goals
for instruction focuses the instruction on the desired learning
outcomes. What behavior do you want the students to exhibit
at the end of instruction? That outcome provides the focus of
the lesson. This process of forming behaviorally oriented
objectives may be useful, but it ignores a more important
goal—learning mathematics with meaning. Students may be
able to demonstrate a desired behavior without understand-
ing what that behavior means. If the objective of the lesson
is to use the formula correctly to find the area of a triangle,
the lesson’s focus is on lower-level cognitive outcomes,
where the students are expected only to correctly identify
and use the base and altitude of the triangle to calculate a
number for the area. If, on the other hand, the objective of
the lesson is to know why the area of the triangle is half the
area of a specific rectangle (see Figure 2-3), the students are
directed toward a higher cognitive level of understanding of
the area of the triangle. From this higher-level perspective,
the prerequisite questions for the lesson must include the
question of understanding the area of a rectangle. The lesson
E A F
B D C
Figure 2-3 The area of triangle ABC is half the area of
rectangle BEFC. The length of the rectangle equals the
base of the triangle and the width of the rectangle equals
the altitude of the triangle.
20 Chapter 2 • Helping All Children Learn Mathematics with Understanding
must then focus the students on identifying the rectangle that
is formed by the base and altitude of the triangle (rectangle
BEFC in Figure 2-3). Look at Figure 2-3 and decide for
yourself why the area of the shaded triangle (ABC) must be
one-half the area of the rectangle (BEFC).
This example shows how emphasizing behavioral out-
comes for a lesson may result in lower-level cognitive proce-
dures. Unfortunately, many mathematics programs include a
hefty proportion of such outcomes, probably because they
are easily measured. The result is programs where students
are “shown” algorithms and mathematical relationships are
“illustrated” on the textbook pages, but where learning with
understanding is sadly underemphasized.
The attractive features of the behaviorist approach are
that it provides instructional guidelines, allows for short-
term progress, and lends itself well to the current focus on
accountability. Knowing what outcomes will be assessed
in state or standardized tests gives teachers specific direc-
tion for designing their lessons; however, a real and con-
stant danger in using a behaviorist approach is that it leads
to a focus on simple, short-term objectives that are easily
measured. These simple objectives, in turn, lead to mas-
tery of specific skills, but may not lead to higher-level
understandings and the development of connections that
make knowledge meaningful and useful. The emphasis on
short-term objectives often results in a de-emphasis on
long-term goals and higher-level cognitive processes such
as problem solving.
Nevertheless, careful use of a behaviorist approach can
result in more learner involvement and can even promote
higher-level thinking in mathematics. Lesson outcomes can be
identified that encourage children to develop concepts and use
critical thinking. This possibility is illustrated by the use of
behaviorally oriented verbs, such as explore, justify, represent,
solve, construct, discuss, use, investigate, describe, develop,
and predict, in stating outcomes. In sum, the behaviorist
approach leads to some useful ideas in teaching mathematics:
• Behavior can be shaped by reinforcement of drill and
practice.
• Students can be helped to learn specific skills in a fixed
order.
• Clear statements of objectives help teachers design
lessons directed at specific learning outcomes.
• Clear statements of objectives and learning outcomes
give students a clear idea of expectations.
Although identifying specific outcomes is an important
part of mathematics instruction, the constructivist perspec-
tive helps teachers focus more directly on helping students
understand and make sense of mathematics.
CONSTRUCTING UNDERSTANDING
During the first half of the twentieth century, William
Brownell advanced a notion of meaningful learning that
was a forerunner of constructivism. Brownell conceived of
mathematics as a closely knit system of ideas, principles,
and processes—a structure that should be the cornerstone for
learning mathematics. Connections among concepts should
be established so that “arithmetic is less a challenge to the
pupil’s memory and more a challenge to his [or her] intelli-
gence” (Brownell, 1935, p. 32).
In recent years, research has consistently confirmed that
isolated “learnings” are not retained (Hiebert, 2003). Math-
ematics can and should make sense to learners. If it does,
then the mathematics will have meaning to learners and will
be understood as a discipline with order, structure, and
numerous relationships—and will be likely to be called on in
a variety of problem-solving situations. Meaningful learning
provides the basis for mathematical connections and is an
integral part of the constructivist perspective.
In addition to Brownell, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner,
and Zoltan Dienes have each contributed to the growth of
constructivism. Figure 2-4 summarizes their frameworks of
the learning process. Many of the major recommendations
for teaching mathematics advocated by the Professional
Standards for Teaching Mathematics (NCTM, 1991) and
more recently in the Mathematical Practices (see Table 5-2)
in the CCSS-M are based on their theories of learning math-
ematics. Both of these documents provide strong support for
changing from the traditional behaviorist approach to a con-
structivist approach. In fact, research has shown that students
learn mathematics well only when they construct their own
mathematical understanding.
What, then, does it really mean for students to construct
their own mathematical understanding? It means different
things to different people, but three basic tenets of construc-
tivism help us answer this question:
1. Knowledge is not passively received; rather, knowledge
is actively created or invented (constructed) by
students. Piaget (1972) suggested that mathematics
understanding is made (constructed) by children,
not found like a rock or received from others as a gift.
2. Students create (construct) new mathematical
knowledge by reflecting on their physical and mental
actions. They observe relationships, recognize
patterns, and make generalizations and abstractions as
they integrate new knowledge into their existing
mental structure (Dienes, 1960).
3. Learning reflects a social process in which children
engage in dialogue and discussion with themselves
as well as with others (including teachers) as they
develop intellectually (Bruner, 1986). This tenet
suggests that students are involved not only in
manipulating materials, discovering patterns, inventing
their own algorithms, and generating different solu-
tions, but also in sharing their observations, describing
their relationships, explaining their procedures, and
defending the processes they followed.
 How Do Children Learn Mathematics? 21

Levels of Thinking by Elementary Levels of Developmental Levels of Mathematical Learning

School Children as Characterized Learning as Characterized by as Characterized by Dienes
by Piaget Bruner

Abstractions
Advanced

Formal Operational: Considers the
possible rather than being restricted to
concrete reality. Capable of logical
thinking that allows children to reflect
on their own thought processes.
Symbolic: Manipulation of symbols.
Child manipulates and/or uses symbols
irrespective of their enactive or iconic
counterparts.
Formalization: Provides an ordering of
the mathematics. Fundamental rules
and properties are recognized as
structure of the system evolves.
Symbolization: Describes the
representation in language and/or
mathematical symbols.

Iconic (semi-concrete): Representation: Provides a peg on

Representational thinking based on which to hang what has been
pictures, images, or other abstracted. Images and pictures are
Concrete Operational: Thinking may be representations. Child is involved with used to provide a representation.
logical but is perceptually oriented and pictorial and/or verbal information

Introductory
limited to physical reality. based on the real world. Generalization: Patterns, regularities,
and commonalities are observed and
Early

abstracted across different models.

Preoperational: Represents action
through thought and language but is
prelogical in development.
Enactive: Firsthand manipulating,
constructing, or arranging of real-world
objects. Child is interacting directly with
the physical world.
These structural relationships are
independent of the embodiments.
Free Play: Interacts directly with
physical materials within the
environment. Different embodiments
provide exposure to the same basic
concepts, but at this stage few
commonalities are observed.

Figure 2-4 Frameworks of the learning process.

These tenets have significant implications for learning and
teaching mathematics. They also suggest that, from the
constructivist perspective, learning is a process that takes
time and reflects a passage through several developmental
stages. Research has established that each stage of children’s
cognitive development provides a window of opportunity for
a range of learning activities in mathematics. At each stage,
the lower limit of what children can learn is determined by
the concepts and skills that they have already learned. The
upper limit is determined by tasks that they can successfully
complete only with scaffolding or support from someone
more skilled or knowledgeable. The Russian psychologist
Lev Vygotsky referred to the child’s zone of proximal devel-
opment to describe this range of learning activities and expe-
riences (Vygotsky, 1962).
Research suggests that learning activities that fall within
a child’s zone of proximal development have a high proba-
bility of success, whereas activities outside the zone have
much less likelihood of success. While we want to provide
children with tasks that will help them move to a higher level
of thinking or to mastery of a higher-level skill, we do not
want the tasks to be so far beyond their reach that they can-
not succeed and give up. Vygotsky’s notion of a child’s zone
of proximal development challenges you to know your stu-
dents well and to have a reasonably good understanding of
the limits of their zones.
Learning is active and internally monitored; it is a process
of acquiring, discovering, and constructing meaning from expe-
rience. In this context, teaching mathematics with the use of
concrete models and making connections with the children’s
experiences help them make sense of mathematics. The process
results in learning that is filtered through the student’s unique
knowledge base and thoughts, thereby impacting their thinking.
Piaget, Bruner, and Dienes characterize children’s levels
of development somewhat differently (see Figure 2-4), but,
overall, their proposed frameworks are remarkably similar.
A careful examination of these frameworks reveals four
important observations about how children learn:
• Several characteristic and identifiable stages of
thinking exist, and children progress through these
stages as they grow and mature.
• Learners are actively involved in the learning process.
• Learning proceeds from the concrete to the abstract.
• Learners need opportunities for talking about or
otherwise communicating their ideas with others.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
a memory like many others in a checkered career. Ah! done, boy?
Thanks. I’ll leave you the paper and call again.”
It is just twelve when Wycherley turns up at the hotel, and finds
Aleck awaiting him. No one would think the jolly actor had not eaten
a bite since the previous night. He has great command over his
system, and although the aroma of the soup almost overcomes him
he restrains his fierce ardor. Above all it is his aim to act the
gentleman.
“I see you’ve been up to your old tricks again, Claude,” says the
Canadian kindly, as he looks into the face of the adventurer.
“What d’ye mean, my dear boy. Surely four o’clock was too late for a
morning paper.”
“I had the whole thing from the lips of a party who was an eye-
witness—who heard you give your name to the poor woman you
rescued.”
“The deuce you say. I hoped it wouldn’t get out.”
“And I’m proud to know you, to be your friend, Claude Wycherley.
More than that, you builded better than you knew, comrade.”
“How now, Aleck?”
“This gentleman took the woman you saved to a boarding-house
near by. I confess something of curiosity, and a desire to hear her
story direct, led my steps there after breakfast. Then again I had an
idea she might be poor and needy, and, if so, I might second your
deed. At any rate, I walked down and found her. She glowed with
enthusiasm over your kindness, and described the whole scene so
eloquently that I could, in imagination, see you hanging from that
roof with one arm and supporting her—you who professed to be all
in a tremble at the prospect of climbing the Ferris wheel. I can
understand that now, my dear fellow, and know full well it was not
timidity that kept you back, but the sturdy desire to baffle Aroun
Scutari in the climax of his work.
“Enough of that. Now comes the surprising part of the business.
When I talked with the woman I saw she was much more refined
than her position would indicate. She asked questions, too, and
eager ones they were; questions about Samson Cereal, questions
that aroused my suspicions.
“Then I turned the tables and she confided her story to me, at least
the outlines of it. You could have knocked me down with a feather, I
was so astonished. Of course, you have never even guessed her
identity—how could you?”
“I don’t know. You mention Samson Cereal—a wife of his turned up
last night; perhaps she is another,” carelessly.
“Claude, you wizard, go up head.”
“What! is it a fact?” demands the amazed Wycherley.
“As true as gospel. His first wife. He was divorced from her before he
went abroad, and I have reason to believe she is the mother of this
bold John Phœnix!”
 CHAPTER XV.
HEARD AT THE SHERMAN TABLE-D’HÔTE.
No wonder Wycherley stops eating and looks at his companion in a
dazed way. The announcement made by the other is of a nature to
take his breath away. What sort of man can Samson Cereal be? It is
quite enough, he thinks, to have one wife, who was supposed to be
dead, turn up, but two of a kind—quite staggers him.
“Wait a moment, Aleck, until I collect my wits. Really, you have
knocked them helter-skelter with such a remarkable assertion.
There, now, go on with the circus. This woman, whom I had the good
fortune to assist, was once the wife of the old speculator, you say.”
“It is true. They were married when he was a young man—just at the
close of the War. I believe he met her in Kentucky, for she was a
native of Lexington, and called a beauty, and I imagine somewhat of
a flirt.
“Some years later a child was born to them, a boy. Samson began to
suspect his wife of being in love with a dashing Southerner. He was
a plain man himself, you know, and Adela—that is her name—admits
that he gave her no cause for such treachery. She lays it all to the
fact of her own mother dying when she was a child, and of her
father’s lax ways of living, and that she had never known a woman
friend whose advice could have saved her.
“Samson was just, but he was also merciless. The awakening came
like a thunder clap. He cast her off and applied for a divorce, which
was given him; also the custody of the boy, then four years old.
“Fearing she might attempt to steal the child, he sent him away, and
for years did not look on his face, because it reminded him of a
faithless wife.”
“Ah,” breaks in the actor, “then the mother and boy were very much
alike. Your speaking of Phœnix causes me to remember. She
reminded me of someone. I see it now. The resemblance is marked.”
Aleck smiles.
He can afford to do so now, since he has learned of the relationship
between Dorothy and the young miner. That both of them spring
from the same father. Her “sacred mission,” is plain to him at last, for
it must have a connection with some reconciliation between father
and son.
That is why Craig smiles. The teeth of his terror have been drawn,
and he no longer need worry about the possible rival who comes out
of the wild, untamed West.
“Later on Samson went abroad. We know what happened to him
there. He made a strange venture into the sea of matrimony, and, as
before, drew a blank. Coming to Chicago he entered upon the
speculative business, in which he has since become famous; but at
that time he was only a small dog, a drop in the bucket, and
unnoticed.
“I do not know what trouble came up. We have believed the beautiful
Georgian left him and fled to her native land again. Perhaps later on
we may learn more about this.
“At any rate, it was given out that she was dead. Dorothy believed
so, and in all probability does so to-day. We chance to know that
Marda the Georgian lives—that she is at the Fair, and has come for
some definite purpose.
“As to Adela—her life has been a sad one. Cast off by her husband
she went back to Kentucky. She was still lovely, and it was not long
before her hand was sought in marriage by a worthy gentleman.
Investigation brought to light the fact that in granting the divorce to
Cereal, the woman was still looked upon as married, and forbidden
to ever again enter upon wedlock while her husband lived.
“Thus Adela was forced to refuse the offer. She taught school; her
people moved West; and she has experienced many strange
vicissitudes of fortune, yet she vowed in my presence and in the
sight of Heaven that the one indiscretion named was the last of her
life—that her eyes were opened, her life saddened, and ever since
the day her husband put her aside she has lived in the one hope that
the time would come when she might redeem herself in his eyes.
She has not lived in vain. Whenever the yellow fever raged in the
South, there Adela could be found nursing the sick. She was the
angel of light in Jacksonville when the dread scourge wasted
Florida’s metropolis. Only for her own illness she would have been in
Brunswick this summer. Her life is nearly spent—she has
consumption now—and it is the prayer of her last days that before
she goes he may forgive her; that some opportunity may yet arise
whereby she can win that pardon.
“Now about her boy. Once she found him, but dared not make
herself known, on account of the past. He suddenly disappeared
from the city where he was attending a military academy, nor could
she trace him again; but at the town photographer’s she found a
picture of him which she has carried ever since, no doubt to cry over
in her lonely hours, poor woman.”
Aleck hands over a card photograph. It is not a stylish picture, such
as our artists of to-day produce, but faithful to the life. It represents a
young fellow of about fifteen, a handsome, independent-looking
chap, with something of a Southern air about him, which is
heightened by the cadet suit of gray he wears.
“This settles all doubt,” remarks Wycherley; “it’s the young miner
from Colorado, whom we saw with Dorothy—her brother; and at the
same time I can see the poor lady I helped out of the Hotel des
Vagabonde fire.”
“You had your room in that tenement, Claude?”
“Yes,” reddening a trifle.
“And all your books, your bachelor trophies, your many comforts
were lost?”
“Everything. My luxurious divan, my chair, the like of which could not
be found in a Vanderbilt mansion, the wonderful oil paintings, gems
of art, the original collection of curios which a Sypher might not
despise—all went. But, Aleck, my boy, my entire loss didn’t exceed
five dollars, I assure you. What is that to a man who has won a
million.”
“Ah! your speculation then was a success?” smiling.
“A stupendous one. Wiped out all past debts and have a million
ahead. No time to figure it up yet; may be a couple of hundred
thousand either way, but that is a matter of small importance.”
Craig never ceases to be amused at the strange idiosyncracies of
his queer companion. He realizes by this time—perhaps from the
enormous dinner Wycherley is making—that the other has no
means, and it is really ridiculous to see a man without a dollar in his
pocket declaring so carelessly that a quarter of a million one way or
the other is a matter of little importance.
“One thing about this matter gives me pain,” the Canadian says
presently.
“You refer to Bob Rocket and his mission?” remarks the actor, still
busy with knife and fork.
“Yes. He comes to arrest John Phœnix, whom we know to be the
son of Samson Cereal.”
“That is unfortunate, but the young man has embezzled fifty
thousand dollars from the mining company, and the outraged law of
Colorado must take its course. You wouldn’t think of hindering
Rocket in the discharge of his duty, Aleck?”
“Oh, no! far from it. At the same time, I cannot help regretting the
circumstance. It will be a blow to Dorothy, who seems to think a good
deal of this half brother. They must have met before.”
“Perhaps corresponded. As for myself, I am amazed at the young
man’s foolhardiness. Why has he allowed the fatal attraction of the
Fair to detain him here when he should be across the lakes in
Canada. That’s the trouble with most men—they don’t use common
sense under such circumstances.”
“We’ve got more than we want of them over in Canada. If my country
should ever become a member of your Union, which, I grant you, is a
possible thing, though I’m not one in favor of it, there will be such an
exodus of boodle aldermen and other rascals as has never been
seen before; and no honest man in the Dominion will shed a tear.
Why, some among us favor annexation simply to save Canada from
being the dumping ground of your swindlers.”
Wycherley laughs at this, and hands his plate to the staring waiter
with an aside “a little more of that delicious roast beef—and be sure
to have it rare.”
“You visit the Cereal manse to-night, I believe, Aleck. I wonder if
John will be there. Perhaps he and his father in times gone by have
had a falling out, and Dorothy is patching up the peace between
them. Very clever of her. She’s a girl in a thousand, and
remembering who her mother was—begging your pardon, my dear
boy, as she may yet be a mother-in-law to you—I am amazed and
wonder where she got her sensible ways. Then there’s Bob Rocket
—I know the man to a dot—he’ll be around, and if it should so
happen that he receives his telegram in the midst of the festivities,
he’ll arrest his man right there. Twenty millionaires wouldn’t awe him,
nor would he respect the palace of the Czar of Russia. With the
majesty of the law back of him he’d do his duty.”
“Then we’ll hope that his instructions, having been delayed so long,
will continue to dally, at least until the evening is well spent. If Mr.
Cereal is reconciled to his son, it would be too humiliating to have
the boy arrested at his house. At any rate, I shall keep clear of it, and
for Dorothy’s sake would like to see John get away.”
This absorbing topic has monopolized their conversation thus far, but
having in a measure exhausted it, they branch out upon other
subjects.
At length the dinner is ended. Aleck presses his companion to relate
the stirring scene of the previous night, and is accommodated with a
yarn that has many comical features to it, for the actor is a genius in
discovering the ridiculous side of anything, though Craig declares he
is certain the affair was anything but humorous to those concerned.
All the while the Canadian is planning as to how he may make his
friend accept a loan, without hurting his feelings. In the end he
decides that the best way to do is to go squarely at the matter, in a
frank manner.
“Since you lost all you had in the fire, Claude, you must allow me to
make you a little loan. There, not a word, sir—I shall feel insulted if
you refuse”—passing over a fifty-dollar note.
Wycherley fumbles the bill with trembling fingers. “Great Heavens,
Aleck,” he says huskily, “it’s been many a long day since I’ve held a
bill like this in my hands. It makes me feel like something of
importance. Bless you, my dear boy. I shall repay it if I live.”
Together they leave the dining room.
“Try a weed,” proposes Aleck; and as he draws the fragrant smoke
Wycherley is fain to believe his morning sacrifice has met with its
reward, heaped up and running over.
Together they sit in the cool rotunda of the hotel, enjoying their
postprandial smoke, and exchanging remarks about various things of
mutual interest.
While thus engaged a tall gentleman with a gray mustache, and a
face on which great shrewdness is marked, saunters past and
glances at them. Then he returns and stops.
“I beg your pardon, gentlemen, but the clerk told me Mr. Aleck Craig
was over here. Do either of you happen to bear that name?”
He looks straight at the Canadian, as though easily picking him out
to be the man.
“That is my name, sir,” replies Aleck quickly.
“I am glad to meet you, Mr. Craig. I have a little business with you.
My name is Samson Cereal.”
 CHAPTER XVI.
ENGAGED.
It is a name to conjure with in the markets of the World’s Fair city.
Besides, this gentleman with the iron-gray mustache is Dorothy’s
father.
Both Craig and Wycherley spring to their feet. The latter smiles in a
peculiar way, as though he sees in this a heaven-sent chance to rise.
Perhaps his education in stocks, his enormous wagering against the
uncertainties of the market, may meet a reward. Everything comes to
those who wait, is the philosophy of this strange adventurer.
“I’m glad to meet you, Mr. Cereal. My friend Wycherley, sir. I have
had the pleasure of your daughter’s acquaintance since last winter.”
The elderly gentleman smiles. Aleck notes the firm mouth under the
mustache, and believes poor Adela will wait a long time ere she
hears words of forgiveness for that error so far back in the past, the
fearful blunder that ruined her life. Perhaps he does Samson Cereal
a wrong, but judging from his strong features he believes him to be a
stern man with whom justice goes before mercy.
“I have heard something about your meeting up at Montreal, and my
daughter has told me certain facts that occurred last night—facts that
stamp you a hero——”
“Sir!”
“Facts that make me proud to know you, young man. Let no false
modesty cause you to belittle the deed. I claim that when a man
takes his life in his hands and imperils it for parties unknown to him,
who may be in danger, he rises above the ordinary plane and
becomes a hero. Let us not argue the subject then. I am glad to
meet you for your own sake—glad to know you. Let us sit down
again. I have something to say that is of deepest importance to me.”
He drops into a chair, with one of them on either side. Both the
young men show signs of excitement, and the veteran speculator is
the cool one. Aleck is saying to himself:
“Dorothy has told him how she came to know me—what can he want
to see me for,” and his bachelor heart persists in keeping up a trip-
hammer accompaniment that is rather singular in a man who has
been born and reared in the country of ice and snow.
As for Wycherley, his thoughts run about in this wise:
“Here’s Samson Cereal, the great grain operator, king of the wheat
pit. Let me study him well, since fate has decided that I am to be in
the same line. What would he say if he knew I had plunged on the
markets and came out two million ahead on yesterday’s deal—what,
indeed? I must use my ears—who knows but what in the course of
his everyday talk he may drop some hints that I may seize upon, and
use as a ladder upon which to mount to future success.”
“Mr. Craig, am I right in presuming that this is the gentleman who
was with you last night on the Midway?” begins the operator.
“We were together much of the evening. In one sense he has as
much claim upon your thanks as myself, for only through him was I
enabled to do Miss Dorothy a service,” replies Aleck, with the
generous impulse of making his comrade “solid” with the great
manipulator of wheat.
Samson Cereal gravely turns and holds out his hand.
“Allow me, sir; I appreciate the favor,” he says in the singularly deep
voice that has many a time electrified the swaying masses of brokers
and operators on change.
“You are perfectly free to speak upon any subject, sir,” adds Aleck.
“That being the case, I will no longer pique your curiosity, gentlemen.
Am I right in believing that you have through accident learned certain
things connected with a very wretched episode in my life?”
Aleck’s cheeks flush under his gaze, for somehow he feels as
though Samson reproaches him.
“I beg you to believe, sir, I have not pried into your private affairs
through morbid curiosity. A peculiar chain of circumstances, link
fastened to link, one thing leading to another, has given me some
knowledge of certain unhappy events far back in your life. I have not
sought them, and once in my possession they shall go no further,
depend upon it.”
His earnest manner, his frank expression, serve to convince the
wheat king that what he says he means.
“Mr. Craig, I earnestly hope you will never have to encounter the
family troubles that have darkened my past.”
Aleck secretly indorses this. It is bad enough for a bachelor of some
thirty summers to think of being wedded once, let alone several
times.
“Twice have I breasted the stormy seas of matrimony, and some
fatality seemed to follow me. Both ventures ended in my being
bereft. My first wife was a Kentucky girl. I have sealed that book so
long ago that it may not be torn open now if I can help it. The boy
who came to me as the fruits of that unhappy union resembled his
mother so closely in features that I could not bear to look upon him.
He was at school, a military academy, until seventeen. Then
something like remorse came upon me. I had married again, and my
little Dorothy was more than twelve. I believe she influenced me—
God bless the sunbeam! At any rate I sent for the lad, and started
him in life.
“All went well for a short time. Then another blow fell upon me. I was
being systematically robbed. In my office was a safe. I had
numerous clerks, and John was one. Never dreaming of the truth I
set a detective on the watch, and one day he brought me his report.
It incriminated my own son. At first I was amazed, horror-stricken.
Then my anger arose. I sent for John. He came in smiling, for he
was light of heart. I told him deliberately what I had found out. He
turned very pale and trembled. Fool that I was, I believed these were
evidences of guilt. Then he looked at me proudly and denied it all. I
have a furious temper, Heaven forgive me! I upbraided him, called
him names, and even coupled his mother’s disgrace with his
downfall; declaring that her treacherous nature had descended to
him. Then I told him to go. I remember how proudly he drew himself
up and said:
“'You are my father—you send me from you without a hearing. I will
go—I will change my name and never see you again until this blot is
removed from my character.’
“I have never seen him from that time, but he is in the city to-day—
he will be at my house to-night. Dorothy did it all. Through some
woman who was nursing a poor sick man, she received word to
come to the Hahnemann hospital, where he had been taken. She
went, and found a dying man with a confession written and
witnessed—a wretched man who claimed to be the detective I
employed. He had found no trouble in locating the guilty party, but
being eager to make more money had compromised with the thief
and agreed to implicate John.
“It seems Dorothy and John have corresponded all this while, and
she wrote him to come on at once, telling him of his vindication. An
agreement was made to meet in the shadow of the Ferris wheel, and
hence she has haunted that place of late.
“I am a stern man, but I hope a just one. Feeling that I have wronged
my boy, I am eager to apologize, to make amends. Unfitted for
business, even on this day when of all others I should be at my
office, for I have momentous deals on foot, I decided to step in here
and meet you, for I can assure you, Mr. Craig, I take a deep interest
in your welfare. Perhaps you are not aware of it, but I know several
of your people up in Montreal and Toronto, and can remember
nothing but kindness received at their hands.”
“I am glad to hear it, sir. On my part I feel it my duty to inform you
that one whom you have looked upon as dead is in Chicago,” says
Aleck, while Wycherley chuckles as he wonders which one is meant,
and then fearing lest his ill-timed merriment may cause the great
operator to look upon him with suspicion, he turns it off into a cough.
Samson Cereal fastens his eyes upon Craig, as though he would
read his soul.
“You refer to whom?”
“The lady you ran away with twenty years ago, near the Bosphorus
—the mother of Dorothy.”
“Good God, man, is she alive and in Chicago? And now I remember
—he is here—we met on the Midway and scowled like two pirates.
He has not forgotten—but she alive! Then they two must be leagued
to do me injury, perhaps through Dorothy.”
“You are both wrong and right, sir. He came here to execute the
vengeance that has slumbered twenty years, but knew nothing of her
presence until last night, when he snatched off the gauzy covering
from the face of the Veiled Fortune Teller of Cairo Street, and beheld
—Marda, once your wife, stolen from his servants. I don’t know her
motive in coming here, nor where she has been all these years, but
have some reason to believe it is the natural mother love for her
child that has brought her—perhaps she comes to stand between
Aroun Scutari and his prey.”
Samson Cereal reflects. He is no longer excited, but singularly cool.
When personal danger threatens, this man can be like a block of ice.
It is this trait that has helped him reach the front rank in his chosen
profession.
“You speak of his vengeance—have you an idea what he means to
do?”
“Ah! I see Miss Dorothy failed to tell you all.”
“Then suppose you supply the missing link.”
“This Turk plays a game of tit for tat. You stole his bride. Patiently
has he waited as only a Turk could wait. Now he comes to win a
bride by running away with your daughter.”
“Curse his impudence! I’ll have his life for it! I’ll lock him up or wring
his neck.”
“Good enough, sir, but I’d let him get to the end of his tether first.
Give him rope enough, and he’ll hang himself.”
“I expect you’re right, Mr. Craig. Pardon my impetuosity. It’s seldom
I’m aroused like that. I wanted to make your acquaintance, for
something tells me we are fated to see more of each other. You are
coming around to-night, of course. Bring your friend with you. I must
be off to see if that confounded telegram has arrived.”
Aleck and Wycherley look at each other.
“He’s looking for a telegram too,” mutters the latter; “wonder if one
will come for me from Vanderbilt or George Gould, asking me to take
charge.”
“Well, gentlemen, I wish you good-day. Market’s on the rise—a little
excitement—Consolidated——”
Wycherley clutches his arm.
“Don’t tell me sir, it’s gone higher?” he exclaims, his face elongated,
his eyes distended.
“Why, yes—two cents above yesterday’s highest quotation.”
The actor puts one hand on his heart, and his whole attitude is one
of bliss.
“Aleck, my dear boy—do you hear that? I had the audacity to back
Consolidated again with half my pile. It means another million to me.”
“What!” roars the big operator, aghast.
Mr. Wycherley recovers himself, while Aleck turns aside so that his
smile may not offend the peculiar fellow he calls friend—the warm-
hearted oddity who has in times past tried nearly every vocation on
the list, only to find himself a round peg in a square hole, and who is
still vainly groping for his true business in life.
Wycherley does not lose his usual assurance in this moment of trial:
“I backed Consolidated yesterday, together with some mining stock,
and the rise boomed me to the skies, two million or so ahead.
Indications warned me to hang on to Consolidated longer, and I went
in heavy; with the result that to-day I am again a million ahead.”
He proudly takes out that wonderful notebook and shows the figures
that tell the story.
Samson Cereal looks at the book and then again at the owner.
“Who were these tremendous deals made with, if it is proper for me
to ask?”
“One Claude Wycherley.”
“Don’t know him.”
“Myself.”
Now a light begins to dawn upon the mind of the old speculator; a
grim smile breaks over his face showing that he is amused.
“Oh, I see! How long have you been indulging in this romantic
pastime, Mr. Wycherley?”
“About three weeks.”
“Faithfully every day?”
“Just as the market held out. I never bought haphazard. My early
experience told me that was ruinous policy—that it was like a game
of chess—each move was but the single play of a series—each
move must have a meaning.”
Again that shrewd head of the veteran wags—such talk pleases him.
“What success have you had from the start?”
“In the beginning, very bad. You can see here I went deep in the
mire. Then I began to reason, and had gleams of success. The
second week was a see-saw, with Claude Wycherley a million or two
in the soup. This last week everything I touched turned to gold, and
I’m three times a millionaire—on paper.”
“Young men, good-day. You may come around to my office to-
morrow, if at liberty. I have a place for you to fill. We’ll harness this
genius of yours to common-sense dollars.”
Then he leaves the hotel.
“Aleck, my dear fellow, catch me—I’m going to faint. Did you hear
what he said? In a week it will read Cereal & Wycherley. Think of it,
ye gods! Fortune at one bound. I’m in the saddle at last. Good-by,
follies of the past with your haunting ghosts—welcome a golden
future; perhaps, who knows, egad, a wife!”
 BOOK THREE.
What Happened at the Grain King’s Palace.
 CHAPTER XVII.
COLONEL BOB WAITS FOR HIS MESSAGE.
Ablaze with light is the palatial mansion of the millionaire operator.
Sweet strains of music float out upon the misty moonlight, and are
lost in dying cadence upon the waters of the great lake, that gently
lap the pebbly shore so near the stately pile.
All that wealth can do to beautify and adorn the house has been
done with a liberal hand. In these days of magic all one has to do is
to press the golden button, and master minds accomplish the rest.
The parlors look like fairy bowers. Green plants and rare exotics are
everywhere, and the taste with which they are placed reflects credit
on the decorator artist. Among these scenes wander many of
Chicago’s gallant sons and fair daughters.
Dorothy as the hostess is as lovely a vision as the eye of man ever
beheld, and her father looks the wealthy merchant prince to
perfection, though perhaps one might see an uneasy gleam in his
eyes at times, and he glances toward the door frequently, as though
expecting someone of more than ordinary importance.
The gay reception is in full swing when Aleck and Wycherley arrive.
Both are of course in evening dress, for the ex-actor under the
circumstances has wisely invested the loan made by his companion.
As the future possible partner of the great Samson Cereal, he must
make a creditable entree into society. Besides, a dress suit is a good
nucleus for a loan at “my uncle’s” on a rainy day.
Once inside they make their way to where Miss Dorothy, assisted by
a lady friend, receives, and meet a hearty welcome from both herself
and her father. If Aleck was far gone before, his case is hopeless
now, for the young woman presents such a picture of feminine
beauty that he is even awed to think of his boldness in daring to
aspire to win her. Still, deep down in his heart, he secretly exults to
remember that less than twenty-four hours previous he held all this
loveliness in his arms. Aleck is quiet, a thorough gentleman always,
and for reasons of his own he keeps near Mr. Cereal. Knowing the
secret of the other, he feels that he has a deep interest there.
As to Wycherley, he makes himself right at home, and being
introduced moves among the guests with charming freedom. An old
traveler of his stamp can adapt himself to either terminus of “society,”
and under other circumstances, should fortune throw him among a
herd of tramps, or into a camp of darkies, he would be found the
jolliest fellow of them all, telling tough yarns, singing songs, and
picking the banjo. A wonderfully versatile chap is this same
Wycherley. To see him now, as he saunters gracefully about, one
would believe him a representative of Chicago’s highest circles, and
much curiosity is aroused as to who he may be. His bearing, his
name, both are very distingué, and many speculations are indulged
in as to whether he is from Boston or New York.
“Ah! Aleck, my dear boy, this is living. Just think what fortune has
done for me in a short twenty-four hours. I believe I’m on the
highroad to success. There are many lovely girls here, and backed
by substantial dads, but I shall not commit myself. I can’t quite forget
the black eyes of the Spanish cigar girl at the Fair, who made such a
sieve of my heart that it would do for a housewife’s use. But this is
very pleasant, dear boy, exceedingly so. I fancy our host looks
careworn.”
“I’ve seen that all along. It may be anxiety about the coming of his
son John, who, as you may have noticed, has not yet shown up.”
“Yes, and it may be with reference to that momentous telegram he
was expecting,” declares Wycherley, who has not forgotten.
“Have you seen anything of the Turk?”
“Jove! you didn’t expect him here—no, you’re joking; but I have met
someone I know. What did I tell you about his ability to get there?”
“I’m in a fog, Claude.”
“Well, look down the room—just bowing over the hand of Miss
Dorothy—I never dreamed he was a society man.”
“Bless me! Why, it’s Rocket!”
“Bob Rocket, dead sure. Listen, the old gentleman introduces him to
the banker’s wife—she who sparkles with a fortune of diamonds
worth a king’s ransom. What does he say?”
“Mrs. Bondclipper, allow me to introduce an old friend of mine,
Colonel Robert Rocket of Colorado. I met him on a Western trip
years ago, when he was in the Legislature. Our Western men are
coming to the front, you know, and I believe the colonel represents
some of these great mines you hear so much about in the papers.”
“Well done for Bob! Of course his only object in coming here is to
keep an eye on John. I only hope and pray for my part—I mean Mr.
Cereal’s peace of mind—the exposure doesn’t take place before all
this company.”
“It would be needless. We must, if necessary, find some means of
avoiding that.”
“Ah! you don’t know Bob. Just as soon as he gets that telegram, he’ll
make direct for his man, and all Hades couldn’t stop him.”
“Very good. We must watch him, then. Just as soon as a message
comes, if it does arrive, one of us—myself—must see John and
inveigle him out of the room, while you fall in with the colonel and
distract his attention.”
“Count on me to do my best. Both of us are interested now in
avoiding a scene on account of our prospective relations with
Samson Cereal. There now, don’t give up, Aleck. Ah! he comes.”
“Who—the messenger boy?”
“Pshaw! no, it’s John.”
The young man has entered the room. He makes a decidedly
striking appearance, for, although not quite six feet in height, his
figure is that of an athlete. Aleck takes to him on sight.
“What a shame such a young god should have descended to the rôle
of a defaulter,” mutters Wycherley in the Canadian’s ear.