CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Entrepreneurs play important roles in economic development of a country. However, studies

have found that the percentage of graduates who venture into entrepreneurship after

graduation is very low in most of developing countries (Alnaity, 2018; Armanurah,

Norashidah& Awanis 2019; Norasmah, Hariyaty & Armanurah 2019). Majority of graduates

are not keen to become entrepreneur as their career choice after graduation and most

graduates prefer to be a job seeker (Abd Halim et al. 2012; Tinggi 2010).In the present

scenario, it is essential to note that unemployment among graduates is common (Koe, 2016).

The students, as soon as they complete their studies, look for corporate jobs. In the near

circumstance, it is difficult to get the desired position. The various reasons for this might be

low academic performance, lack of confidence, poor communication skills, lack of

knowledge and many more ( Ullal et al., 2019). These problems can be dazed through proper

guidance and attention from educational activities or courses.

Therefore, the early development of potential entrepreneurs through a well plan

entrepreneurship education should be conducted at the higher learning institution to groom

students with entrepreneurial elements such as entrepreneurial skills so as to produce a job

creator graduates (Jacob & Munuswamy, 2022).Entrepreneurial skills are the foundation for

continued economic growth in the future (Pinto et al., 2019). Entrepreneurship equips the

youth with essential foundational knowledge and skills such as emotional intelligence and

risk-taking. It also helps with their appreciation for self-employment opportunities. When the

young generation finds themselves in a situation where they are unemployed, they do not

give up instead they can use their skills to create new opportunities as entrepreneurs (Chen et

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al., 2015). Of course, teaching a culture of entrepreneurship cannot entirely eradicate the

problem of youth unemployment. However, it can reduce unemployment by giving young

people the skills they need to create their own business and generate work for themselves and

others outside the formal job market.

Although, it is not easy to understand the concept of start-up due to its complexity but

generally, the term start-up refers to a young business founded by one person or several

entrepreneurs. They have a business idea and want to develop unique products or services

into the market, and initial funding comes from the start-up founders, as well as their friends

and families. Over time, those start-ups that show a promise on the market will become

interesting for investors, especially venture capitalists (Walker, 2021). However, the success

of these start-ups depend largely on how equip a person or an entrepreneur is with

entrepreneurship knowledge and skills.

Skill as used here refers to an individual's ability to contribute to himself or herself and

society at large; therefore, for this to be achieved, tertiary education, which is the pinnacle of

education, should ensure that students acquire these skills at graduation in order for them to

live meaningfully in society (Ben, 2010). Entrepreneurial skills considered in this

investigation such as Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Innovation and

Creativity skills, leadership skills, marketing skills, management skills, economic opportunity

identification skills and interpersonal skills are aimed to promote self-reliance, which is the

central mandate of entrepreneurship education. These skills are therefore required bystudents,

especially graduating students in universities.

Bassey (2015) described entrepreneurship as a continuous system established and controlled

by individuals with the goalof using innovation to produce new value in the market to meet a

specific demand. Entrepreneurship has to do with innovation(Okute & Olom (2012).

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Entrepreneurship is defined as the ability to gather the resources needed to capitalize on new

business prospects. It is the act of engaging in a worthwhile endeavour for the purpose of

earning money to support oneself. This implies that innovative activity does not involve

anything new globally or nationally, but rather taking opportunity of new form of venture,

new technology and new enterprises creating goods and services not previously available at a

certain place. According to Olajumoke (2011), key elements that are inherent in

entrepreneurship activities include: Taking risks; innovation; creating value; identifying an

opportunity; being a market stabilization force; being able to start new businesses and

manage them effectively; providing resources; profit maximization; and being able to

reorganize exploited disequilibrium. Entrepreneurship is concerned with production of an

identified business opportunity for profit maximization.

Considering the rate of graduates’ unemployment in the society, and the frequent collapse of

small, medium and large-scale enterprises in Nigeria, it is a sufficient proof that practicing

entrepreneurs lack relevant competencies for effective entrepreneurship in the country. The

question that comes to mind is “are those entrepreneurs, graduates of tertiary institutions?” it

is expected that graduates from tertiary institutions, having undergone courses like

entrepreneurship education, should be able to open up businesses of different sorts and be

successful. This is because entrepreneurship programme exposes graduates to numerous self-

employment opportunities, thus, entrepreneurship education was introduced in the higher

levels of education in order to minimize unemployment of the graduates.

Nzelum (2010) defined entrepreneurship education as a functional education and learning by

doing. According to Kroom and Moolman as cited in Wey and Ogor (2020), entrepreneurship

is described as the act of being an entrepreneur or undertaking innovations, finance in an

effort to transform transactions into economic goods. This may result in new organizations or

may be part of revitalizing mature organizations in response to perceived opportunities.

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Nwokolo (2012) viewed entrepreneurship as the totality of find and evaluate business

opportunities, gather the necessary resources, initiate appropriate actions to ensure success.

Entrepreneurship education is that aspect of education specifically designed to prepare the

individual for the world of work in specific areas and to develop a level of maturity to be self-

employed, to manage resources and create more wealth (Obasi, 2010). This implies that

entrepreneurship education is an educational programme that provides the students with the

knowledge, skills and motivation needed to start up a business. It is a conscious effort geared

towards the education and development of entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and motivation

needed to start up a business. It is a conscious effort geared towards the education and

development of entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and ability essential in the management of

an economic venture (Nwokolo, 2012).For an entrepreneur to thrive; there are certain

characteristics or skills which the entrepreneur must possess.

Entrepreneurial skills are simply business skill, which an individual acquires to enable him

function effectively in the turbulent business environment as an entrepreneur or a self-

employed. Agbonifoh as cited in Kawugana (2021) also defined entrepreneurial skills as

skills relating to identifying business opportunities and receiving a sustainable income from

these opportunities. The acquisition of entrepreneurial skills means combining personal

characteristics, financial resources within one’s environment and taking advantage of them

for rewarding outcome. The acquisition of entrepreneurial skills means possessing the ability

to find and evaluate business opportunities, gather the necessary resources, initiate

appropriate action to ensure success; and implement actions to take advantage of the

opportunities for rewarding outcome (kawugana, 2021). Such entrepreneurial skills include;

innovativeness, decision making, communication, problem solving, planning and organizing,

risk management, self-management, technological/technical, teamwork, learning, initiative,

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enterprise, financial, managerial, marketing/saleable, interpersonal relationship, integrity,

assertiveness, leadership, listening, openness to change and business identification.

Graduates from universities require these skills to work in a business enterprise to effectively

manage their own businesses. The Consortium for Entrepreneurship Education (CEE-2004)

categorized the learning content of entrepreneurial education into entrepreneurial skills and

ready skills. The entrepreneurial skills comprise the themes of entrepreneurial processes and

entrepreneurial traits/behaviours. The ready skills comprise the themes of business

foundations, communications and interpersonal skills, digital skills, economics, financial

literacy, professional development, financial management, information management,

marketing management, operations management, risk management, and strategic

management. The skills dimension is concerned with specialized skill in all areas of human

endeavour. It is expected that undergraduate students must be equipped with skills not only

for understanding their capabilities but also for coping with different situations in life.

Akudolu (2010), asserted that some of the entrepreneurial skills and capacities that

undergraduates are expected to acquire through entrepreneurial education are innovativeness,

self-motivation, confidence, creativity, dynamism, resourcefulness, ingenious, endurance,

risk daring, pressure management ability and willingness to accept both positive and negative

results of life ventures. Other entrepreneurial skills include verbal and non-verbal expression,

problem solving, team player, and listening and empathy skills. Therefore, entrepreneurial

education seeks to equip Nigerian undergraduate students with the necessary skills with

which to be job creators. It is against this background that the researcher developed the

interest to carry out the study the effect of entrepreneurial skills on students’ start-ups in

Gombe State University using related empirical studies to find solutions.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

Entrepreneurship deals with the process of recognizing a business opportunity, operating and

maintaining that business. Though people engage into it without acquiring much skills and

competences that will enable them to effectively operate the business. As a result of this

attitude, failure followed instead of success. Their failure is not because they do not have the

necessary capital and machines to stay afloat, but because they lack the prerequisite

entrepreneurial skills needed to grow from a small position to a bigger one, and as well to

remain in the business. The situation now is that most graduates in Gombe State University

make little or no attempt to establish small scale business of their own despite the abundant

business opportunities in the country. Instead, they continue to besiege ministries, private

companies, financial institutions and government offices in search of jobs that are either

extremely few in supply or even non-existent.

Unemployment is one of the most serious problems facing Nigeria today. The bad situation

has been exacerbated by mass production of graduates from various universities including

Gombe State University without commensurate creation of employment opportunities is what

drew the attention of the researcher to institute a research in order to determine solution to the

problem faced by the graduates in Gombe State. In order to realize the dream of self-

employment and sustainability, graduates are required to identify and be equipped with

entrepreneurial skills which will act as the galvanizing tools for successful entrepreneurship.

The question now is what entrepreneurial skills are needed by these graduates for successful

operation of a business enterprise? Moreover, if the study is not carried out, the problem

would remain unsolved and continue to linger. Therefore, the main objective of this study

was to examine the effect of entrepreneurial skills on students’ start-ups in Gombe State

Based on the objectives, the following research questions guided the study:-

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 1. What is the effect of information and communication technology (ICT) skills on

students’ start-ups in Gombe State University?

2. To what extent does innovation and creativity skills affect students’ start-ups in

Gombe State University?

3. What is the effect of managerial skills on students’ start-ups in Gombe State

University?

4. To what extent does economic opportunity identification skills affect students’ start-

ups in Gombe State University?

1.3 Objective of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to examine the effect of entrepreneurial skills on students’

start-ups in Gombe State. Specifically, the study ascertained:-

1. The effect of information and communication technology (ICT) skills required for

students start-ups in Gombe State University.

2. The effect of innovation and creativity skills required for students start-ups in Gombe

State University.

3. The effect of management skills required for students start-ups in Gombe State

University.

4. The effect of economic opportunity identification required for students start-ups in

Gombe State University.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The researcher hopes that the findings or results of this study would be useful to

entrepreneurship skill acquisition centres, educational institutions, graduates/students and

research bodies and institutions. It is expected that the results of this study will provide the

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government of Nigeria with information that will inspire it to provide the necessary basic

amenities and infrastructural facilities that will enable entrepreneurs to thrive in the country.

It is also expected that the results of this study would provide educational authority in the

country with information that will enable it to review its curriculum to embrace the

acquisition of entrepreneurial skills. In addition to that, this study will encourage the

educational institutions to use lectures, seminars and symposium for the youths on value

reorientation as to dissuade them from get -rich- quick syndrome. Not only that, it will help

the educational authority to invite notable and successful entrepreneurs to give talks from

time to time to students at various tertiary institutions.

Similarly, the results of this study would help the youth to understand themselves as a matter

of necessity as it will help them to identify areas of their strengths and align with them. This

will make them more focused in life as to evade unemployment. Last but least, the results of

this study might be important to future researchers who are carrying out a related study. They

might use it as a source of reference.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study focused on the effect of entrepreneurial skills on students’ start-ups in

Gombe State University. The study further ascertained the effect of information and

communication technology (ICT) skills on students’ start-ups, the effect of innovation and

creativity skills on students’ start-ups, the effect of managerial skills on students’ start-ups

and the effect of economic opportunity identification skills on students’ start-ups in Gombe

State University.

The study covered graduates of program of the department of business administration of 2019

to 2021 academic session in Gombe State University in Gombe State where the study will be

carried out. This target population is considered for this study because research has not been

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carried out in this field in the region prior to this time. The researcher also considered this

population for easy access to data needed for the survey. More so, the researcher observed

that graduates in Gombe State University prefer white collar jobs in establishments where

they are given monthly pay and make little or no attempt to establish small scale business of

their own despite the abundant business opportunities in the country. Unfortunately, the jobs

seem not to be available as evidenced in the high level of unemployment. Hence, a study to

examine the effect of entrepreneurial skills so as to enable the graduate start up their own

businesses and also to succeed is important.

1.6 Operational Definition of Terms

Entrepreneurship: this refers to the ability to gather resources needed to capitalize on new

business prospects. It is the act of engaging in a worthwhile endeavour for the purpose of

earning money to support oneself.

Start-ups: this refers to a young business founded by one person or several entrepreneurs

Entrepreneurial Skills: these are simply business skill, which an individual acquires to

enable him function effectively in the turbulent business environment as an entrepreneur or a

self-employed.

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 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter reviewed the related literature from relevant journals, textbooks, internet and

papers presented. For the purpose of this research, the review is presented under the

following sub-headings:-

Theoretical Framework

Conceptual Framework

Concept of Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Skills

Concept of Entrepreneurial Start-ups

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Skills Required for Students Start-ups.

Innovation and Creativity Skills Required for Students Start-ups.

Managerial Skills Required for Students Start-ups.

Economic Opportunity Identification Required for Students Start-ups.

Review of Related Empirical Studies.

Appraisal or Summary of Literature Reviewed.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

Theoretically, this research hinged on Entrepreneurial Competencies Models. The

competency theory was propounded by Boyatzis (1982) with contributions from Bird (1995)

and Lau et al. (1999); was developed based on the idea that there are certain clusters of skills

and attitudes (also called capabilities/competencies) entrepreneurs require in order to enable

them reap superior performance and competitiveness. At the rudimentary state, such skills

that could foster enterprise success could be communication and oral presentation skills,

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human relations skills, and the ability to construct and defend a business plan before a large

audience (Vesper and McMullan,1988).Moreover, such desirable entrepreneurial

characteristics - such as traits, entrepreneur’s self-image or social role, cluster of knowledge

or skill are meant to last very long for the delivery of sustainable performance and success.

Generally, competencies are used interchangeably with skills, knowledge, traits, abilities,

acumen, and experience applied in various contexts (Lau et al., 1999). Furthermore,

competences are classified based on those that are required to: (i) start a new venture, (ii)

sustain the business, and (iii) grow the business (Man et al., 2002).

Onstenk (2003) presented a three-layered concept of entrepreneurship competencies, and

noted that proper entrepreneurial competencies are helpful when undertaking to start an

enterprise and to help it survive or grow; furthermore, entrepreneurial competency is the

integrated ability to perform entrepreneurial activities effectively. These comprise mainly: the

ability to recognize and analyze market opportunities; the ability to communicate, identify

mentally, persuade and discuss with all stakeholders in the business environment; and the

ability to establish networks linking with business persons and stakeholders for mutual

learning and collaborative undertaking.

The competency approach has become an increasingly popular means of studying

entrepreneurial characteristics In particular, the influence of the entrepreneur is considered as

critical and this is addressed through the competency approach. Boyatzis (1982) articulated

that entrepreneurial competencies are related to managerial competencies. According to Bird

(1995), competencies are seen as behavioural and observable, and therefore are more closely

linked to performance than are other entrepreneurial characteristics such as personality traits,

intentions or motivations. Man et al. (2002) developed a framework for entrepreneurial

competencies based on a multi-dimensional conceptualization of SMEs competitiveness,

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including the performance dimension, potential dimension and process dimension, developed

from earlier studies of competitiveness.

In her proposition towards a “Theory of Entrepreneurial Competencies”, Bird (1995)

suggested that it is worth looking at education, prior work experience, and industry

experience as factors that could influence the development of entrepreneurial competencies.

A number of studies support this view. For example, Chandler and Jansen (1992) found that

education, to some extent, contributes to the development of the competencies of business

founders. Krueger and Brazeal (1994) indicated that prior work experience could potentially

improve one’s skills and abilities, particularly in recognizing business opportunities.

The theory is relevant to this study because it was able to identify skills or rather

competencies as it is used in the theory, that an entrepreneur needed and are further classified

based on those that are required to: (i) start a new venture, (ii) sustain the business, and (iii)

grow the business

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Concept of Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is derived from the French word entrepreneur, which means to initiate or

take action (Ngozi, 2012). The French used it to describe contractors holding projects like

roads and bridges. Sulaiman and Surajo (2020) viewed entrepreneurship as someone who is

ready to accept the risk of starting and running a business. They noted that it is the ability and

willingness of an individual to create and build something that is virtually none existing.

On the contrary, entrepreneurship is viewed as a fundamental engine for enhancing economic

development. Similarly, Diandra & Azmy (2020) viewed entrepreneurship as part of business

life that contributes towards successful business organization. Suffice to say that not all

entrepreneurship activity is positive for business organization, unless and until the

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entrepreneurial skills and managements are adopted within the organization for changing and

learning. To maintain good performance of entrepreneurship, it is necessary to manage the

entrepreneurship, and explore the skills required (Diandra & Azmy 2020). In the same vein,

Barot (2015) stated that entrepreneurship is a key to success and every individual that creates

a new organization of business wealth enter into a new paradigm of entrepreneurship. In this

light, Barot (2015) captured entrepreneurship as “practice begins with action and creation of

new organization”.

In nutshell, there are numerous definitions of entrepreneurship, some of them are seeing

entrepreneurship as a process of successful organization, and other define entrepreneurship as

building mindset and skills. However, the final destination of entrepreneurship definition is

generating jobs opportunities and lead to economic development (Barot, 2015) (Hessels,

2019)

In corroboration with the above, Stel, as cited in Diandra & Azmy (2020), averted that

entrepreneurship roles in the economy has changed dramatically over the last half century.

The source of entrepreneurship as revealed by several scholars includes; Opportunity-based

entrepreneurship (Jinjiang, 2019), marketdriven entrepreneurship (Ali, 2019), entrepreneurial

skill (Nururly, 2018); there are some reasons why entrepreneurship required skill or talent

due to creativity and market awareness (Bonny, 2015).

Other includes; entrepreneurship and innovation are creation of value (Maritz, 2015),

entrepreneurship is shaped by digital technology, and at the end provides entrepreneurial

opportunities (Nambisan, 2016). He further buttress that digital technologies solved the

problems of uncertainty in entrepreneurial process and outcomes and entrepreneurship

education. This is used to transform society (Ratten, 2020).

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However, Barot (2015) identified two types of entrepreneurship. First is opportunity-based

entrepreneurship and necessity based entrepreneurship. He referred to the former as when an

entrepreneur perceives a business opportunity and develops the business as his career choice

and the later, a situation where the new entrepreneur has no option to earn a living. In this

case, entrepreneurship is not the choice but compulsion. The people in this stage do not value

entrepreneurship; because the situation is exist when there is no other labor market option

(Gries, and Naudé, 2011, cited in Diandra & Azmy, 2020). Other study classified

entrepreneurship into innovation-driven entrepreneurship and small business

entrepreneurship.

Study done by Aulet and Murray, (2013) divided entrepreneurship into two categories. The

first category is entrepreneurship which is shaped by innovation-driven. This type of

innovation driven entrepreneurship shares the idea of innovation in business with purpose to

pursue the global opportunities. Secondly is small business entrepreneurship or small medium

enterprises is another type of entrepreneurship which has a limited access to the global

market, serve local markets with traditional way with low competitive advantage (Diandra &

Azmy, 2020).

On the other hand, other studies classify entrepreneurship into different categories; High

growth, technology-enabled, venture capital-backed business (Welter et al, 2016) such as

Yahoo, Google, Apple, Amazon, and many more, which focuses on technology business and

growth to enable the owner to make billionaires, creates thousands of jobs, and provide goods

and services in the wide range at the right time. Gomes and Lopes (2022) identified six types

of resources available internally to an entrepreneur. These includes; organizational resources

(corporate culture, quality control systems, and relation- ships), physical resources, financial

resources, human resources, intangible resources (e.g., goodwill, brand recognition, and

reputation) and technological capabilities (e.g., ICTs). Resources can also be intangible (e.g.,

14
employment of qualified personnel and internal knowledge of technology) or tangible (e.g.,

physical assets and financial capital).

The shared use of tangible and intangible resources plays a vital role in firms’ performances

and the economies where they are located. However, two resources are considered important

for high-tech entrepreneurial firms: firstly, the level of education of the entrepreneur, and the

investments in technology. Entrepreneurial education complements technological resources,

that is, to increase the firm’s performance, human capital can help leverage the effects of

technological resources.

In addition to the above, entrepreneurship has been recognized all over the world as a catalyst

for development in any economy. Entrepreneurship in developing countries in particular is

being seriously advocated because of the following importance:

1. Employment Generation: It helps to provide jobs through the establishment of new

businesses, especially small and medium scale enterprises.

2. Productivity: One of the factors for the greater interest in entrepreneurship has been the

increasing recognition of its role in raising productivity through various forms of innovation.

Entrepreneurs, through their innovation and creativity are capable of transforming existing

business sectors, and creating new sectors. They are helping to bring about new goods and

services (expanding productivity) and supplying the needs of large enterprises, which have to

rely on their operations for business success.

3. Facilitate the transfer/adaptation of technology: It enables entrepreneurs to have the

opportunities of developing and adapting appropriate technological methods and provide a

veritable avenue for skilled, unskilled and semi-skilled workers.

15
4. Ensures increased resource utilization: It helps entrepreneurs to put limited resources

that might otherwise remain idle into good use. They contribute to the mobilization of

domestic savings and utilization of local resources, including human resources.

5. Stimulates growth in those sectors which supplies it with inputs: Entrepreneurship

stimulates growth in its supply market. The greater the number of entrepreneurship that exist

in the downstream of a particular sector, the greater the market, hence, the greater the

potential for increased capacity utilization.

6. Reinvigorates large-scale enterprises and public enterprises: Most large scale

enterprises and public sector enterprises depend on the activities of small and medium scale

enterprises (SMEs) to supply them with various raw materials and other component parts and

also to assist them in the distribution of the finished goods to the final consumers.

Entrepreneurship has made it possible to be able to transform the public sector into a viable,

market oriented and profitable organization.

7. Encourages and sustains economic dynamism that enables an economy to adjust

successfully in a rapidly changing global economy: As a result of the dynamic nature of

the environment, small and medium scale enterprises have no choice than to respond and

adapt to environmental changes from time to time.

8. Enables individuals to use their potential and energies to create wealth, independence and

status for themselves in society.

2.2.2 Entrepreneurial Skills

The presence of successful entrepreneurs and the increase of the number of entrepreneurs in a

society is dependent on the potential entrepreneurs receiving entrepreneurship education and

having a desire for entrepreneurship. Thus, it is necessary to steer students with

entrepreneurial skills towards entrepreneurship start-ups.

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Entrepreneurship skills are indispensable for the economic survival of both students and

graduates. According to Mgbonyebi and Olaniyi (2019), Educating people on the need for

making their own business decisions, acquiring some basic vocational skills and using them

with the knowledge gained in school is the bedrock of economic empowerment and

development which is urgently needed. In line with this, Okereke and Okoroafor (2011)

asserted that entrepreneurship skills have been acknowledged worldwide as the pertinent and

rewarding tools for job creation, self-employment and economic survival of any nation.

Effective and efficient skills development systems which connect education to

entrepreneurship skills acquisition can help a nation sustain productive growth and

development and when improved upon, can lead to creation of good jobs which in turn

enhances the people’s standard of living. Ademiluyi as cited in Okoro (2021) defined

entrepreneurship skills as business skills acquired by an individual to be able to function

effectively as an entrepreneur in the unstable business environment or in self-employment.

Efe-Imafidon et. al., (2017) asserted that entrepreneurial skill acquisition is not just about

acquiring skill but acquiring knowledge and driving towards enterprise in skills which

enhances personal livelihood through enduring business start-ups, enhancing enterprise

creation opportunities, and promoting economic development and growth. Enhancing

entrepreneurial skills and competency on undergraduates’ students are vital in inculcating

necessary skills from childhood through primary level schooling and onwards education.

Maigida, Saba and Namkere (2013) asserted that private sector is what drives the world

today, and economic prosperity in the 21st century requires the functioning of entrepreneurial

skills. Adesanya (2017) asserted that entrepreneurial skills are important sets of skills that are

required by an entrepreneur. To successfully run a business and add value to work, these

skills must be available and used in the right format.

17
Demers (2014), Patel (2015), Ikeanyionwu and Ekwe (2013) identified some of the

entrepreneurship skills that need to be acquired by students/graduates as ability to raise and

manage money, communication with customers via e-mail, phone, websites, communication

with staff as well as sales skills including connecting with social media networks.

In the same vein,Osuagwu as cited in Adeyemi and Samuel (2021) identified skills required

by an entrepreneur to include personal entrepreneurial skills, business management and

technical skills. He stated further that personal entrepreneurial skills are what differentiate an

entrepreneur from a manager, while business management skills include inner control, risk-

taking, being innovative, being change oriented, being persistent, and being a visionary leader

among others and technical skills imply organizing, coaching, writing, listening, oral

presentation, being a team player, and technical know-how. Graduates from universities

require these skills to work in a business enterprise or to effectively manage their own

businesses. In line with this, Akudolu (2010), asserted that some of the entrepreneurial skills

and capacities that undergraduates are expected to acquire through entrepreneurial education

are innovativeness, self-motivation, confidence, creativity, dynamism, resourcefulness,

ingenious, endurance, risk daring, pressure management ability and willingness to accept

both positive and negative results of life ventures. Other entrepreneurial skills include verbal

and non-verbal expression, problem solving, team player, and listening and empathy skills.

Therefore, entrepreneurial education seeks to equip Nigerian undergraduate students with the

necessary skills with which to be job creators or to start up their own businesses.

2.2.3 Entrepreneurial Start-ups

Entrepreneurial process begins with someone’s decision to become entrepreneur, followed by

entrepreneurial opportunity recognition which leads to starting a business. Timmons and

Spinelli as cited in Barucic and Umihamic (2016) observed entrepreneurial process through

18
three driving forces of successful launching entrepreneurial venture, whereby opportunity

takes the first place, followed by entrepreneurial team and resources. These are the basic

steps of an entrepreneurial start-ups.

Start-upsare engines of economic development and have continued to exert their influence in

the fourth industrial revolution through creating jobs and generating profit. Start-upss

developed by students have been proven to enhance the collaboration between universities

and the industrial sector. According to Kim et al. (2020), start-ups are bridging the gap

between universities and industries through enhancing cooperation. Start-ups are young

cooperation’s developed by one or more entrepreneurs to create a new product or service

(SendPlus, 2022). The role of start-ups in sustainable development has been on the rise. Start-

ups play an important role in the development of a vibrant entrepreneur ecosystem driving

sustainable development (Ba˘ rbulescu et al., 2021). They have been instrumental in solving

societal issues through providing innovative solutions. Several factors are responsible for the

success or failure of start-ups. For instance, Skawinsk and Zalewsk (2020) concluded that

human capital, quality of collaboration, focus on the nature of the market, experience in

doing business, and development factors are key components that determine the success of

start-ups.

Kofanov and Zozul’ov (2018) argued that start-ups are leading socio-economic

transformation globally. This is because through providing solutions to global issues, start-up

screate positive change. They are engines of global change and business growth (Start-ups

Jobs Asia, 2022).Not only do start-ups provide employment, but they also bring about

technological development, drive global economic growth, and lead sustainable research.

Thus, a start-up is an entrepreneurial experiment and a very small beginning enterprise that

provides a space for self-realization, an opportunity to develop and implement unusual and

risky ideas, an unparalleled satisfaction of existing needs and discovery of new needs.

19
Start-ups contain the potential for exceptional growth but also unforeseen and repeated

failures. They are a living laboratory to explore the emergence and maturation of an

enterprise. Rapid growth, experimenting with ideas that would be too courageous for ordinary

companies, high returns and quick feedback attract not only businesspeople but also

researchers, to reveal and explain the functioning and perilous places of this relatively new

business phenomenon. The advancement, success and survival of the start-up usually depend

on the quality of its business model, team and business strategy. Start-ups is also a term use

to describe a business that works to create products or provide services to solve modern

problems or meet current requirements, because the solution is not clear and success is not

guaranteed (Hayet, 2015).

Quoted statements and definitions can be summarized in a few keywords. A start-up works in

an environment of uncertainty up to indeterminacy but at the same time it tries to find

concrete and useful solutions, dynamically and temporarily grows without limits, employs

people who renounce certainties of standard job at the expense of exciting personal growth

and achievement of concrete results, it can or may not work on the base of technology and

ceases to be a start-up after crossing certain borders (acquisition, revenue, profit, number of

employees and others). A business start-ups is an entrepreneurial experiment that provides a

medium of self-actualization, the ability to develop and implement innovative ideas,

unprecedented satisfaction of current wants, and the discovery of new ideas (Slávik2019).

Starting a business while still an undergraduate can be a great way to gain practical

experience and test entrepreneurial skills.

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2.3. Effect of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Skills Required for

Students Start-ups.

The emergence of Information Communication Technology (ICT) has witnessed a boom in

recent time. However, Information and communication technology (ICT) has become, within

a very short time, one of the basic building blocks of modern society (Suleiman & Surajo,

2020). Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) is a broader term for

Information Technology (IT), which refers to all communication technologies, including the

internet, wireless networks, cell phones, computers, software, middleware, video-

conferencing, social networking, and other media applications and services enabling users to

access, retrieve, store, transmit, and manipulate information in a digital form (Gomes &

Lopes, 2022).

In another view, Information and Communication Technologies(ICT)refer to the convergence

of media technology such as audio-visual and telephone networks with computer networks,

by means of a unified system of cabling (including signal distribution and management) or

link system (E-Agriculture Strategy Guide, 2015). Also, Idowu (2010) viewed Information

communication technology (ICT) as the technologies which enable and support the

fundamental processes for the capture, storage, manipulation, communication and delivery of

data and information on different context such as engineering, technological, organizational,

social and cultural domains. It is the technology required for International Journal of Human

Resource Management and Humanities information processing by making use of electronic

mechanisms and computer software to convert, store, protect, transmit and retrieve

information.

However, Duru and Anigbata, (2015) identified benefit of Information and Communication

Technology (ICT)such as; transparency and accountability in government, achieving specific

21
policy outcomes, potentials for stronger institutional capacity building for better service

delivery, cost effectiveness, quick access to information and promoting efficiency in

governmental activities, improved services, better accessibility of public services and many

more. In another end, Duru and Anigbata (2015) pointed out the threat of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) such as, danger of software hacking, hyper surveillance,

false sense of transparency and accountability, accessibility and cost implication. However,

Information and Communication Technology challenges in Nigeria includes among many

others; lack of information and communication technologies infrastructure, privacy issue,

security of information that are gathered, lack of partnership and collaboration, lack of

political will on the part of government, and digital divide (Nick, 2018).

The adoption of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) by entrepreneur which

trigger business growth has generated research attention over a decade. Various scholars in

the field of business management have rooted their arguments that the growth of

entrepreneurship may lead to small business success through the skills it allows to grow

inside the company (Amue et al, 2013; Sulaiman; Surajo & Matinja, 2020). However,

Migisha (2011) cited in Sulaiman; Surajo & Matinja, (2020) suggested that Information and

Communication Technology(ICT) is a medium for growth, but that it can only flourish if

small tech start-ups expand and generate new employment by creativity, and that technology

is not the only problem, but also entrepreneurship.

The opinions of Migisha (2011) face very contradictory observations and claims in the

literature (Adeniyi-kie, 2004; Jackson & Markfish, 2010; Marchese & Polter, 2010). Again,

KolaOgunlade (2014) suggested that the Web can radically transform the way citizens find

and navigate resources (Igwe & Abiye 2014; Awobamise et al., 2020; Awobamise & Jarrar,

2019; Awobamise, 2014). Kofi and Anns (2010) maintained that the diffusion and

implementation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) entrepreneurship in

22
Western business organizations may be deemed comparatively more established and

developed, although its possible effect on less created countries' market networks still needs

to be properly stimulated, re-engineered and re-evaluated.

The benefits of Information and Communication Technology(ICT) available to an

entrepreneurs in developing countries includes; generation of employment opportunities such

as creation of business center and internet cafe, establishment of computer training center and

computer technicians. Other benefit includes rural saving mobilization, modification of

traditional industries and internet travelling agency. However, extant literature revealed the

following as challenges of Information and Communication Technology(ICT) application for

entrepreneurial development in Nigeria. These includes; epileptic or erratic power supply,

lack of training, illiteracy, cost of repair, lack of political readiness, lack of interment access,

lack of Information and Communication Technology(ICT) skills and poverty.

Further more,Entrepreneurs in Nigeria usually begin their business ventures in small capital,

low value-added, and it takes time to set up a business. This type of entrepreneurs needs to

collect money, a source of a better place, deal with suppliers and other intermediaries,

manpower problems, and other relevant issues while setting up their enterprise (Iwu &

Nzeako, 2012; John et al. 2014; Garba, 2010). Information and Communication Technology

(ICT) inclusiveness in modern day businesses and companies has save time and money

during the start-up phase of e-business. Information and networking systems have allowed

today's entrepreneurs to succeed rather than conventional entrepreneurs. Such rising

technology enables conventional businessmen to enter Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) entrepreneurship (Cheng & Chang, 2004; Iwu & Nzeako, 2012; Suleiman

& Zuwo, 2020; John, 2014).

23
The development of Information and Communication Technology(ICT) entrepreneurship is

becoming the order of business days. Reports (Mzekandaba, 2013; Austins & Tygris 2010;

Eduardo 2006; Kollmann, 2006) suggest that Information and Communication

Technology(ICT) entrepreneurship is rapidly relevant and useful; proof of the growth of ICT

entrepreneurship can be seen from active entrepreneurs in Western countries such as the

United States (Suleiman & Zuwo, 2020; John, 2014).Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) entrepreneurship is the creation of new businesses in the Net Economy.

The Net Economy has a strong impact on creative market growth focused on the online

knowledge and connectivity network. The information society is characterized by rigorous

use of information technology (IT) and a shift from an industrial to a knowledge-based

economy (John et al. 2014).

To this extent, information and communications technology (ICT) has become an important

proof for the growth of technology in the world. Subsequently, available literatures reported

an influx of trade benefits arising from the same. The increase in mobile phone access and the

introduction of smart phones have also increased access to the internet on the globe. Mobile

phones have replaced the old table-top telephones causing disruption in the

Telecommunication sector. The presence of mobile phones and the internet has created

totally new sectors, given rise to new companies and provided jobs for many while also

impacting entrepreneurship and business models (Mwangi, 2016).

Some of the notable contribution of Information and Communication Technology(ICT) to

entrepreneurship development includes; Access to Markets; E-commerce as this is commonly

referred to have greatly minimized the need for physical infrastructure for trade to take place.

Platforms like Jumia give entrepreneurs access to markets in all parts of the country and all

over the world. Virtual and efficient business coordination; technology has completely

revolutionized the manner in which businesses operate today especially businesses operating

24
in a niche market. In essence, these businesses use of apps and often times do not require the

physical presence of the business owner and can often times be efficiently run virtually such

as Uber. Also, advertising and Marketing Communication; With the emergence target market

can be reached with advertising messages via a tweet on twitter, a post on Facebook or videos

on YouTube and many more at way cheaper rates.

Other includes; increasing revenue streams and Saving Time/Money; technology has

provided new and exciting opportunities to increase revenue. Such opportunities include the

provision of movies and games for relaxation at a fee. For example, Netflix.

Teleconferencing; important meetings can also be held via video conferencing technology

systems which allow two or more locations to communicate via simultaneous two-way audio

and video transmissions, eliminating the logistics of travelling, saving time and money. It is

also common practice to reach out to audiences by streaming seminars, conferences and

programs live on the internet.

In the word of Gomes and Lopes (2020) Information and Communication Technology(ICTs)

reduce market friction, fight corruption, increase productivity, decrease production costs,

increase skilled labour, save time, encourage the creation of new firms, and improve the

development and growth of installed firms. However, Suleiman, Surajo and Matinja (2020)

identified the benefits of ICT available to an entrepreneurs in developing countries includes;

generation of employment opportunities such as creation of business center and internet cafe,

establishment of computer training center and computer technicians / repairs. Other benefit

includes rural saving mobilization, modification of traditional industries and internet

travelling agency.

However, extant literature revealed the following as challenges of Information and

Communication Technology(ICT) application for entrepreneurial development in Nigeria.

25
These includes; epileptic power supply, lack of training, illiteracy, cost of repair, lack of

political readiness, lack of interment access, lack of Information and Communication

Technology(ICT) skills (Gomes & Lopes, 2020; Sulaiman, Surajo & Matinja, 2020).

2.4. Effect of Innovation and Creativity Skills Required for Students Start-ups

Creativity, as a human ability or capacity, is predicated on the presence of some reality.

Human behavior is dependent on an order of existence and a sphere of activity, whether from

a religious or philosophical standpoint. As a result, human creativity may be considered to be

derived from and reliant on reality's constructed or objective order. A past reality or creation

must exist for people to be creative. The main point here is that the present order of reality

contains fundamental possibilities that are inherent or entrenched in it. On the basis of this

established order, human creativity finds and actualizes these possibilities in some way.

Physical (material) and metaphysical factors have a role in the offered of objective reality or

creation (Ballor & Claar, 2019).

Creativity is a cognitive talent that is critical to our evolution as a species; nevertheless,

understanding it solely in neurological terms is simplistic and ineffective when considering

its effects on individual and communal well-being. When we realize that the objective of

creativity is to gain creative insight and produce actionable ideas, the connection between

creativity and innovation becomes both clear and perplexing. Despite the fact that

contemporary culture appreciates innovation and recognizes it as a critical component of

progress, how innovation is cultivated is frequently misunderstood, and the important role of

creativity and its expression in the nurturing of innovation is largely neglected. If creativity is

a human quality that is present in all of us, we may fairly expect invention to be widespread

and simple to acquire in any sector of society. However, creativity might appear elusive and

difficult to summon at whim, and the inherent creative capacity displayed by young children

26
can be completely inhibited and rendered inaccessible by adults in the same culture (Levick,

2014).

Most people associate creativity with the capacity to think of doing something unique, an

originality or uniqueness that may be used to build something that didn't exist before

(Tschmuck, 2012). Making differences between creative thinkers and non-creative thinkers is

problematic, according to Weisberg (2010), who claims that creative thinking is a common

occurrence and that we all have the potential to do so.

The genius, as defined by Weisberg (2010), is a creative person capable of making

intellectual leaps. 'Outside the box': "the genius view shapes much of modern psychologists"

thinking about creativity. Creativity should be distinguished from intelligence, which is

sometimes referred to as divergent thinking, as opposed to convergent thinking, which is

associated with the well-known general cognitive ability. Castillo-Vergara, et al. (2018)

emphasized that the importance of creativity is linked to its influence on corporate

competitiveness, citing research that shows a link between teams who do well in creativity

tests and their success.

On the other hand, Afuah (2020) defined innovation as the use of new knowledge to offer a

new product or service that customers want. However, this definition excludes processes

innovation (changing the way that business is conducted) and systems innovation (changing

the way processes are controlled and organized).Tschmuck (2012) argued that innovation

follows after invention: "an innovation has occurred only after the invention is successfully

put on the market … we must not equate the inventor with the innovator". The invention, the

prototype or the ideas are precursors to the innovation.

Innovations flourish when the company and factories use scientific research and technology

to produce products that are more responsive to the needs of their customers and clients, and

27
in line with their expectations. Weisberg (2010) claimed that innovation is the result of the

creative process combined with other market factors affecting the product, service, system, or

process. Unlike entrepreneurship, there is little debate on the typical traits of innovators, but

there is an emphasis on models of innovation and the economic effect of diverse models on

businesses.

In today's competitive world, innovation is vital to the survival and prosperity of creative

individuals and inventive businesses. If innovation is lost, businesses are destined to

degradation and destruction due to the rapid pace of global economic growth, high demand,

and limited supply. The entrepreneurial process relies heavily on innovation. Entrepreneurial

innovation is a method through which an entrepreneur generates new CSP or expands a pool

of resources in order to enhance their wealth-generating potential. Entrepreneurs may turn

their ideas into commercial products through the process of innovation. This necessitates

their participation in hastening transformation (Fadaee & Alzahrh, 2014).

More than a good concept, the innovation process is essential. Although the source of ideas is

essential, and creative thinking may play a part in their creation, an idea derived through

ideation differs from one derived from extensive thought, study, and job experience. More

significantly, aspiring entrepreneurs invest time and money in developing a solid concept at

various stages. As a result, innovation is a combination of good concept insights and

assistance in putting the idea into action. From a managerial standpoint, innovation begins

with idea and concludes with the introduction of new products or services (Fadaee &

Alzahrh, 2014).

Creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship have become critical values for the survival and

development of businesses in this era of constant change and rising volatility (Cuanca &

Boza, 2015). The growing topic of creative entrepreneurship examines the relationships

28
between innovation, creativity, and entrepreneurship; most of the literature focuses on the

self-managed artist, or creative persons who find themselves doing both creative and

business-related activities (O’Hara, 2014).

The relationship among creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship is pointed out by (Castilo

& Marin, 2018) who emphasized the importance of creativity in the entrepreneurial process

and innovation in the discovery of new business possibilities. Along these lines, According to

Boza, et al. (2017), the terms creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship refer to the

mindsets and talents connected with these concepts, as well as the traits and behaviors

associated with successful enterprise. Entrepreneurship, for example, is the capacity of an

individual to put ideas into action. It includes the capacity to plan and direct action toward the

attainment of goals, as well as creativity, innovation, and risk-taking. It's important to think

about how these mindsets and abilities may be applied in the workplace.

Creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship are widely regarded as engines for fostering an

entrepreneurial culture and propelling socioeconomic growth forward. Integration of these

issues into educational programs' "core competencies" has become a major theme in dealing

with volatile markets and the complicated demands of technology and societal developments

(Gattie et. al., 2011). The relationship between creativity and entrepreneurship is a mutually

beneficial relationship. Creativity is financed and marketed by entrepreneurship, without the

emergence of new technological innovations, entrepreneurship will reach a dead end.

Without entrepreneurship, Creativity will remain justideas stored in the mind of the creator,

which may be neglected and forgotten.

Perhaps one of the most significant roadblocks to developing entrepreneurial mindsets and

competencies is that, like entrepreneurship, innovation and creativity are regularly interpreted

(and considered) as characteristics in the educational field, which tends to assign that humans

29
are born with certain personality traits that make them creative/innovative/entrepreneurial.

The innovator needs the entrepreneur to push his ideas to the market, the entrepreneur needs

the innovator's ideas that shake the market. It is common to see an innovative entrepreneur,

but most executives become a combination of both within a short period. In order for

innovators to attract entrepreneurs, their ideas must be attractive and useful, so that the

entrepreneur believes that they will make the target market old and non-productive, whereas

entrepreneurs should be the fastest in their industry, and aim to lead or dominate a new

market. They need to be open to change and to make decisions if market conditions are ready

for innovation to succeed. They are the generators of luck and the tool that innovators need to

bring their ideas to market.

Carayannis, et al. (2015) also connected creativity with entrepreneurship, especially in the

context of change that is both achievable and useful given the present framework.

Entrepreneurship may be regarded (and executed) from three perspectives in modern

entrepreneurship education: as a matter of culture or state of mind, as a matter of conduct, or

as a matter of creating specific conditions. Developing an entrepreneurial mentality in

graduates requires an education that emphasizes the values, beliefs, attitudes, and emotional

components of entrepreneurship, as well as creativity and invention. However, the amount of

attention devoted to these factors and how they are included into entrepreneurship

taxonomies and syllabi might vary greatly.

Innovation via creativity is a critical component of organizational success and competitive

advantage, as well as a healthy economy. However, there is a significant link between

creativity and invention (Valaei, et. al, 2017) as well as between creativity and

entrepreneurship (Ludvig, 2016). Creativity has been highlighted as a source of innovation

(Amabile & Prah, 2016). Individual creativity serves as a foundation for corporate creativity

and innovation, and the outcomes have been related to company success and survival (Castilo

30
& Marin, 2018). As a result, creativity is associated with the individual level, whereas

innovation is associated with the organizational level (Alemany, et. al, 2021).

Furthermore, innovation is seen as a key factor in achieving entrepreneurial success (Ludvig,

2016).Entrepreneurs pool resources in order to create something new, which might be a

company, a product, or a service. Entrepreneurs could only contribute about a future outcome

by translating their ideas into practice (Honig & Hopp, 2021). As a result of its active

contribution to economic growth,entrepreneurship is a subject of rising interest for economic

study (Crecento, et. al, 2016).

Aggestam as cited in Salem (2021) pointed out that describing and identifying entrepreneurs

is still a challenge. It is much more difficult to define a creative entrepreneur. The

entrepreneurial development of ideas and creative works is the emphasis of creative

entrepreneurship. The primary focus of the creative entrepreneur is the production and

strategic commercialization of creative or intellectual capital. Eikhof and Haunschild as cited

in Salem claimed that because of the clash between art and business, most creative

entrepreneurs are forced to combine two personality traits: "their identification as an artist,

which gives them with work drive and creative energy, and their identification as a small

enterprise."

In terms of character traits used to describe creative entrepreneurs, Howkins as cited in Salem

(2021) described them as tenacious, even when others don't believe in their abilities. They get

completely and passionately involved in their job as a result of their perseverance, even at the

price of really generating a profit. Bilton and Leary as cited in Salem claimed that creative

firms require creative managers because they are "the brokers who contribute value to the

creative process by managing the flow of ideas and resources, as well as by connecting ideas,

persons, and organizational responsibilities." While they ignore efforts by psychiatrists to

31
evaluate or anticipate similar features discovered in creative entrepreneurs as "never resulting

in a consistent pattern or personality," they do acknowledge that the creative financial adviser

will have "an eye for the market," and that, while not always creative themselves, they will

know how to buyout other cognitive capacity.

2.5. Effect of Managerial Skills Required for Students’ Start-ups

In today's dynamic and highly competitive business world, business owners, entrepreneurs,

and operators of enterprises need effective, competent, efficient, and skilled managers who

can think outside the box to succeed. It is therefore pertinent for those entrepreneurs and

enterprise owners to identify, develop, maintain, and retain talented people who are creative,

innovative, and with the required skills to foster and push the business to an enviable height.

To achieve this, every manager who wants to be efficient, effective, and successful should

possess specific and general managerial skills that will enable him to perform efficiently,

creditably, and effectively at any managerial level. Managerial skills are the knowledge,

skills, technical know-how, abilities, and behavior needed for efficient managerial

performance.

Onu (2018) opined that the relationship between managerial skills and small business growth

remains a topical issue in the contemporary business world. Managerial skills can help a firm

have a competitive advantage over its rivals. To keep a focused business, managers, and

operators of these small businesses, as well as those who managers already established

businesses with good market shares and good profit margins, should develop and maintain

good managerial skills that can be transferred from one generation to the other in the

organization. Managerial skills can also be said to be advancing when all that is needed to be

accomplished and achieved within and outside the organization are realized as at when due

and without compromise of standard or quality. Those core skills that are difficult to

32
duplicate and retain in the organization can be developed through the firm's reputation. It can

also be imported and adopted from one firm to another as a working tool.

Anoke, et. al, (2021) noted that skills vary depending on the type of business and

management's orientation, company's core competencies, which can change with avariable

such as time, location of the business, and other external factors that are beyond the control of

the firm and or managers. Hariri (2020) noted that transformational and transactional leaders

are positively and significantly linked to the productivity outcomes and organizational

competency while the laissez-faire leaders affects the organization negatively depending on

the structure and type of the organization. Chandler and Jansen (2019) argued that for

managers to carry out creditably, competently, and effectively organizational role(s), they

must have the ability to identify, recognize, distinguish, diagnose, and spot hidden business

opportunities, take advantage of such opportunities for the overall interest of the organization.

They equally need a political will to drive and see the firm from creation to fruition, which

involves a total commitment to the set-out goals and objectives, willingness to uncover the

hidden business secret, ability, and capacity not only to produce concentrated effort for long

hardworking hours but also to retain them.

Therefore, managerial competencies and skills comprise those brands, collections of

interrelated information; required attitudes, knowledge, and gained or acquired skills that a

business person is expected to gain through creativity, constant training, and continual self-

development that will enable the person to yield a rewarding result, fruitful performance, and

maximize return on investment while managing his or her business entity. It has been noted

nowadays that little, or less value is attached to these serious success variables in the

managerial world; rather key attention is paid to financial resources, input, and output

differences. Business owners do attribute the failures of their businesses to unavailability of

33
finance, unfavorable government policies, and unfriendly business environment rather than

managerial lapses and incompetency on the part of decision-makers in the firm or industry.

Baum (2019) noted that there are differences between specific skills and general skills in

managing a business. Specific skills according to him are those skills that are largely spelled

out over and above others because they are considered very necessary and essential to

achieves particular task or purpose in the organization. while general skills which are key to

organizational achievement are skills conceptualized as cross-subjects that are vital in the

development of a person, a group of persons that are required for personal accomplishment,

and the development of personal and group skills at the moment and later in life. Man (2018)

defined managerial competencies as higher-degree individualities encompassing personality

characteristics, gained skills, and acquired knowledge, which is the overall ability of the

manager to perform an assigned job successfully and profitably.

Hoffmann (2019) noted three different ways that managerial skills are measured in the

business environment. These include the standard of performance attributed to the manager

because of managerial skills invested in the industry, noticeable and positive output or result

achieved, performance tied to knowledge gained, skills and capabilities that represent the

underlying qualities of the person behind the wheel. Some studies have adopted the third

definition of competency (that refersto knowledge gained, skills, and capabilities) to

appreciate managerial skills (Ropega, 2017;Man, 2018; Sunny & Inusa, 2019). Similarly,

Baum (2011)asserted that management skills are the individual characteristics and acquired

skills necessary to successfully ease business world anxiety. When properly developed,

management skills reassure better leadership qualities and contribute handsomely to business

accomplishment. The intangible and human assets required for managerial skills are essential

for a fruitful workforce. Browell (2018) defined managerial skills as definite competencies,

34
motives, positive attitudes, and attributes/abilities necessary to perform a task timely. Such

characteristics are but are not limited to, communication skills, the ability to work within a

defined setting, and problem-solving, customer-focused ability, ability to predict and forecast

business changes. As business financial standards and status can easily be analyzed, utilized,

and fix into the progressive map of the firm, human assets involved in managerial skills have

not been able to fit into such a business equation.

On the other hand, some researchers have linked managerial skills with the individual

behaviors shown in the management and control of an organization. Amegayibor (2021)

noted that leaders who blend autocratic, charismatic, and paternalistic leadership styles are

seen to be competent as they influence employees' performance, reduce error and increase the

quality of work in the organization. In addition, Shukla, Prasad, and Itam (2021) opined that

behavioral, functional and strategic competencies are competency clusters considered

necessary by the main stakeholders in every organization. Similarly, Stoof (2015) likened

managerial skills to an ability to accomplish certain jobs or responsibilities for which

knowledge, idea, skills, attitude, and motivations are highly required and necessary.

Stoof (2015) argued that specific skills trigger the seen and intangible hidden potentials that

contribute to the creation of value in an organization. If separate skills in managerial

processes are the key drivers or take off points required to stimulate and kindle crucial

proficiencies, skills, and capabilities that reactivate the value-creation process in an

organization, then firms in this era need to employ appropriate methodologies and

mechanisms to support, protect, maintain and retain the progress of these competencies for

the organizational benefits.

Similarly, Umar (2018) noted that currently, knowledge management is key to any successful

business venture. Globalization makes distances much shorter than one can imagine and has

35
triggered the need for global thinking and global knowledge. Technologies and knowledge-

driven businesses have taken the center stage and financial capital is gradually taking the

back seat. Non-tangible and human assets and the ability to apply them purposefully are seen

today to be crucial in every organization. Managerial skills should therefore be given the

required attention as their identification and development are pivotal to human capital

requirements needed to drive home the mission, vision, strategic goals, and set out objectives

of the organization. Chiekezie, Nzewi, and Erhinmwionose (2016) noted that managers with

good managerial knowledge perceive business opportunities where others fail, searching for

changes and responding to the dynamic business environment for optimal performance and

increased productivity.

As seen above, numerous definitions of managerial skills and its components have been

postulated to identify and find which skills are central to developing, starting, and sustaining

business activities. Various scholars viewed the subject matter from the angle they perceived

it as many definitions were offered accordingly and this has resulted in a mix-up concerning

the proper denotation of the concept of competency. To this end, managerial skills refer to

behavior, competency, knowledge, and ability which enable a manager to perform and

achieve a task timely and purposefully within an organization.

The economic impact of entrepreneurs on any contemporary economy like Nigeria cannot be

over-emphasized as it is the engine room for economic growth, development, and

sustainability to those economies that paid the required attention to it (Bell, 2017). To this

end, skilled entrepreneurs are the unseen hands behind the wheel. Managerial skills are

therefore clusters of similar knowledge, competencies, and attributes that are essential to

effectively perform an assigned task. Such skills are but are not limited to creativity, the

ability to network effectively and efficiently, and innovativeness. These skills and

competencies will enable SME-owned operators to navigate and grow their business in a

36
competitive business environment like Nigeria (Amos, 2020). Below are some of the

managerial skills that a graduate entrepreneur could require to start up, grow and succeed in

business:

Technical Business Skills: - These give insight and direction as to how a specific skill will

be used in performing a particular task. Technical skills include knowing when and how to

apply a particular method to achieve the desired result, practices, and procedures involved in

carrying out a specific function such as programming, data analysis, production, and or

finance involved in running the firm. It can also involve specialized knowledge acquired

through training and creativity, analytical ability, and knowledgeable use of equipment and

techniques to resolve the problem(s) in a specific area in the business world. Entrepreneurs

are expected to have some technical knowledge in the field they operate to manage the

business profitably, effectively, and efficiently.

Technical skill is also seen as the application of the right knowledge at the right time and in

the right direction that required skills to perform effectively and efficiently in a defined job or

group of works in an organization. It is technical know-how and the skills required to carry

out a certain type of work or action to achieve the set-out goal(s). This includes skills in a

specialized division, analytical capacity, and the ability to use suitable tools and techniques to

achieve personal and organizational goals (Ani, 2019). Yusuf (2017) argued that technical

skills help the manager to acquire knowledge and techniques to attain certain organizational

goals. Many researchers (Bongos, 2011;Usman, 2019) maintained that there is a strong

relationship between technical skills and business growth. For entrepreneurs to succeed in the

modern business environment, technical skill is unavoidable.

Personal Skills: -In the business world, business owners are guided by their acquired skills,

knowledge, gained abilities, pieces of training, and business networks at their disposal. An

37
entrepreneur uses his skills for and on behalf of the organization intending to expand the

business horizon. This may involve bringing to play new approaches, techniques, and best

practices to serve as input in achieving creativity and innovation for the organizational goal

(Igbokwe, 2018). Yang, Chen, and Yang (2020) asserted that competent and proactive

managers in every organization need to first assure quality service encounters with their

customers, and constantly upgrade the implementation levels processes to maintain their

loyalty and repeat purchases. Nasiruka (2016) argued that an entrepreneur's skills help him to

have a defined set of business vision, mission, and core business values for the overall

interest of the organization.

Conceptual Skills: -Conceptual knowledge is the cognitive ability to see business as a whole

and the connection among its parts. This involves the business owner, manager, and or

operator thinking outside the box, sourcing the needed information, processing, analyzing the

raw data, making meaning out of it, and planning from the idea gotten for the organizational

goal. Nzewi (2017) noted that conceptual knowledge is the ability to think and act

strategically which is needed by small and medium business operators to strategically

position their businesses to compete effectively in the competitive business environment.

They must perceive important pointers in the business environment. Comparative conceptual

skills like good decision-making, proper resource allocation, timely changing with the

changing environment as well as innovative and creative inclinations are required by

firebrand managers who operate in a highly competitive business environment like ours today

to succeed in business.

A conceptual skill in business is the ability to work with business ideas and within the model.

These skills are central to creating a vision and strategic plan required for the firm's survival.

Anyim (2019)noted that with the help of conceptual skills in an organization, managers see

the organization as a whole and solve problems from a systemic point of view rather than on

38
an individual basis, which is an evil wind that blows nobody any good. Ndukwe (2019) noted

that conceptual skills are required by managers in achieving organizational goals more than

technical or interpersonal skills because it involves the ability to analyze business situations

and differentiates between causes and effects there by providing a workable solution to the

perceived business problems.

2.6. Effect of Economic Opportunity Identification Skills Required for Students Start-

ups

The concept of opportunity in entrepreneurship was pioneered by the seminal work of Israel

Meir Kirzner, a British-born American economist, from the early 1970s. His views were

anchored on the Austrian opportunity theories where an entrepreneur is said to see an

opportunity in the market and exploits it by providing an appropriate product or service

(Maija, Rodney, & Shrader, 2012). Prior to Kirzner, the doctrine of entrepreneurship was

dominated by innovation theory, as championed by Joseph Alois Schumpeter, an Austrian

political economist from the beginning of the 20th century. Schumpeter had argued that

entrepreneurship was synonymous with innovation. From his perspective, innovation is based

on craftsmanship, a skill that a person possesses to be able to make something. An

entrepreneur is seen as a visionary who exploits affective identification and evaluation as

preconditions for innovation, to come up with a new or significantly improved product (good

or service), process, new marketing or organizational methods in business practices, work

place organization or external relations (Kaplan & Tripsas in Odongo, 2021).

According to Schumpeter, entrepreneurs set themselves apart by establishing what he called

new combinations (Fritsch, 2017). New combinations encompass the following key elements:

introduction of a new product; introduction of a new method of production; opening up a new

market; identification of new sources of supply of raw materials or semi-manufactured goods;

39
and establishing a new organization. New combinations of these elements enable the

entrepreneur to achieve lasting and ground-breaking innovation (Kurz, 2012; Dodgson,

2011).

Opportunities are considered as favourable circumstances or problems that could result into

potential demand for products or services (Chalkley, et al., 2012). They could also mean

changes in the environment, including government policy, economic, technological, or social

environments that create possibilities for creativity and innovation (Bjerke & Karlsson,

2013). Chalkley, et al. (2012) suggested that entrepreneurs pursue opportunities whether or

not they have the resources to exploit them. He argued further that entrepreneurship should

be understood within the precincts of opportunity, suggesting that without opportunity,

entrepreneurship would not exist. Admittedly, identification and pursuit of opportunities are

believed to be at the very heart of entrepreneurial success, which sets entrepreneurs apart

from others in society.

Kirzner as cited in Odongo (2021) argued that entrepreneurial success is derived from

accurately assessing the nature of markets and their processes and then using the knowledge

gained to continually discover ways to realize the gains from trade and innovation. According

to Kirzner, opportunities result from market disequilibrium which results into either shortage

or supply or demand for new or improved products and services. Opportunities could also

arise when individuals or firms possess proprietary market information that others do not

have (Chaston, 2017). Access to such information may lead to new markets or could result

into producing products or services that are unique in the market. Berglund (2015) suggested

that opportunity is a perception in the mind of an entrepreneur. The perception could be

triggered by previous experience or training that becomes relevant in particular contexts,

especially in instances where a market need or gap is identified. Shane as cited in Odongo

(2021) opined that prior knowledge helps an entrepreneur to remain alert and make sense of

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the identified opportunity. Market opportunities could also be identified through researching

and analyzing what is happening in the environment (Seymour, in Odongo, 2021).

Maija, et al. (2012) argued that opportunity identification, as expounded by Kirzner, and

opportunity creation, as explained by Schumpeter, are not mutually exclusive. They argue

that all entrepreneurial opportunities possess both objective and subjective qualities, thus

helping to reconcile both perspectives. Chalkley et al. (2012), and Maija, et al. (2012)

suggested that opportunity can either be created as something new as a result of the

entrepreneurs’ innovative actions, akin to the Schumpeterian perspective, or can be existing

and waiting to be identified and exploited, based on the Kirznerian perspective.

Many scholars, however, argue that the concept of opportunity is not well understood

because its tangible value can only be assessed after the event (Dimov, 2011). Similarly, the

contribution of prior knowledge towards opportunity identification is downplayed by other

authors. They argued that people with the so-called prior knowledge do not always spot

opportunities and that they sometimes tend to choose just a few opportunities, perhaps not the

most significant, from the many that are available. To overcome this, the authors emphasize

the role of learning, motivation, and possession of market values as key to opportunity

identification (Odongo, 2021).

Other authors have argued that recognition of opportunity may not be a prerequisite for

success as an entrepreneur, Bjerke and Karlsson (2013) supported the views expressed in the

2006 GEM Report which postulated that early-stage entrepreneurship in developing countries

is largely driven by necessity rather than opportunity because most people start businesses

due to lack of jobs or limited income (Bosma & Harding, in Odongo, 2021). This is not the

case in developed countries where entrepreneurship is largely opportunity driven. Similarly,

Gartner, Carter and Reynolds (2010) disagreed that opportunity recognition and exploitation

41
are necessities for business success. Likewise, Gartner, et al. (2010) argued that many

entrepreneurs have become successful without initially recognizing a tangible opportunity

and that they start looking for opportunities after establishing the business.

Bjerke and Karlsson (2013) also added that the desire to start a business may in fact be

circumstantial rather than opportunity driven. This could be due to factors such as; growing

up in a family of self- employed parents, belonging to a culture that values business, having

just completed school, or being an immigrant. Chalkley, et al. (2012) argued that the

identification of opportunities per se does not constitute entrepreneurship unless subsequent

action is taken to create solutions that fulfill the opportunity. Timmons as cited in Odongo

(2012) noted that opportunity can only be of real value if it possesses the following four

characteristics: if it is attractive to customers; if it is applicable to the context; if it can be

exploited within the opportune time; and if resources and capacity exist for its exploitation.

To sum up this, opportunity identification skill or competency refers to the ability to find

openings particularly in the business setting and brainstorm innovative ideas to establish or

grow a business (Guo et al.,2016). It also reflects entrepreneurial alertness (Bagheri,

2017).Identifying the right opportunity is vital for enabling start-up companies to multiply

(Ozgen and Baron, 2007). The theory of resource-based view (RBV) emphasized the

importance of the “right” resources to attain sustainable competitive advantage (Kreuzer et

al., 2021). Both the ability and the competency to recognize opportunities are resources that

only a few people possess (Kim et al., 2018).People have varying personal attributes that

contribute to their ability to recognize opportunities. Wang et al. (2013) postulated that

personal attributes refer to prior knowledge, social networks, as well as perceptions of

industrial and environmental opportunities. As opportunity recognition is necessary for

entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs should implicitly be mindful of the need to perceive and

42
exploit opportunities (Guoet al., 2016). The skill to detect the “right” opportunities for new

ventures is integral, particularly for entrepreneurs to succeed (Bagheri, 2017).

2.7. Review of Related Empirical Studies

Several studies have been carried out on the effect of entrepreneurial skills for students’ start-

ups in the country. Some of the studies are reviewed here.

Joel (2017) studied “Perceived Impacts of Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills on University

Students’ self-employability in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria”. The main objective of this

study was to investigate impacts of acquisition of entrepreneurial skills on university

students’ self-employability in Minna. The study was guided by three specific objectives,

research questions and one hypothesis. The researcher used export factor research design

with 400 students selected from a population of 14,786 in all the nine faculties of Federal

University of technology Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. In the study, the researcher collected

only primary data. A structured questionnaire was used to generate data for the study.

The findings of the study revealed that entrepreneurial skills acquisition have great impact on

students’ employability in Federal University of technology Minna, Niger State. The study

recommended among others that the government should establish more entrepreneurial

training and workshop programs that would serve as a guide for the youth in the acquisition

of entrepreneurial skill in other to facilitate their self-employability. The study is different but

relevant to the current study because both deals with entrepreneurial skills required for

students’ start-ups or self-employability. However, the current study differs from the previous

study in that it had four specific objectives, research, and no hypothesis was formulated. It

also differs in terms of population, sample size and area of study. While the previous study

was carried out in Federal University of technology Minna, Niger State, the current was

conducted in Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria.

43
Ruth (2017) investigated the “Small and Medium Enterprise Managers Rating of Skills

Needed by Business Education Graduates for Entrepreneurial Success in South-West

Nigeria”. The main purpose of this study was to determine SMEs managers rating of skills

needed by business education graduates for entrepreneurial success in South-West Nigeria.

The study was guided by five specific objectives, research questions and ten questionnaires.

The researcher adopted descriptive survey research design with a sample size of 910 selected

from the total population of 6,475 for the study using questionnaire as data collection

instrument.

The findings of the study revealed that personality, communication, human relations,

management and business skills are internal attributes of successful entrepreneurs irrespective

of the prevailing economic dispensation. It is therefore, concluded that the acquisition of

relevant skills will enhance the success of business education graduates in South-West

Nigeria and other parts of the country. Thus, the study recommended that heads of business

education departments and entrepreneurs should work together towards ensuring that

business education students acquire the necessary practical skills for entrepreneurial success

during the six month industrial training programme of business education.

The study is different but relevant to the current study because both deals with skills needed

for graduate start-ups. However, the current study differs from the previous study in that it

had four specific objectives, research, and no hypothesis was formulated. It also differs in

terms of population, sample size and area of study. While the previous study was carried out

in South-West, Nigeria, the current was conducted in Gombe State University, Gombe,

Nigeria.

Agbim (2013) conducted a study on the relative contribution of management skills

toentrepreneurial success: A Survey of Small and MediumEnterprises (SMEs) in the trade

44
sector. Five research questions and five null hypotheses were formulated for the study. The

design of the study was descriptive survey. Using the Yaro-Yamen sample size determination

method, 366 study samples were taken from the 4,375 SMEs entrepreneurs in Modern

market, North bank market, Wurukum market, High level market and Wadata market all in

Makurdi town. A structured and validated questionnaire was used for data collection.

Reliability coefficient of 0.85 was established using Cronbach alpha. Simple percentages

were used to answer the research questions while regression analysis was used to test the null

hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

Findings of the study revealed that planning and budgeting skills provides attractive range of

products made 39% relative contribution to entrepreneurial success; skills to act quickly on

detecting changes in the environment made a 26% relative contribution to entrepreneurial

success; 23% relative contribution to entrepreneurial success was made by skills for assessing

sales problems as a way of maintaining good customer relations; skills to focus on product

quality so as to capture a sizeable market share made a 30% relative contribution to

entrepreneurial success; and a 21% relative contribution to entrepreneurial success was made

by management expertise skills to attract and keep competent employee. The study concluded

that trade entrepreneurs should be sensitized to concentrate on learning and developing the

identified management skills that contribute to successful entrepreneurship endeavors. The

study therefore recommends that entrepreneurs should acquire management skills either

through training or short courses.

The study of Agbim (2013) is related to the current study in that both dwell on management

skills for entrepreneurship success. Both also use descriptive survey design and questionnaire

for data collection. However, both studies differ in method of data analysis and area of study.

In addition, the study of Agbim (2013) did not consider Information and Communication

Technology skills, Creativity and Innovation skills, Managerial skills and Economic

45
Opportunity Identification skills for entrepreneurial start-ups which the present study

covered. Agbim’s study scope of study and population differs from the present study.

Uzezi (2014) investigated the traits of potential entrepreneurs among technical college

students. One research question and one hypothesis were raised for the study. Descriptive

survey design was adopted for the study. The population comprised 648 respondents which

consisted of 92 entrepreneurs, 240 technical college teachers and 316 final year students in

four selected technical colleges in Edo and Delta States. A sample population of 482 students

was selected for the study using proportionate sampling technique. A structured and validated

questionnaire was used for data collection. Reliability coefficient of 0.78 was established

using Cronbach alpha statistics. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the

research question while Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 significance level was used

to test the null hypothesis.

Findings of the study disclosed innovation, taking reasonable risks, setting appropriate goals,

getting along with others, accepting responsibilities and adapting to changes and many others

as desirable traits of potential entrepreneurs. The study revealed that working extra hour

always is not a desirable trait of potential entrepreneurs. The study concluded that the

entrepreneurs should evaluate themselves on entrepreneurial traits in order to cover for their

shortcomings in their entrepreneurial endeavours. The researchers recommended among

others that, potential entrepreneurs should be discouraged to work extra hours all the time

because it may lead to unwanted stressors.

The study of Uzezi (2014) is related to the current study in the sense that both sought to

analyze skills for entrepreneurial success. Both also used descriptive survey design and

questionnaire for data collection. However, the study of Uzezi (2014) and the current study

adopted different area of study, population and sample size. Furthermore, Uzezi’s study did

46
not consider Information and Communication Technology skills, Creativity and Innovation

skills, Managerial skills and Economic Opportunity Identification skills for entrepreneurial

start-ups which the present study covered.

2.8. Appraisal of Literature Reviewed

In this chapter, literature was reviewed on the concept of entrepreneurship, definition of

entrepreneurship, importance of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial skills and its various

examples, entrepreneurial start-ups. The effect of information and communication technology

(ICT) skills, innovation and creativity skills, managerial skills and economic opportunity

identification skills required for students’ start-ups were also reviewed in this chapter.

One theory was also discussed under the theoretical framework which involved

Entrepreneurial Competencies Model which is relevant to the study. Four related empirical

studies were reviewed. Based on reviewed empirical studies, the researcher observed that

none of the studies investigated the effect of entrepreneurial skills on students’ start-ups in

Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria. These created gaps which the current study

bridged.

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 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This section is concern with the methodology within which the research was conducted. The

section is presented under the following sub-headings:- research design, population of the

study, sample and sampling techniques, instrument for data collection, validation of the

instrument, reliability of the instrument, procedure for data collection and method for data

analysis.

3.1 Research Design

This study adopted the descriptive survey research design. According to Nworgu (2015),

survey research design involves the collection of opinions, attitudes or feelings of a

population or its representative sample using questionnaire or interview to explain existing

phenomenon. Descriptive survey research design is considered most appropriate for the study

because a questionnaire will be to collect the opinions of entrepreneurial skills on students’

start-ups in Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria

Olaniyi (2016)used descriptive survey design successfully to carry out a study of this nature;

hence descriptive survey design is considered most appropriate for the present study.

3.2 Population of the Study

The population of the study comprised 220 graduates of the department of business

administration made up of 80 for 2019/2020 academic session, 70 for 2020/2021 academic

session and 70 for 2021/2022 academic session (Source: Departmental Records Office

Business Administration Department GSU, 2024).

48
3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique

The entire study population was used due to the relatively manageable size of the population.

There was therefore no sampling. This in compliance with the recommendation of Solomon

(2018) who stated that the entire population can be used when members of the study size are

few or when it is necessary to reach each member.

3.4 Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for data collection for this study was a structured questionnaire. The

questionnaire developed by the researcher was titled: Effect of Entrepreneurial Skills on

Students’ Start-ups (EESSS). According to Kerlinger and Howard (2008), questionnaire is

the best instrument to gather data about the respondent’s feelings, ideas, emotions and

perceptions. The questionnaire was divided into two parts. Part A required information about

the general characteristics of respondents. Part B was divided into four sections (A-D) in line

with the specific purposes of the study. Section (A) required information on the effect of

information and communication technology on students’ start- ups in Gombe State

University. Section (B) required information on the effect of innovation and creativity on

students’ start- ups in Gombe State University. Section (C) required information on the effect

of managerial skills on students’ start- ups in Gombe State University and Section (D)

required information on the effect of economic opportunity identification on students’ start-

ups in Gombe State University. Each of the sections (A-D) was assigned four point Likert

Scale of Strongly Agreed (SA) 3.50-4.00, Agreed (A) 2.50-3.49, Disagreed (D) 1.50-2.49,

and Strongly Disagreed (SD) 1.00-1.49, to enable the respondents to easily indicate their

opinions and also facilitate statistical analysis.

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3.5Validation of the Instrument

The instrument for data collection was subjected to face validity by three experts: one from

business administration unit in the department of business administration, Gombe State

University, the second from expert in measurement and evaluation from Federal College of

Education (Technical) Gombe, Gombe State and third expert is the researcher’s supervisor

from business administration department, Gombe State University. The researcher gave the

topic, statement of problem, purpose of the study, the research questions and a copy of the

questionnaire to the validators and requested to scrutinize the instrument in terms of content,

relevance, suitability, item clarity and coverage of the dimensions of the study. Based on their

comments and suggestions, some item statements of instrument were modified to fit the

research purpose and produced the final copy of the questionnaire.

3.6 Reliability of the Instrument

The reliability of the instrument was determined through a trial testing. Copies of the

instrument were distributed to 20 to graduate in business administration program in Federal

university of kashere, Gombe State who were not part of the research population. Data

collected were analyzed using Cronbach Alpha to measure the internal consistency and

reliability co-efficient of 0.84 was obtained. This is high enough for the instrument to be

considered reliable as suggested by Olayiwola (2010) who stated that a reliability estimate of

0.60 and above is high and the instrument is therefore reliable and stable.

3.7Procedure for Data Collection

Copies of the questionnaire were administered to the respondents in the department

personally by the researcher with the help of two research assistants who were guided on

what to do. During the first visit, the researcher or assistants delivered the instrument to each

respondent and agreed on a date to revisit for retrieval because of their busy schedule. Before

50
the agreed date, the researcher sent reminders through text messages to respondents while her

research assistants visited respondents on several occasions for the same purpose. Thereafter,

the researcher or research assistants revisited the respondents and retrieved the completed

questionnaire. A total of 220 copies of questionnaire were administered to the respondents.

This procedure facilitated a high response as 198 copies were correctly filled and used for

data analysis. The exercise lasted for two weeks because of the vastness of the areas covered.

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

Data collected for part ‘A’ of the questionnaire which was the descriptive part and sought the

information about the nature and characteristics of the respondents and were analysed using

percentages. Data collected for part ‘B’ which was the analytical part and contained the

research questions were analysed using the mean and standard deviation. The mean was used

to answer the research questions and standard deviation was used to determine the closeness

or otherwise of the responses from the mean.

51