CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Background information regarding the project was given in the chapter that came before this one.

The theoretical underpinnings of the research and pertinent literature were examined in this

chapter. The key subjects covered in this chapter are the underlying theories, related concepts,

and empirical literature. (Melbourne, 2013) asserts that the purpose of a literature review is to

ascertain the existing body of information, the quality of that body of knowledge, and the areas

in which further research should be directed.

2.2 PHUBBING

A combination of the words "phone" and "snubbing," phubbing refers to the practice of ignoring

someone in favor of a cell phone. The possible effects of this phenomena on relationships, social

interactions, and mental health—especially in young adults—have attracted a lot of attention.

In the modern world, smartphones are everywhere. However, in copresent interactions,

smartphone use has frequently been considered disruptive (Błachnio & Przepiorka, 2018;

Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2016; Karadag˘ et al., 2015; Kushlev & Heintzelman, 2018;

Ling, 2012), potentially leading to social dilemmas (Inbar, Joost, Hemmert, Porat, & Tractinsky,

2014). People run the danger of not fully participating in copresent conversations when they are

engrossed in their phones (Cahir & Lloyd, 2015; Vanden Abeele et al., 2016). "Connected

presence" (Licoppe, 2004, p. 135) or "absent presence" (Gergen, 2002, p. 227) are terms used to

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describe being physically present but mentally absent. One ignores the physically present other

when using a smartphone in copresent encounters and focuses on a physically absent person

(Campbell, 2007). The physically present other therefore feels excluded and unnoticed

(Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2018a; David & Roberts, 2017). According to Przybylski and

Weinstein (2013) and Turkle (2015), there are situations where social interactions are negatively

impacted by phones alone. As a result, using a phone in these circumstances negates the partners'

social obligations while they are physically present (e.g., Humphreys, 2005). This implies that by

putting down one's phone, one gives their entire attention to the person who is in front of them,

exhibiting desired conduct. Prior studies have connected the use of (smart)phones in copresent

interactions to relationship quality (e.g., Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2018a; Hall et al.,

2014), violation of norms (e.g., Inbar et al., 2014), romantic relationships (e.g., Roberts & David,

2016), and psychological well-being (e.g., Misra et al., 2016; Przybylski & Weinstein, 2013;

Vanden Abeele et al., 2016). Using a phone when in social situations was considered "rude and

socially inappropriate" in all of these investigations (Vanden Abeele et al., 2016, p. 562). In fact,

using a smartphone during copresent conversations is frequently seen as disruptive. But it's

possible that disregarding people in attendance would be perceived as even worse or as a "lack of

care" (Cahir & Lloyd, 2015, p. 716). Phubbing, a portmanteau made up of the phrases phone and

snubbing, has been invented for this. Snubbing copresent persons by concentrating on one's

phone is known as phibbing (Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2016; Haigh, 2015; Turkle, 2015).

Phubbers are present in nearly all social contexts (Ugur & Koc, 2015). Research on phubbing is

still lacking, despite the fact that ignoring someone on the phone is not a recent problem. Owing

to the growing prevalence of constant connectivity and the ease with which internet services can

be accessed virtually anywhere at any time, it is conceivable that individuals are using their

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mobile phones in coexisting settings in addition to their alone time. For example, in romantic

relationships, concentrating on one's phone during a discussion rather than the other person

results in decreased partner trust and a decreased assessment of the quality and empathy of the

relationship (e.g., Misra et al., 2016; Przybylski & Weinstein, 2013; Roberts & David, 2016).

Additionally, phubbing behavior was positively correlated with pathological predictors like

problematic smartphone or Internet use (e.g., Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2016; Davey et al.,

2018; Karadag\ et al., 2015). But only self-control and FOMO were looked at as potential

indicators of phubbing behavior when it came to regular, nonpathological smartphone use

(Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas, 2016). Recently, there have been a few infrequent attempts to

concentrate on additional personal traits (such as neuroticism and conscientiousness, Erzen et al.,

2019; loneliness, self-esteem, and life satisfaction, Błachnio & Przepiorka, 2018). While a

number of phubbing predictors have previously been investigated, it has not been considered

until recently that MPN may be linked to phubbing behavior and that this relationship may be

influenced by approach or avoidance orientations. Thus, how might online vigilance as an

approach orientation (Reinecke et al., 2018), FOMO as an avoidance drive (Przybylski et al.,

2013), and MPN (e.g., Hall et al., 2014) predict phubbing behavior?

Phubbing has a negative impact on face-to-face encounters in particular and is common in many

social circumstances. Phubbing has been linked to higher levels of interpersonal conflict and

decreased relationship satisfaction, according to research by Roberts and David (2016).

Phubbing can interfere with peer connections and academic cooperation in university settings,

which can lead to social isolation and poor academic achievement (Adams et al., 2018).

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2.3 PERSONALITY TRAITS

The Latin term "persona," which means "face mask," is where the word "personality" first

appeared (Drace-Francis, 2019). It alludes to the equipment performers used to camouflage

themselves on stage, revealing to the audience the character of their role through various

ornamental elements and ultimately expanding to encompass the concept of personality. One of

the most difficult problems facing psychologists is defining the term "personality," as they are

unable to describe it in a way that makes sense for their subfield of psychology. The American

Psychological Association (2014) defines personality as a consistent set of an individual's

behavioural and experience traits. Although this definition is not infallible, it provides a solid

beginning point for our understanding of personality traits, theories, and applications. The

majority of personality characteristic sets are composed of opposites that coexist and are

dependent upon one another. First of all, personalities are distinct yet common (Shiraev, 2017).

Personality is a trait, just as each of us is unique. On the one hand, due to variations in innate

genetic makeup, each person is proud of their unique personality. It is completely impossible to

discover two people with exactly the same personality traits. Since the differences stem from

their respective positions within the womb as well as the amounts of nutrition and hormones

their mothers received during her pregnancy, even monozygotic twins cannot be exactly same

(Segal, 2012). However, different external environments also contribute to each person's unique

personality. But since each person's specificity is typical, it is this evident distinctiveness that

gives rise to typicality (Shiraev, 2017). Finding the vast majority's common ground is what it

means to be typical. Second, there are core and peripheral personality traits. While peripheral

personality traits are related to the core but typically more specific and pertinent to particular

situations, central personality traits are more universal in most persons, locations, and times

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(Shiraev, 2017). For example, cynicism might be considered a peripheral personality feature for

some people who generally distrust others, whereas pessimism can be considered a fundamental

feature since it refers to persistent attitudes and beliefs of undesirable consequences (ibid).

Studies indicate that a significant portion of central personality traits are influenced by biological

factors, whereas peripheral traits typically change independently of central personality traits and

can adapt to changing social contexts and lifestyles (McCrae & Costa, 1999; Shiraev, 2017). The

steady and changing nature of personality constitutes the third set of personality traits. Since both

stability and change are adaptive traits, personality is also expected to be changing at the same

time (Shiraev, 2017). As people adjust to their constantly shifting social and physical

environments, their personalities are evolving (ibid). Fourth, both nature and nurture have an

impact on personality. The nature-nurture debate, which focuses on how biological and social

factors affect human development, behavior, and experience, is a popular subject among social

scientists and psychologists (Shiraev, 2017). While some academics stress social elements more

than biological ones, others think biological factors are vital to human growth (ibid). Consider

the pseudobulbar affect syndrome, which is characterized by uncontrollably high or low

emotional expressions (e.g., crying and laughing), which is considered to be caused by natural

elements from a medical standpoint. However, the effects of these environmental factors on

patients' daily communication, social interactions, employment, and studies are significant.

Accordingly, over-anxiety and shyness are common traits developed by individuals with

pseudobulbar affect (Colamonico et al., 2012; Gordon, 2012).

Reactiveness and activity make up the final group of personality traits. Humans react to the

environment in which we live and adjust to a continuously changing world. According to Shiraev

(2017), this phenomena is explained as a scarcity mindset, which is a response to a lack of

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resources. It is important to respond to these circumstances since the experimental data suggest

that our personalities appear to be the "product" of both our inner and external environments.

However, psychologists vehemently oppose fatalism, which maintains that people are machines

or programs controlled by God, fate, or chance rather than being the masters of their own selves

(Shiraev, 2017). Every school of thought has competed for attention throughout the history of

psychological development. These schools are represented by traditions in behavioral learning,

characteristic learning, cognitive learning, and so forth. Numerous distinct personality theories

and applications are nourished by these philosophical systems. Since trait theory has been used

to measure participants' personality traits in order to investigate their relationship with cognitive

performance and consecutive interpretation, the current research mostly focuses on the trait

tradition. The goal of personality psychology's trait tradition is to recognize and quantify traits,

which are characterized as recognizable and recurring patterns of experience and behavior

(Shiraev, 2017). The psychology community has various acquiescent ideas regarding

characteristics that are acceptable. First off, characteristics are more constant and permanent than

"states" since they are more than simply a single emotional reaction (Steyer et al., 2015).

Second, characteristics would influence a person's entire being, including their emotions and

behaviors. Put another way, based on an individual's characteristics, we might make assumptions

about how they might respond, think, and feel in various situations (Shiraev, 2017). Third, most

of the time, qualities can be quantified as a dichotomy or as a point on a continuum, meaning that

each person can find their place somewhere along the trait spectrum (Shiraev, 2017). Numerous

psychologists have added to the characteristic tradition over the past few decades. Personality

trait measuring was first developed by American psychologist Gordon Allport (Shiraev, 2017).

He made a distinction between the ideas of personality and character. The former, character, was

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considered a moral category, whereas personality pertained to the objective self. Allport

categorized personality traits as cardinal, central, and secondary because it is impossible to fully

understand each personality attribute in just a few words. This endeavor made the suggestion

that, from a different angle, personality traits can be both central and peripheral. The most

prevalent characteristics, known as cardinal qualities, have the power to influence behavior and

determine mechanisms. Central qualities, which are thought of as the foundation of personality,

can be influenced by cardinal traits. Secondary features only become apparent on specific

situations and are less noticeable than the preceding two traits (Shiraev, 2017).

2.3.1 THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS FRAMEWORK

The Big Five personality traits have been extensively researched in a variety of cultural contexts,

including South Africa (McCrae & Costa, 2010). They offer a thorough framework for analyzing

individual variances. The Big Five personality qualities (conscientiousness, extraversion,

agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness) have been the subject of much research about their

associations with a wide range of activities, including the use of technology. Certain personality

features may make people more likely to engage in phubbing, according to research. For

example, increasing smartphone use and phubbing habits have been linked to high levels of

neuroticism and extraversion (Balta et al., 2020). These characteristics have a big impact on how

young folks use their phones and whether or not they phub.

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2.4 PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PHUBBING

2.4.1.1 OPENNESS AND PHUBBING

Being receptive to new experiences entails being imaginative, inquisitive, and enjoying the

unexpected. While some studies (Wang et al., 2017) contend that people with high openness may

phub because they are naturally curious about new knowledge, other research shows that these

people appreciate meaningful, in-depth connections, which may lessen their propensity to phub.

Openness did not significantly predict phubbing behavior, according to a Nigerian study by

Adeniran and Olanrewaju (2019). This suggests a complex relationship that needs more research.

Being receptive to new experiences includes being creative, inquisitive, and enjoying the

unexpected. This characteristic is greatly shaped by the diverse cultural environment and range

of socioeconomic experiences in South Africa. Nel and De Klerk (2017) discovered that

openness was better among South African university students who participated in a variety of

cultural events and academic subjects. This quality is linked to success in the arts and sciences as

well as flexibility in a variety of settings.

Being receptive to new experiences includes being creative, inquisitive, and enjoying the

unexpected. Studies show that university settings, which frequently promote intellectual inquiry

and exposure to a wide range of viewpoints, increase students' openness. Students with higher

degrees of openness are more likely to participate in creative activities and do well in subjects

that call for critical thinking and creativity, according to research by Chamorro-Premuzic and

Furnham (2010). Similarly, research by Mammadov (2021) shows that in university settings,

openness is favorably correlated with intellectual engagement and academic achievement.

Being receptive to new experiences includes being creative, inquisitive, and enjoying the

unexpected. Studies show that the degree of openness exhibited by Ghanaian emerging adults

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varies, depending on their educational background and cultural exposure. According to a 2011

study by Amponsah and Owusu, pupils who participated in a variety of academic and cultural

activities showed better levels of openness. Similarly, Adusei et al. (2016) found that among

Ghanaian university students, openness was positively connected with both academic

achievement and creativity. Creative, inquisitive, and drawn to the new, openness to experience

is molded by cultural and educational experiences. Ghanaian emerging adults who participate in

different cultural activities and higher education likely to score better on openness, according to

a 2011 study by Gyekye and Salminen. This characteristic is associated with academic success

and an openness to new ideas, both of which are essential for both professional and personal

development.

2.4.1.2 AGREEABLENESS AND PHUBBING

In general, agreeable people are cooperative, kind, and keen to sustain wholesome social ties.

Since those who score highly on agreeableness tend to be more understanding and mindful of

others' feelings, this has been linked to reduced levels of phubbing (Roberts et al., 2014).

Students that get along well with others are more likely to participate fully in in-person

conversations and use their smartphones less when in public. According to Olatunji and Olajide's

(2022) research in Nigeria, students who are pleasant tend to value in-person contacts over

phubbing because they are perceptive to their peers' social cues. Compelling qualities like

cooperation, generosity, and trust are examples of agreeableness. This characteristic is greatly

influenced by South Africa's communal lifestyle and emphasis on Ubuntu, a philosophy that

emphasizes kindness and support among one another. High agreeableness emerging adults in

South Africa are more likely to participate in prosocial activities including peer support and

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volunteering, according to research by Ebersohn and Eloff (2019). Strong family and community

ties, which are essential in South African society, are fostered by this quality.

Compelling qualities like cooperation, generosity, and trust are examples of agreeableness.

Students with high agreeableness scores contribute positively to university environments that

foster collaboration and teamwork. According to Graziano and Tobin's (2013) research, students

who are gregarious had a higher propensity to participate in group projects and assist others.

These actions can improve learning outcomes and foster a positive learning environment in the

classroom. Furthermore, agreeableness is linked to improved interpersonal relationships, which

are essential for maintaining mental health during the demanding college years (Lopes et al.,

2011).

Compelling qualities like cooperation, generosity, and trust are examples of agreeableness.

Agreeableness is highly valued in Ghanaian culture, which places a strong importance on

harmony and community. Anane (2018) discovered that prosocial actions and wholesome

relationships with family and peers were more common amongst pleasant emerging adults.

Additionally, this quality promoted productive teamwork and collaboration in educational

settings, fostering a positive learning atmosphere (Boakye & Twumasi, 2019). Compassionate,

cooperative, and trustworthy, agreeableness is influenced by cultural norms that emphasize

social harmony and communal existence. According to a 2016 study by Owusu and Agyemang,

emerging people from Ghana who score well on agreeableness are more likely to act prosocially

and sustain wholesome social connections. Strong family and community ties are vital in

Ghanaian culture, and this quality is necessary for fostering those relationships.

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2.4.1.3 EXTRAVERSION AND PHUBBING

High levels of energy, friendliness, and assertiveness are traits associated with extraversion.

Extraverts tend to be more active online, especially on social media, which can result in more

phubbing. According to studies, extraverts frequently forego in-person contacts in favor of

maintaining large social networks on their cellphones (Blachnio & Przepiorka, 2018). According

to Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas (2016), extraverts have a higher propensity for phubbing

because of their need for stimulation and social connection. Extraverts are people that are

gregarious and have a strong desire for stimulation. since of this, they are more prone to phub

since they tend to constantly seek out social engagement, usually through digital means.

According to Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas (2016), extraverts are more likely to phubb

because they use their smartphones to stay in touch with a wide range of people. Likewise, an

investigation conducted in Nigeria by Balogun et al. (2019) verified that extraverted students

have a higher propensity for phub during in-person encounters. Extraversion entails being

outgoing, self-assured, and passionate. This characteristic is fostered in the South African

environment by a collectivist society that prioritizes social connection and community

involvement. According to research by Moller and Fynn (2018), extraverted students in South

Africa tend to be more involved in social and community activities. This characteristic is

associated with the capacity for building large social networks and leadership, both of which are

essential for both professional and personal growth. Extraversion entails being outgoing, self-

assured, and passionate. Extraverted students are frequently more involved in extracurricular and

social activities at university, which can improve their entire experience there. According to a

2015 study by Asendorpf and Denissen, extraverted students typically report better levels of life

satisfaction, have larger social networks, and engage in more group activities.

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Extraversion entails being outgoing, self-assured, and passionate. Extraverted emerging adults in

Ghana are more likely to participate in extracurricular and social activities. According to

Agyapong et al. (2013), extraverted students were more likely to engage in community service

and student organizations, and they also had larger social networks. High extraversion, however,

can also provide difficulties because extraverted people occasionally find it difficult to focus for

extended periods of time on academic work (Mensah & Okyere, 2015). Social networks and

involvement in the community have an impact on extraversion, which is characterized by

gregariousness, assertiveness, and enthusiasm. According to research by Asante and Nketia

(2014), emerging people in Ghana who are involved in social and communal activities had

higher extraversion levels. Strong interpersonal bonds and leadership abilities are linked to this

attribute, both of which are highly regarded in Ghanaian culture.

2.4.1.4 NEUROTICISM AND PHUBBING

Negative feelings including anxiety, despair, and emotional instability are common in those with

high neuroticism. According to research by Balta et al. (2020), phubbing is more common

among neurotic people who use their smartphones as a coping mechanism for their unpleasant

feelings. While this behavior can temporarily divert attention, it can eventually exacerbate

feelings of anxiousness and loneliness. People with high neuroticism frequently feel bad and may

turn to their cellphones as a coping method. According to Balta et al. (2020), neurotic people use

phubbing as a coping mechanism for stress and anxiety, but it can also make them feel more

alone and depressed. Ekechukwu and Isiguzo (2021) noted that neurotic students in Nigeria tend

to use phub more as a means of managing their emotional states and escaping social discomfort.

Stress and emotional instability are traits of neuroticism, which is influenced by a range of

socioeconomic issues that South African emerging adults must deal with, including pressure to

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perform well in school and unemployment. According to a study by Pretorius and Rothmann

(2020), anxiety and depression are more common among South African students who exhibit

high levels of neuroticism. These results emphasize the necessity of interventions and mental

health care for young adults in order to help them learn resilience and manage stress. Emotional

instability and stress sensitivity are traits of neuroticism, which is frequently linked to poor

psychological and academic performance. Elevated neuroticism can result in stress, anxiety, and

depression, all of which have a negative impact on general wellbeing and academic achievement.

According to a study by Saklofske et al. (2012), academic burnout and mental health problems

are more common in students with high neuroticism scores. Thus, in order to provide appropriate

support services in universities, it is imperative to comprehend and address the effects of

neuroticism.

Negative outcomes are frequently linked to neuroticism, which is characterized by emotional

instability and susceptibility to stress. Research indicates that elevated levels of neuroticism

among emerging adults from Ghana are associated with heightened levels of anxiety, depression,

and academic burnout (Addai et al., 2015). Asare et al. (2020) emphasized that in order to assist

students in managing stress and enhancing their general well-being, colleges must provide

mental health support services. It is essential to comprehend the effects of neuroticism in order to

create interventions that support emotional resilience. Stressors connected to socioeconomic

difficulties and life transitions have an impact on neuroticism, which is linked to emotional

instability and bad feelings. Anane and Amoako (2018) discovered that scholastic constraints

and concerns about future employment frequently cause anxiety and stress among Ghanaian

emerging adults with high levels of neuroticism. According to the study, supportive interventions

are necessary to assist young adults develop resilience and manage stress.

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2.4.1.5 CONSCIENTIOUSNESS AND PHUBBING

Those that are conscientious are accountable, well-organized, and goal-oriented. Because

conscientious people emphasize their work and relationships with others, they tend to engage in

less phubbing. Chen and Yan (2016) discovered that responsible students are more likely to

control how they use their smartphones in order to stay focused on their social and academic

obligations and prevent distractions. Those that are conscientious are disciplined, accountable,

and well-organized. Research shows that people who are very conscientious tend to prioritize

their work and their relationships with others, which reduces their tendency to phubb (Chen &

Yan, 2016). According to Okoro and Nwosu (2020), diligent students in Nigeria are less likely to

phub because they control their smartphone use to cut down on distractions and keep their

attention on their studies. For one to succeed academically and professionally, one must possess

conscientiousness, which is defined by reliability, organization, and a strong sense of obligation.

Research by Botha and Venter (2015) highlights the fact that emerging people in South Africa

with high conscientiousness are more likely to succeed academically as well as set and meet

long-term objectives. Education systems and social norms that value hard effort and discipline

frequently foster this quality. Being conscientious is essential for academic success since it is

characterized by reliability, organization, and a strong sense of obligation. Better time

management, goal-setting, and study habits are typically displayed by conscientious students.

Poropat (2014) discovered a strong link between academic achievement and conscientiousness,

indicating that degree completion and higher marks are attained by conscientious students.

Furthermore, underscoring the significance of conscientiousness in the context of higher

education, Richardson et al. (2012) stress that conscientiousness predicts long-term academic

and professional success.

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Organization, reliability, and a strong sense of duty are traits of conscientiousness, which is

essential for both personal and academic development. According to Danso and Adomako

(2014), emerging people from Ghana who exhibit high conscientiousness are more likely to

succeed academically and have good time management abilities. This characteristic, which

emphasizes responsibility and diligence, is frequently fostered by the school system and family

expectations (Owusu & Appiah, 2017). It is impossible to overestimate the significance of

conscientiousness in predicting academic and professional success in Ghanaian emerging adults

(Agyemang et al., 2021). The qualities of conscientiousness—responsibility, goal-directed

behavior, and organization—are essential for success in school and the workplace. Ghanaian

emerging adults with high levels of conscientiousness are more likely to succeed academically

and advance in their careers, according to research by Ofori and Charlton (2012). The study

emphasizes how social norms and familial expectations support young Ghanaians' virtuous

behavior.

2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS AND PHUBBING

TENDENCIES

University students' social and intellectual lives can be profoundly impacted by puffing. Due to

split attention and poor social interactions—which are crucial for collaborative learning and

emotional support—it may result in lower academic achievement (Buchi et al., 2018).

Developing focused interventions to lessen the negative effects of phubbing can be facilitated by

an understanding of the personality features that make people more susceptible to it. The

formation of personality is significantly influenced by socioeconomic factors, such as social

resources, economic stability, and educational access. Higher levels of conscientiousness and

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lower levels of neuroticism are correlated with economic stability and access to high-quality

education, according to research by Van der Merwe and Viljoen (2021). These elements foster an

atmosphere that is favorable to one's own development.

The socioeconomic determinants of Ghanaian emerging adults' personality development include

access to resources, work prospects, and education. Higher levels of conscientiousness and lower

levels of neuroticism are associated with economic stability and access to high-quality education,

according to research by Darko and Adjei (2020). These elements offer a nurturing atmosphere

for individual development.

The diversity of South Africa's cultures greatly influences the characteristics of emerging adults'

personalities. The formation of a person's personality is greatly influenced by historical settings,

varied ethnic backgrounds, and traditional values (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2015). Openness,

agreeableness, and conscientiousness are influenced by the special blend that is created by

integrating Western education with indigenous cultural traditions. The cultural setting has a big

impact on how emerging adults in universities build their personalities. According to studies,

regional differences exist in the ways that cultural values, educational systems, and societal

expectations influence personality traits. Take Hofstede's idea of cultural dimensions, for

example (Hofstede, 2011). The cultural background of Ghanaian emerging individuals greatly

influences their personality features. Personality development is influenced by societal

conventions, educational procedures, and traditional values. According to research by Gyekye

and Addae (2013), Ghanaian society's collectivist beliefs encourage higher levels of

conscientiousness and agreeableness. Furthermore, the development of extraversion and

openness is impacted by the focus placed on familial and communal interactions.

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2.6 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY TRAITS

Notable gender disparities exist in the personality traits of emerging adults in South Africa.

According to a 2016 study by Matshikiza and Khoza, male students tend to score more on

extraversion, while female students tend to score better on agreeableness and conscientiousness.

These variations are a reflection of gender norms and cultural expectations that shape behavior

and personality development in South Africa. When considering emerging adults in university

settings, gender variations in personality traits are particularly significant. According to a meta-

analysis by Weisberg et al. (2011), men score more on extraversion and openness, whereas

women typically score higher on neuroticism and agreeableness. These variations may have an

impact on students' academic decisions, professional goals, and social interactions on campus.

Comprehending these gender-based disparities is essential to creating focused support and

intervention initiatives.

Notable are the gender variations in personality traits among emerging adults in Ghana.

According to a 2017 study by Anane and Adusei, male students showed higher levels of

extraversion and openness, while female students scored higher on agreeableness and

conscientiousness. These variations are a reflection of Ghanaian society norms about gender

roles and expectations. Comprehending these variations based on gender is crucial to

establishing academic and social settings that are supportive. Among emerging adults in Ghana,

gender variations in personality traits are also noteworthy. According to a 2017 study by Mensah

and Nkyi, men score more on extraversion, whereas female emerging adults tend to score better

on agreeableness and conscientiousness. These variations are a reflection of gender norms and

cultural expectations, which have an impact on young men and women's behavior and

personality development in Ghana.

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