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Fundamentals
and Recent Advances
in Nanocomposites
Based on Polymers and
Nanocellulose
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Fundamentals
and Recent Advances
in Nanocomposites
Based on Polymers
and Nanocellulose
Edited by
Md Rezaur Rahman
Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS),
Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
Elsevier
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Typeset by STRAIVE, India

To
Fahriah Rahman, Faizah Rahman, and Shirin Akther
My amazing daughters and wife, who are very special to me
and made it possible for me to complete this work.
Contents
Contributors .............................................................................................................xv
Preface .................................................................................................................. xvii
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................xix
CHAPTER 1 Sources of cellulose .............................................. 1

Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri, Md Rezaur Rahman,
and Faisal Islam Chowdhury
1.1 Introduction of cellulose ................................................................1
1.2 Functions of cellulose ....................................................................3
1.3 Sources of cellulose .......................................................................3
1.4 Potentiality of cellulose..................................................................4
1.4.1 Feedstock, foods, medicine, and reinforcement.................. 4
1.4.2 Textile .................................................................................. 9
1.5 Summary ......................................................................................10
Acknowledgment ......................................................................... 10
References.................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 2 Extraction, types, and classification
of cellulose ......................................................... 19
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri and
Md Rezaur Rahman
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................19
2.2 Extraction/isolation method of cellulose .....................................21
2.2.1 Cellulose extraction/isolation by using alkaline ............... 21
2.2.2 Cellulose extraction/isolation by using dilute acid........... 22
2.2.3 Cellulose extraction/isolation by using ultrasound ........... 23
2.2.4 Cellulose extraction/isolation by using enzyme ............... 24
2.3 Types and classification of cellulose ...........................................25
2.3.1 Hypromellose or HPMC.................................................. 25
2.3.2 Hydroxyethyl cellulose.................................................... 27
2.3.3 Hydroxypropyl cellulose ................................................. 28
2.3.4 Cellulose acetate phthalate .............................................. 28
2.3.5 Cellulose acetate .............................................................. 29
2.3.6 Cellulose triacetate .......................................................... 29
2.3.7 Cellulose nitrate (nitrocellulose) ..................................... 30
2.3.8 Carboxymethyl cellulose ................................................. 30
2.3.9 Ethyl cellulose ................................................................. 31
2.3.10 Methyl cellulose .............................................................. 31
vii
viii Contents
2.4 Commercial-grade cellulose ........................................................31

2.5 Summary ......................................................................................33
Acknowledgment ......................................................................... 33
References.................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER 3 Cellulose interunit linkages and model
compounds.......................................................... 41
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri and Md Rezaur Rahman
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................41
3.1.1 Cellulose and hemicellulose.............................................. 41
3.1.2 Lignin................................................................................. 42
3.2 Common linkages of cellulose.....................................................42
3.3 Model structure of cellulose ........................................................43
3.4 Model compounds of cellullose...................................................45
3.5 Summary ......................................................................................47
Acknowledgment ......................................................................... 48
References.................................................................................... 48
Further reading ............................................................................ 51
CHAPTER 4 Advanced techniques for characterizing
cellulose............................................................. 53
Nur-Azzah Afifah Binti Taib, Md Rezaur Rahman,
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri, and
Mohammed Mahbubul Matin
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................53
4.2 Structure of cellulose ...................................................................55
4.3 Molecular weight of cellulose .....................................................58
4.4 Chemical structure characterization techniques ..........................59
4.4.1 Cellulose crystallinity ........................................................ 59
4.4.2 Size and organization of the cellulose microfibrils .......... 63
4.5 Thermal properties of cellulose characterization techniques ......67
4.5.1 Thermal analysis (TA) technique...................................... 68
4.5.2 Thermal conductivity of planar materials’
measurement methods ....................................................... 70
4.6 Mechanical properties of cellulose characterization
techniques .....................................................................................72
4.6.1 Impact (toughness) testing................................................. 73
4.6.2 Tensile testing.................................................................... 75
4.6.3 Indentation hardness testing .............................................. 77
4.7 Summary ......................................................................................80
Acknowledgment ......................................................................... 80
References.................................................................................... 81
Contents ix
CHAPTER 5 Cellulose-based aerogels ..................................... 85

Perry Law Nyuk Khui, Md Rezaur Rahman,
and Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................85
5.2 Silica-based aerogel .....................................................................86
5.3 Cellulose-based aerogel ...............................................................88
5.4 Cellulose-based aerogel composite..............................................92
5.5 Applications of cellulose-based aerogels and composites ..........94
5.5.1 Fire retardant...................................................................... 94
5.5.2 Water treatment ................................................................. 95
5.5.3 Biomedical ......................................................................... 96
5.6 Summary ......................................................................................97
Acknowledgment ......................................................................... 97
References.................................................................................... 97
CHAPTER 6 Cellulose reinforcement in thermoplastic
composites........................................................ 103
Nur-Azzah Afifah Binti Taib, Md Rezaur Rahman,
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................103
6.1.1 Polypropylene (PP).......................................................... 104
6.1.2 Polyethylene (PE) ............................................................ 107
6.1.3 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)............................ 109
6.1.4 Polycarbonate (PC).......................................................... 110
6.2 Cellulose in thermoplastic composites and its blend ................111
6.2.1 Isolation or extraction methods of cellulose
nanomaterials ................................................................... 111
6.2.2 Processing technique of thermoplastic reinforced
with cellulose ................................................................... 114
6.2.3 Performance of thermoplastic with cellulose
reinforcement materials ................................................... 120
6.3 Summary ....................................................................................123
References.................................................................................. 124
CHAPTER 7 Cellulose reinforcement in thermoset
composites........................................................ 127
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri, Md Rezaur Rahman,
and Mohammed Mahbubul Matin
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................127
7.2 Phenol formaldehyde resins .......................................................128
x Contents
7.3 Cellulose-based polyurethanes...................................................130

7.4 Cellulose-modified epoxy resins................................................132
7.5 Miscellaneous .............................................................................134
7.5.1 Vulcanized rubber............................................................ 134
7.5.2 Polyimides ....................................................................... 135
7.5.3 Cyanate esters .................................................................. 136
7.5.4 Furan ................................................................................ 137
7.5.5 Vinyl ester........................................................................ 137
7.6 Summary ....................................................................................138
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 138
References.................................................................................. 138
CHAPTER 8 Cellulose reinforcement in bioplastic
composites........................................................ 143
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................143
8.2 Bioplastics for “green composites” ...........................................144
8.3 Cellulose as filler for “green composites”.................................145
8.4 Processing of cellulose reinforced green composites................148
8.4.1 Melt processing................................................................ 148
8.4.2 Solvent-based processing ................................................ 150
8.4.3 Electrospinning ................................................................ 151
8.5 Performance of cellulose reinforcing green composites ...........153
8.6 Summary ....................................................................................154
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 155
References.................................................................................. 155
CHAPTER 9 Cellulose-based composite carbon nanofibers ..... 159
Md Rezaur Rahman
9.1 Introduction to cellulose ............................................................159
9.1.1 An overview of cellulose-based composite carbon
nanofibers......................................................................... 159
9.1.2 Cellulose-based composite carbon nanofibers ................ 160
9.2 Fabrication of cellulose-based composite carbon nanofibers ...161
9.3 Properties of cellulose-based composite carbon nanofibers .....163
9.4 Applications of cellulose-based carbon nanofibers...................164
9.5 Conclusions ................................................................................165
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 165
References.................................................................................. 165
Contents xi
CHAPTER 10 Cellulose-reinforced rubber composites .............. 175

Md Rezaur Rahman, Perry Law Nyuk Khui,
10.1 An introduction to cellulose reinforced rubber composites......175
10.2 Solution blending of cellulose and rubber nanocomposites .....177
10.3 Melt blending of cellulose and rubber nanocomposites ...........177
10.3.1 Latex blending ............................................................... 179
10.4 Cellulose reinforced natural rubber nanocomposites................181
10.5 Summary ....................................................................................184
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 184
References.................................................................................. 185
CHAPTER 11 Cellulose-derived carbon fibers .......................... 189
Elammaran Jayamani, Md Rezaur Rahman,
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................190
11.2 Physical properties of carbon fiber materials............................191
11.3 Electrical properties of carbon fiber materials..........................191
11.4 Advantages of carbon fiber materials .......................................192
11.5 Disadvantages of conventional carbon fiber feedstock ............192
11.6 Solution for meeting the increasing demand of carbon
fiber composite ..........................................................................193
11.7 Lignin .........................................................................................194
11.8 Yield from carbon fiber feedstocks...........................................194
11.9 Processing ..................................................................................194
11.9.1 Extrusion/spinning ......................................................... 195
11.9.2 Oxidation/thermo-stabilization ...................................... 196
11.9.3 Carbonization and graphitization .................................. 197
11.9.4 Surface treatment........................................................... 198
11.9.5 Sizing ............................................................................. 198
11.10 Microwave-assisted plasma processing.....................................198
11.11 Pulp mill black liquor gasification ............................................198
11.12 Applications ...............................................................................199
11.12.1 2006 Corvette Z06 fender ........................................... 199
11.12.2 Advanced protective helmet for formula one ............. 200
11.12.3 Supercapacitors............................................................ 201
11.12.4 Thermal link ................................................................ 201
11.12.5 Compressed natural gas (CNG) storage tanks ............ 202
11.12.6 Gas diffusion layer (GDLL) for proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) ..................................... 202
11.13 Microstructure carbon fiber mats ..............................................203
xii Contents
11.13.1 Microstructure of a mixture of PAN &

CA with different ratio ................................................ 203
11.13.2 Microstructure of cellulose-based carbon fiber .......... 205
11.14 Summary ....................................................................................205
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 205
References.................................................................................. 205
CHAPTER 12 Cellulose-based foaming materials ..................... 207
Faisal Islam Chowdhury, Md Rezaur Rahman,
and Jahidul Islam
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................207
12.2 Cellulose-based polyurethane foams .........................................208
12.3 Nanocomposites .........................................................................211
12.4 Cellulose-phenolic foams ..........................................................214
12.5 Cellulose in starch foams ..........................................................224
12.6 Cellulose as a reinforcing agent ................................................230
12.7 Conclusion..................................................................................233
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 234
References.................................................................................. 234
CHAPTER 13 Utilization of nanocellulose as reinforcement
in biodegradable biomaterials ............................ 243
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri, Sinin Hamdan,
Khairuddin Sanaullah, and Faisal Islam Chowdhury
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................243
13.2 Nanocellulose types and properties ...........................................245
13.2.1 Esters and ethers cellulose derivates............................. 245
13.2.2 Esterification of cellulose ester ..................................... 247
13.2.3 Etherification of cellulose ether .................................... 248
13.2.4 Extraction of bacterial cellulose.................................... 249
13.3 Extraction processses .................................................................250
13.4 Biomaterials for biomedical application ...................................250
13.4.1 Bacterial nanocellulose.................................................. 254
13.4.2 Cellulosic hydrogels ...................................................... 254
13.5 Nanocellulose biocomposites ....................................................255
13.5.1 Biodegradable polymers as matrix material ................. 255
13.5.2 Nanocellulose as reinforcement material...................... 256
13.6 Summary ....................................................................................258
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 258
References.................................................................................. 258
Contents xiii
CHAPTER 14 Applications of cellulose materials and their

composites........................................................ 267
Md Rezaur Rahman
14.1 Introduction ................................................................................267
14.2 Processing of cellulose matrix composites ...............................268
14.3 Engineered parts from cellulose matrix composites .................269
14.3.1 Structural........................................................................ 269
14.3.2 Nanocomposites............................................................. 270
14.3.3 Water engineering.......................................................... 270
14.3.4 Paper making ................................................................. 270
14.4 Further applications ...................................................................271
14.5 Summary and future trends .......................................................277
Acknowledgment ....................................................................... 278
References.................................................................................. 278
Index ......................................................................................................................285
Contributors
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri
Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan, Sarawak,
Malaysia
Faisal Islam Chowdhury
Nanotechnology and Renewable Energy Research Laboratory (NRERL),
Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
Sinin Hamdan
Malaysia
Jahidul Islam
Nanotechnology and Renewable Energy Research Laboratory (NRERL),
Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
Elammaran Jayamani
Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of
Technology Sarawak Campus, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
Perry Law Nyuk Khui
Malaysia
Mohammed Mahbubul Matin
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Chittagong,
Chattogram, Bangladesh
Md Rezaur Rahman
Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan,
Sarawak, Malaysia
Khairuddin Sanaullah
Malaysia
Nur-Azzah Afifah Binti Taib
Malaysia
xv
Preface
Fundamentals and Recent Advances in Nanocomposites Based on Polymers and

Nanocellulose brings together the latest research in cellulose-based nanocomposites,
covering fundamentals, processing, properties, performance, applications, and the
state of the art.
The book begins by explaining the fundamentals of cellulose and cellulose-based
nanocomposites, including sources, extraction, types, classification, linkages, model
structure, model compounds, and characterization techniques. The second part of the
book covers the incorporation of cellulose fillers to improve the properties or char-
acteristics of nanocomposites, organized by composite category, including in aero-
gels, thermoplastic composites, thermoset composites, bioplastic composites, carbon
nanofibers, rubber composites, carbon fibers, and foaming materials. Throughout
these chapters, there is an emphasis on the latest innovations and application poten-
tial. Finally, applications are explored in more detail, notably focusing on the utili-
zation of nanocellulose in biodegradable composites for biomedical applications,
along with other important industrial application areas.
Md Rezaur Rahman
Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability, Faculty
of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan,
Sarawak, Malaysia
xvii
Acknowledgments
The editor thanks and acknowledges Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) for
their support and allowing use of their facilities. The editor also thanks Elsevier
for helping to make this project successful.
xix
CHAPTER
Sources of cellulose
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakria, Md Rezaur Rahmana, and Faisal Islam Chowdhuryb
1
a
Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia, bNanotechnology
and Renewable Energy Research Laboratory (NRERL), Department of Chemistry,
University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
Chapter outline
1.1 Introduction of cellulose ...................................................................................... 1
1.2 Functions of cellulose ......................................................................................... 3
1.3 Sources of cellulose ........................................................................................... 3
1.4 Potentiality of cellulose ....................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Feedstock, foods, medicine, and reinforcement ....................................4
1.4.2 Textile .............................................................................................. 9
1.5 Summary .......................................................................................................... 10
Acknowledgment ...................................................................................................... 10
References .............................................................................................................. 10
1.1 Introduction of cellulose

The most abundant constitutes and renewable polymer resource available today and
worldwide being used is cellulose (Klemm, Heublein, Fink, & Bohn, 2005; Klemm,
Schmauder, & Heinze, 2005). Taking the example of the cotton plant seed-hair,
through photosynthesis, around 1011 1012 tons’ of cellulose is estimated to be syn-
thesized annually, which generally combined with lignin and other polysaccharides,
i.e., hemicelluloses, etc., especially in the cell wall of the woody plants (Krassig,
1993). In centuries, many of these cellulose, such as cotton or flax has been used
in both construction and textile materials, mainly for intact wood (adhesion and
repairing of wood) and fabricate paper and board, respectively. For chemical conver-
sion, cellulose is a useful as other starting material for cellulose-based threads and
Fundamentals and Recent Advances in Nanocomposites Based on Polymers and Nanocellulose.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85771-0.00012-9
1
Copyright # 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 CHAPTER 1 Sources of cellulose
films as well as a variety of stable cellulose derivatives used in many areas of ind-
ustry and domestic life, which usually aims as an artificial production (Klemm,
Philipp, Heinze, Heinze, & Wagenknecht, 1998). Most of the empirical knowl-
edge on cellulose was acquired a thousand years ago, especially on the dying cellu-
lose fibers, burning wood, preparing charcoal, and biodegradation of cellulose by
rotting.
In the annals of polymers, cellulose occupies a unique place. In 1838, Payen
(Payen, 1838) recognized and coined “cellulose” as a definitive substance. For chem-
ical modifications, cellulose has been used as a precursor for many applications, even
before its polymeric nature was recognized. This pathway milestone contributed to
the discovery of cellulose nitrate, which commonly misnamed as nitrocellulose by
Schnbein in 1846. The preparation of Schweizer’s reagent, i.e., cuprammonium
hydroxide solution, representing the first cellulose solvent in 1857, and the synthesis
of an organo-soluble cellulose acetate by Schtzenberger in 1865 (Klemm et al., 1998;
Klemm, Heublein, et al., 2005; Klemm, Schmauder, & Heinze, 2005). The first offi-
cially polymeric materials used as a plastic and a softener was partially functiona-
lized as cellulose nitrate mixed with camphor, which is well known under the
trade name of “celluloid”. The higher nitrogen content of the cellulose nitrates is
used extensively for biomedical and military purposes in those days.
Regenerated cellulose filaments were obtained in a dissolved aqueous bath by
spinning cellulose in cuprammonium hydroxide (Woodings, 2016). Invented in
1892 by Cross and his teams, the largest part of cellulose-based artificial fibers called
viscose process have also been manufactured (Klemm et al., 1998; Klemm,
Heublein, et al., 2005; Klemm, Schmauder, & Heinze, 2005). Today, this process
is practiced worldwide with an output annually of about 3 million tons. It makes
use of the formation of cellulose xanthogenate/cellulose xanthate. In industrial appli-
cations, cellulose xanthate is water-soluble, less-stable anionic ester, which usually
prepared by the reaction of cellulose with aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH and
carbon disulfide, CS2, while in an acid bath, its decomposition by spinning. Certain
xanthate salts and bisxanthates, i.e., dixanthogen are used in many mineral proces-
sing as flotation agents. They are intermediates in the Chugaev elimination process,
which are used to control radical polymerization under the reversible addition-
fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) process. It was also known as macromolecular
design via interchange of xanthates (MADIX). In the 1920s to 1930s, the cellulose
chemistry origin was as a branch of polymer, and its research can be traced back to
Staudinger fundamental experiments of on the acetylation and deacetylation of cel-
lulose, whereas these experiments resulted in the concept of polymer-analogous
reactions (Klemm et al., 1998; Klemm, Heublein, et al., 2005; Klemm,
Schmauder, & Heinze, 2005). The macromolecules functional groups in cellulose
are predominantly hydroxyl groups, which undergo the same kind of reactions as
the corresponding low-molecular compounds. It also observed that the supramolec-
ular structure of the polymer would determine the rate and final degree of its con-
version, as well as the distribution of the functional groups, which has been well
recognized for cellulose.
1.3 Sources of cellulose 3
1.2 Functions of cellulose

Cellulose is a structure based form on protein, which usually found in algae and plant
that was crucial in supporting the main structure of the plant (Saxena & Brown Jr,
2001). Alongside with lignin and hemicellulose, it also connected the cells to form
tissues (Harris, Bulone, Ding, & DeBolt, 2010; Pauly & Keegstra, 2008; Sarkar,
Bosneaga, & Auer, 2009). In stems, plants, and wood, cellulose fibers are distributed
as a support structure in a lignin matrix, whereas the cellulose acts as a reinforced bar,
while lignin acts similarly to concrete structure (Pereira Oliveira Moreira, Simão,
Gouveia, & Strauss, 2020; Sorieul, Dickson, Hill, & Pearson, 2016). It is also func-
tioning to transfer information by signaling cells to grow and can move in divide
branches, while controlling the shape of plant cells and allowing cells to withstand
the turgor pressure of fluids inside them (Sorieul et al., 2016). However, most of the
time, cellulose functioning to support plant cell walls, whereas the cellulose fibers
are enmeshed in a polysaccharide matrix (Bousfield, Morin, Jacquet, & Richel,
2018; Holland, Ryden, Edwards, & Grundy, 2020; Xing et al., 2018). Cotton is
the purest natural form of cellulose that consisted over 90% cellulose (Bj€orquist,
Aronsson, Henriksson, & Persson, 2018; Haigler, Betancur, Stiff, & Tuttle, 2012;
Rajasundaram et al., 2014; Runavot et al., 2014; Wan & Cameron, 1942) While, cel-
lulose in wood consisted up to 40%–50% (Freudenberg, 1932; Harding, 1921;
Qiyuan, Shengling, Shi, & Liping, 2018; Shilin et al., 2014; Vishtal &
Kraslawski, 2011; Wang, Zhang, Xu, Xu, & Wu, 2014; Yao, Wu, Xing, Zhou, &
Pu, 2010). On the other hand, there are many species of bacteria that stashed cellulose
to produce biofilms (Ashley, 2018; Augimeri, Varley, & Strap, 2015; Gorgieva &
Trcek, 2019; R€ uhs, Storz, López Gómez, Haug, & Fischer, 2018; Serra, Richter,
& Hengge, 2013). The biofilms allow the bacteria to organize into colonies by pro-
viding an attachment on the surface for the microorganisms (Bogino, Oliva,
Sorroche, & Giordano, 2013; Mercedes & Ricardo, 2016; Petrova & Sauer,
2012). Animals cannot produce cellulose, even though cellulose is important to their
survival (Russell, Muck, & Weimer, 2009). However, some worms and insects, i.e.,
silkworm, grasshopper, spider, etc. use cellulose as a building material, hunting, and
food (Martin, 1983; Martin, 1991; Watanabe & Tokuda, 2010) [(Hirasaka, 1976; Ito,
1960)]. In some cases, most ruminants use symbiotic microorganisms to digest the
cellulose (Martin, 1983; Msimango & Fon, 2016). Humans on the other hand, cannot
digest cellulose, but it is the main source of insoluble dietary fiber, which affects
nutrient absorption and helps in defecation (Russell et al., 2009). Cellulose fiber were
used also used as cleaning products, such as the luffa sponges.
1.3 Sources of cellulose

Most of the cellulose sources are extracted and isolated from the plant and algae,
while very few were taken from insects and worms. However, there is still a lot
of misconception mentioned that cellulose can be extracted and isolated from live
animal and mineral sources directly. Whereas, the cell wall of animals does not con-
tain cellulose, but there are devoid of cell wall (Kost & Chua, 2002; Paulraj et al.,
2020). Natural fibers are classified according to their parts of origins, which are gen-
erally composed mainly of cellulose, i.e., seed, leaf, bast, etc. Most of these cellulose
are isolated and extracted to serve in the manufacture of paper and cloth. This fiber
can be further categorized into the following as shown in Table 1.1. The most used
cellulose obtained and used are collected from cotton, flax, hemp, sisal, jute, kenaf,
and bamboo (Rahman & Bakri, 2021; Rahman, Hamdan, & Ngaini, 2019).
Table 1.1 summaries the sources of cellulose for plants and algae.
1.4 Potentiality of cellulose

1.4.1 Feedstock, foods, medicine, and reinforcement
To produce ethanol and other chemicals, biomass shows promising potential due to its
renewable resources. One of the biomasses that show promising potential is cellulose,
which is low in cost and abundantly and easily available (Chovau, Degrauwe, &
Van Der Bruggen, 2013; Huang, Ramaswamy, Al-Dajani, Tschirner, & Cairncross,
2009). Taking example of sugarcane and corn, which are priced at $60.9/ton and
$185.9/ton, while respectively, sugarcane bagasse and corn stover priced at $36.38/
ton and $58.50/ton (Bonomi, Otavio, Cunha, & Lima, 2016; da Silva & Marques,
2017), which considered to be cheaper. There are many examples of sources of
cellulose can be extracted, from agricultural wastes (corn stover, wheat or rice straw),
sugarcane bagasse, wood (hardwood or softwood), grass, municipal waste, and
dedicated energy crops (miscanthus and switchgrass) (Kumar, Tabatabaei, Karimi,
& Horváth, 2016). Cellulose is one of the main components of lignocellulosic or fiber
that consists of glucose chains, which linked by β-1,4 linkages. These crystalline
microfibrils chains are highly recalcitrant to degradation (Hamad & Hu, 2010;
Pandey, 2008). The proportion of these cellulose substantially varied depending on
the type of biomass, locations, soils, weather, and harvest time (Bridgeman, Jones,
Shield, & Williams, 2008; Howard, Abotsi, van Rensburg, & Howard, 2003; Li,
Kim, Jiang, Kang, & Chang, 2009; Merino & Cherry, 2007; Rosales-Calderon,
Trajano, Posarac, & Duff, 2016; Van Dyk & Pletschke, 2012; Wang et al., 2016;
Cheng et al., 2014)
In contrast to the production of bioethanol from starch, cellulosic biomass is not
fully utilized as a main food source. In the past years, ethanol prices have fluctuated
in correlation with gasoline or corn grain prices, which shows the primary drivers of
ethanol prices (Rosales-Calderon & Arantes, 2019). Ethanol was traded based on
gasoline prices, whereas petroleum prices were increasing and corn grain was rela-
tively inexpensive. As ethanol began to devour a larger percentage of corn grain pro-
duction, its price increasingly stimulated in synchronization with the corn grain
prices. The correlation between corn grain and ethanol prices is anticipated to
decline, once substantial volumes are produced from cellulosic feedstock
Table 1.1 Summary contains sources of cellulose in plants and algae.
Estimated
percentage of
Category Description Examples cellulose (%) References
Plant Seed/fruit Cellulose extracted and collected from Cotton 85–94 Macmillan, Birke, Bedon,
and/ seeds, seed cases and/or fruits & Pettolino, 2013
or tree Gourd (Citrullus 65–75 Kouadri and Satha (2018)
colocynthis)
Kapok 40–65 Purnawati et al. (2018);
Draman et al. (2016)
Balsa 40–50 Purnawati et al. (2018)
White lead tree 20–30 Rashid et al. (2019)
(Leucaena
leucocephala)
Sunflower 40–60 Saura-Calixto et al. (1983)
Pumpkin 35–60
Peanut
Acorn
Coconut
Hazelnut
Chestnut 25–60
Palm/date 20–30 Nabili et al. (2016)
Leaf/stem Cellulose extracted and collected from Pineapple 50–70 Yan (2016)
leaves Sisal 60–70 Faruk and Ain (2013)
Abaca 50–75 Faruk and Ain (2013)
Agave 70–80 Faruk and Ain (2013)
Milkweed 70–80 Reddy and Yang (2009)
Aloe Vera 50–60 Cheng et al. (2014)
Mengkuang (Pandanus 30–40 Sheltami et al. (2012)
tectorius)
Pandan 46–94 Yahya et al. (2014)
(Pandanusamaryllifolius
Roxb.)
Banana 25–30 Reddy et al. (2015)
Sorghum 40–65 Reddy and Yang (2007)
Tea 15–20 Rahman et al. (2017)
Continued
Table 1.1 Summary contains sources of cellulose in plants and algae. Cont’d
Estimated
percentage of
Category Description Examples cellulose (%) References
Bast/skin/ Cellulose is extracted and collected from Jute 30–75 Duan et al. (2017); Ahmed
husk/ the skin, husk, baggase, and bast of their et al. (2003); Islam et al.
bagasse respective plants (2017)
Kenaf 60–80 Nishimura et al. (2002);
Sulaiman et al. (2016)
Hemp 20–50 Stevulova et al. (2014);
Gandolfi et al. (2013)
Ramie 65–80 Li et al. (2016)
Rattan 35–60 Zuraida et al. (2017)
Sugarcane 40–50 Sun et al. (2004)
Stalk/ Cellulose extracted and collected from the Rice straw 30–50 Shawky et al. (2011)
straw stalks and/or straw of the plants Barley straw 55–65 Fortunati et al. (2016)
Wheat straw 40–50 Peng and Sun (2010);
Mullen et al. (2015);
Kapoor et al. (2016)
Rye straw 35–50 Fang et al. (2000);
Masłowski et al. (2018)
Oat straw Masłowski et al. (2018)
Triticale straw Masłowski et al. (2018)
Corn stalk Daud et al. (2013)
Trunk/ Cellulose extracted and collected from Hardwood 70–75 Rowell et al. (2012)
wood/ trunk, root and/or wood Softwood 65–70
root
Algae/seaweeds Cellulose extracted and collected from Cladophora glomerata 40–50 Mihranyan (2011)
algae and/or seaweeds Chaetomorpha 0–15 Siddhanta et al. (2009)
antennina
Chamaedoris
auriculata
Dictyota dichotoma
Dictyota bartayresiana
Sargassum
tenerrimum
Gracilaria debilis
Gracilaria textorii
Gracilaria edulis
Gelidiella acerosa
Champia indica
Kappaphycus alvarezii
Sarconema
scinaioides
(Rosales-Calderon & Arantes, 2019). Therefore, cellulose can be further study in

order to be used in feedstock applications, as it shows many potentials.
In food sector, microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is among the most commonly
used cellulose derivatives in the food industry after carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC)
( John et al., 2017). Cellulose can be used in emulsion, suspension, and foam stabi-
lization, fat substitutes or replacers and bulking agent, wall materials for encapsula-
tion and reinforcement of edible films ( John et al., 2017). The crystals of cellulose
within micro or nano scale dimension (MCC/NCC) amphipathically able to stabilize
emulsions, as the presence free hydroxyl groups on surface material, which made it
acts as hydrophilic, while the crystalline portion would function as the hydrophobic
edge, giving overall amphiphilic character (Kalashnikova, Bizot, Cathala, & Capron,
2011). These stabilized particle emulsions are also called ‘Pickering’ emulsions
(Kalashnikova et al., 2011). The stabilization mechanism is based on particle size,
shape, and crystallinity of partial dual wettability (Capron & Cathala, 2013; Hu,
Ballinger, Pelton, & Cranston, 2015). Meanwhile, for the stabilization of particle-
stabilized emulsions, two major mechanisms are identified: (i) As the solid particles
can be irreversible (Tavernier, Wijaya, Van der Meeren, Dewettinck, & Patel, 2016),
especially to adsorbed at the interface, by creating a layer around the emulsion drop-
lets, while preventing their coalescence (Dickinson, 2013), and (ii) as particle stabi-
lization emulsion by the formation of two or three dimensional networks
(Winuprasith & Suphantharika, 2015; Xu, Zhang, Cao, Wang, & Xiao, 2016).
Cellulose are good potential candidates for interfacial stabilization, which was
mostly for food used due to their biodegradability, sustainability, nontoxicity, edible,
renewability, and excellent native physiochemical properties, which including the
high aspect ratio and its elastic modulus (Boluk, Lahiji, Zhao, & McDermott,
2011; Kalashnikova et al., 2011; Winuprasith & Suphantharika, 2015).
Kalashnikova et al. (2011) demonstrated that in the absence of a dispersing agent,
cellulose microcrystals could effectively stabilize the food by stacking the emulsions
by the “Pickering” mechanism of stabilization, only if the particles are dispersed
properly. Likewise, nano scale dimension of cellulose obtained from asparagus
through hydrolysis of sulfuric acid was used to form stable “Pickering” emulsions
in a palm oil/water (30/70, v/v) model solution for several weeks (Harding, 1921;
Freudenberg, 1932; Qiyuan et al., 2018; Shilin et al., 2014; Vishtal & Kraslawski,
2011; L. Wang et al., 2014; Yao et al., 2010). Colloidal MCC, created by 11%
MCC combined with 1% sodium carboxyl methyl cellulose (SCMC) has also been
used to stabilize oil in water emulsion, water in oil, and in water multiple emulsions
via a formation of a network around the emulsified oils ( Jia et al., 2014; Oza &
Frank, 1989). Cellulose such as MCC incorporated in the systems, functions to ori-
entate at the oil-water interface, by offering a mechanical barrier to oil droplet coa-
lescence (Dickinson, 2013), while other material in the system, acts mainly as a
dispersing and protective colloid for the MCC ( Jia et al., 2014). Cellulose, like col-
loidal MCC help thickens the continuous phase between the droplets and builds a
weak three-dimensional network, which anticipated to stabilize the emulsions
(Winuprasith & Suphantharika, 2015; Xu et al., 2016). However, the network’s
1.4 Potentiality of cellulose 9
strength formed by the cellulose would rest on its aspect ratio, which is invariably
defined by the particles shape and size that was formed. The high aspect ratio micro-
fibrillated cellulose reportedly formed strong entangled disordered networks in con-
trast to a low aspect ratio MCC, which created feebly by the bonded networks
(P€a€akk€
o et al., 2007; Saxena and Brown Jr, 2001).
Cellulose has also been used as replacer or substitute for fat in the food systems.
Cellulose is often dispersed into an aqueous medium and used to simulate fat in the
food system. To reduce the amount of fats in ground meat, frozen desserts, yogurt,
dairy, and baked products, a significant amount of work has been conducted and
ongoing research is needed to improve the existing methods. Cellulose insoluble
nature in water and as a fat replacement or substitution in food systems reportedly
produced excellent results, which shows it potentially to be used in food system
(Gibis, Schuh, & Weiss, 2015).
Viktor, Ana, Verica, Steva, and Branko (2011) have reported that the cellulose
and carbohydrate polymers can be used as wall materials for encapsulation, due
to its edibility, biodegradable, soft and form a barrier between the core and surround-
ings. While, De Barros, Lechner, Charalampopoulos, Khutoryanskiy, and Edwards
(2015) reported that the cellulose can also help for the survival of probiotic cells dur-
ing extrusion/spheroidization as well as excellent protection from gastric acid,
whereas its improved over time, as the fabricated MCC calcium crosslinked alginate
as the wall material. Furthermore, sphere disintegration efficiency and rapid release
of the probiotics in intestinal conditions could be also be achieved with the combi-
nation of MCC and sodium alginate.
The application of an edible film, particularly taken and process directly from the
fresh farm production is fundamentally constrained by the need to address diverse
properties, i.e., cost, availability, functionality, mechanical properties, attributes,
optical behavior, barrier effects against moisture and gases, and its resistance to
microbes (Falguera, Quintero, Jimenez, Muñoz, & Ibarz, 2011). Cellulose such as
MCC can be isolated from a variety of cellulosic sources and have been used to form
composite films with clear improvements in its optical, mechanical properties, and
thermal stability (Galus & Kadzi nska, 2015; Mihranyan, 2011; Pereda, Amica,
Rácz, & Marcovich, 2011; Suppakul, Jutakorn, & Bangchokedee, 2010).
1.4.2 Textile
To meet the rapidly growing demand for textile products and applications, cotton is
not the only answer towards sustainability. Therefore, cellulose from wood-based
fibers is another attractive alternative towards this sustainability issues, similarly,
goes to algae and weeds (Mihranyan, 2011). Even though wood is a highly potential
candidate to replace fossil materials, other sources need to be investigated, espe-
cially in current high demand of circular economy. Taking examples of high qual-
ity textiles made from lyocell fibers, it can be obtained from (i) pure cotton waste
pulp, and (ii) blending with conventional dissolving pulp (Mihranyan, 2011). The
staple fibers were repeatedly tested, and the results show the two of the studied
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The Southern Railway of Peru, leading up from Mollendo, is an
important line which will be referred to later. Back of the coastal
bluffs, which rise on irregular slopes 3000 feet or more, is a desert
plateau of especial interest, on account of the sand dunes 10-12 feet
high which move slowly over it.
Moquegua, a Province south, the last district held by Peru, has a
primary port, Ilo, from which a railway 62 miles long extends to its
capital, Moquegua. The soil of the Province is especially adapted to
grapes and olives, which with wine and oil are the chief exports.
Many varieties of minerals are known to exist here in quantity.
The Sierra Region
This, perhaps the best populated of the three sections, comprises

seven Departments, some of which run over or down into the
montaña, as most of the Coast Departments run up into the sierra.
Cajamarca, bordering on Ecuador, is the first Department at the
north, a rather long one, running south back of Piura, Lambayeque,
and part of Libertad, which last is also on the south, as in its
southern part it extends over the West Cordillera and beyond the
Marañon. Cajamarca has that river on the east separating it from
Amazonas. Communication with the outside world is poor, the best
by way of Pacasmayo. An extension of the railway from this port is
hoped for. The highlands favor cattle and sheep breeding; the
valleys produce cereals, coffee, and sugar. Of course there are
minerals.
Cajamarca, the capital, famed for the seizure and murder of
Atahuallpa by Pizarro and the slaughter or dispersion of his army, is
an important town and distributing centre, with many industries;
leather goods, mining, cotton and woolen cloth, etc.
Huánuco, the next Sierra Department, does not touch Cajamarca.
East of Ancash, it has Junín on the south, and Loreto east and north.
Traversed by the Central and the East Cordilleras, by the Marañon,
Huallaga, and Pachítea Rivers, it has the Ucayali as its eastern
boundary. At the northeast corner the Pachítea flows into the
Ucayali, both rivers being navigable. The central route from Lima to
Iquitos goes down the Pachítea. All kinds of riches are here, but
communication is too difficult to make them very valuable at the
moment. Quicksilver, coal, iron, and copper are found, gold and
silver as a matter of course, agricultural products of great variety.
Huánuco, the capital, with a good climate, is 68 miles from Cerro
de Pasco, on the Huallaga River. It is an important place with varied
industries including sugar mills.
Junín, south of Huánuco, a very large and rich Department, is
east of Ancash and Lima, has Huancavelica south, and Cuzco and
Loreto east. It has three important districts, better known than those
in the Departments farther north: the mountain knot and range at the
west, the plateau, and the montaña section running down to the
Ucayali River, which separates it from Loreto. Lake Junín, 36 miles
long and 7 wide, altitude 13,322 feet, is the second largest Andean
Lake. Near by, occurred the battle of August 6, 1824.
In Junín are the head waters of important rivers: in the northwest
corner the lakes which are the source of the Marañon, Santa Ana
and others; the Jauja or Mantaro flows south from Lake Junín,
uniting with the Apurimac later to form the Ené; the Perené, rising on
the montaña side of the mountain far down unites with the Ené to
form the Tambo, which soon joins the Urubamba then becoming the
Ucayali. The smaller Pichis and Palcazu unite to form the Pachítea
of the Department of Huánuco. Junín contains immense mineral
wealth; among other mines the famous ones of Cerro de Pasco;
large stocks of cattle and more sheep. Cereals, corn, potatoes, and
other vegetables and fruits grow in the valleys of the plateau, which
has an altitude of 13,000 to 14,000 feet, with a temperature of
22°-65°. In the tropical east are plantations of coca, coffee, cacao,
sugar, and fruit.
Cerro de Pasco, the capital, will be referred to later.
Huancavelica, a smaller Department directly south, touches Lima
on the west, has Ica west and south, and Ayacucho east. This is a
Sierra Department exclusively, all high mountains, plateau, a few
alpine lakes, but with several deep cañons in which flow the rivers, at
the north the Mantaro. Minerals are the chief wealth. Famous since
they were opened in 1566 are the quicksilver mines; but since they
were buried years ago by a cave-in not much quicksilver has been
extracted till a very recent resumption of activity.
Huancavelica, the capital, is an important mining centre though
reached with some difficulty from Huancayo or Ica. Here above
12,000 feet the production of wool might be expected; there are
cotton mills also.
Ayacucho, a peculiarly shaped Department twice the size of the
preceding, runs to a point on the north between the Mantaro and
Apurimac Rivers. It has Huancavelica and Ica on the west, Arequipa
on the south and southeast, and Apurimac and Cuzco east. This also
is mostly highland, with temperate zone agriculture, cattle and
sheep, and with varied mineral riches.
Ayacucho, the capital, is a considerable and important city, but a
long way to go from anywhere. Mining and other industries are
engaged in.
Apurimac, much smaller, has Ayacucho northwest and southwest,
a bit of Arequipa south, and Cuzco southeast and northeast. The
Department is highland, but lower than at the north, with great
grazing ground and forests, with fertile soil raising temperate and
sub-tropical products, and with the inevitable minerals.
Abancay, the capital, is most accessible from Cuzco or from the
port of Chala. It is a small city, of some interest.
Cuzco, the largest Sierra Department, with a little of Junín has
Ayacucho and Apurimac west, Arequipa south, Puno southeast and
east, with Madre de Dios, Loreto, and Brazil on the north. The
Apurimac River to which the Urubamba is nearly parallel, forms most
of its western boundary, both rivers flowing a little west of north. The
upper waters of the Purús, and Madre de Dios flow north, south, and
east. Stock raising is carried on and there are minerals, but
agriculture is the chief industry. Cuzco is famed for the excellence of
its cacao, also for its cocoa and coffee; it has large sugar plantations
as well. Though with mountainous highlands, it has much territory
lower.
Cuzco, the capital, world famed since its conquest by Pizarro, is
beautifully situated at the head of the side-valley of the Huatanay
River. Interesting from its historic associations, its massive ruins, and
its picturesque charm, it is also of commercial importance.
Puno, the last Department of the sierra, has Madre de Dios on the
north, Cuzco, Arequipa, and Moquegua west, Chile and Bolivia
south, and Bolivia east. The Department, mostly highland, includes
the western part of Lake Titicaca. It contains many minerals, and has
a large output of gold. The production of wool, including the alpaca
and vicuña, is highly important. Potatoes, barley, etc., are grown.
Puno, the capital, a centre of mineral and woolen activities, is the
head of Peruvian navigation on Lake Titicaca and a meeting place of
the two tribes or races, the Quichuas and the Aymarás, the latter,
residents of northern Bolivia. The town is an important centre of
traffic.
The Montaña Region
This region comprising nearly two thirds of Peru embraces the

eastern forest country, the eastern slopes of the East Cordillera and
at the north the lower slopes of the other ranges. The region has
much rain, many large navigable rivers, and dense tropical forests
rich in useful plants, fine hard woods, and rubber trees. It has some
settlements on the river banks and on higher lands, and in the
forests, Indians, some of whom are peaceable and friendly, others
who might have been so had they not been badly treated by whites
of various nationalities, others still who have never seen the white
man and do not wish to. Three of these Departments border on
Ecuador, the most western, Amazonas, with Cajamarca on the west,
La Libertad south, and San Martín east. The last Department, more
than twice the size of Amazonas, has Loreto on the east and south.
It is traversed by the Central Cordillera and by the Huallaga River,
navigable to the important port of Yurimaguas, but for steamers not
much farther. The immense Department Loreto, touching Huánuco
and Cuzco on the south, with Brazil on the east, is with Madre de
Dios naturally the least known and least populated portion of Peru. It
is traversed by the Ucayali, and by the Amazon both above and for
some distance below Iquitos, to which port ocean steamers regularly
ascend. Madre de Dios, east of Cuzco and north of Puno, has been
little explored. A few rubber and mining concessions have been
slightly worked. Its future will come with transportation.
CHAPTER XXII
PERU: PORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION
From the physical character of Peru, it is evident that inland

communication and traffic is of extraordinary difficulty. The countries
previously mentioned and most of those to follow have rivers by
which access to the interior may be gained. In Colombia the Pacific
coast barrier is not half so high, and another way is open from the
Caribbean. Venezuela presents several doorways, Ecuador also; but
in Peru, entrance by navigable rivers would be to journey over 2000
miles from Pará in Brazil at the mouth of the Amazon, then arriving
only at the back door, remote indeed from the busy civilized life at
the front. Some few do come in and go out that way, but not many.
Peru’s front is happily 1200-1300 miles long, but then a wall! and
in places not one only; back of that another and another; between
each two a deep, deep hollow; climbs, up and down, up and down,
to gain the fertile montaña; or, in the central section, where it might
seem easy going after having surmounted the high wall to the lofty
plateau, there are hills if not dales, with few level spots. Do not
imagine that a table-land is like a table! The country is rolling where
not mountainous; nor is that all. The various rivers that wind about
flowing now south now north, southeast and northwest, with
branches from any direction, these are not simple little rivers, a few
or many feet deep, which require merely an ordinary bridge; but
whether deep or shallow they are liable to be and generally are at
the bottom of a cañon 300 or 3000 feet deep, the top of which may
be a mile or two across. For a railway to descend to such depths and
climb up the other side, not once but the many times needful for a
road traversing the length of Peru is for a sparsely inhabited country,
governmentally poor, quite impossible. Hence the slowness of Peru’s
development despite its wonderful riches.
When some years ago the Pan American Railway from New York
to Buenos Aires was projected, investigation was made of
practicable routes by the United States Government. The way in
Ecuador is plain and in Colombia there is little choice; but in Peru the
question of highland, low coast, or far interior was to be solved. The
coast seemed less desirable as along here one could go by water.
Moreover, the Maritime Cordillera for a long distance is so near the
sea with so many spurs coming down to the coast, or as in Southern
Peru a bluff several hundred or thousand feet high with its feet in the
sea is so cut every little way by one of those 58 streams in a very
deep cañon, that it was not more inviting than the plateau region
above, where the road would be much more serviceable. Plateau
was the decision; but for the Great War, money might soon be
forthcoming; as it is, long delay is probable before the road is
completed. As for inland transportation therefore, it may be said that
it is carried on mainly by sea, which is no joke but stern reality;
accordingly coast service is well provided.
Coast Service
British, Chilian, Peruvian, formerly German, and now American

steamers sail along the coast, some express from Panamá, calling at
Callao and Mollendo only; others, express also, call at the other
primary ports, Paita, Etén, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Pisco, and Ilo; still
others, caletero, call at the 20 minor ports also. From many of these
ports, as we have seen, railways extend some distance into the
interior, generally as far as they can go without taking a stiff grade.
Beyond the termini and in some cases directly from the ports, freight
is carried by mules, burros, or llamas, though in but few places do
the latter come down to the sea, their use being confined chiefly to
the region of the sierra. In the old Inca days the fleet footed Indians
sped over the narrow trails, often carrying heavy burdens. Horses
were introduced by the Spaniards; riding is universal, as almost
everywhere it is the only means of travel, from the coast to the
mountain region and within that section; roads aside from bridle trails
are almost non existent. Even in the thickly settled and rich Huailas
Valley there was not a wheeled vehicle in 1908; there is no way by
which they could be carried in except in pieces. The iron horse,
however, within the last half century has begun to make its way.
Chief Port
Callao. Although Peru has other primary ports which should be

visited by commercial men, Callao and Lima are the chief centre of
commerce for the greater part of the country. Both cities are of
course provided with good electric car service, lights, and
telephones; they are connected by an electric and a steam railway,
the latter, a part of the Central Railway of Peru, which climbs to the
interior heights. The double track electric road on a broad boulevard,
the most popular connection between the two cities, makes the ride
in 28 minutes. The site of the port, Callao, population 35,000, was
chosen with discretion, as except for Chimbote it has the best harbor
below Panamá. It ranks in traffic as the fourth American port on the
entire Pacific, following Seattle, San Francisco, and Valparaiso.
Callao has been distinguished as the only port south of Panamá with
docks accessible to large ships, though, as the accommodations are
inadequate, passing coastal steamers usually anchor half a mile
away, employing lighters for cargo; recently, steam launches serve
passengers, heavy baggage going in row boats. A floating dry dock
receives ships of 8000 tons.
Railways to the Interior
The Central Railway. In spite of the enormous difficulties of

making a roadbed up a steep cañon or on the face of a bluff,
bridging torrents, and tunneling side buttresses and mountain
ranges, two railroads, both monuments of skill and perseverance,
climb from the coast to the plateau, the Central, and the Southern
Railways of Peru. The first, a standard gauge line from Callao begun
in 1870 by the American financier, Henry Meiggs, was in 1876
completed as far as Chicla, 88 miles. On account of troubles
resulting from the Chilian war, it did not reach Oroya, long the
terminus, till 1893. The road follows up the Rimac Valley, which,
however, is so steep and narrow that detours into side valleys are
necessary, as into the Verrugas, which is crossed by a bridge 225
feet high, one of 67 bridges on the journey. Many curves, tunnels,
and V’s are also needed to gain in 7¹⁄₂ hours, with no more than a 4
per cent grade, an elevation of 15,665 feet at a distance from the
sea in a straight line of less than 100 miles. Frequently the floor of
the cañon has room only for the rushing stream, and the road
passes high up on the slope or cliff, at one point, 575 feet, or through
one of the 57 tunnels. Some of the cliffs are more than one third of a
mile in perpendicular height. The road is considered in some
respects the most wonderful of the world’s railways. A branch 10
miles long from Ticlio to Morococha, reaching an altitude of 15,865
feet, a trifle above that of Mont Blanc, is absolutely the highest
railway in the world. At Ticlio, the highest point of the main line, is
entered the Galera tunnel, three quarters of a mile long, which cuts
through the continental divide. The road then descends to Oroya,
altitude 12,178 feet. In taking the trip for pleasure or business one
not absolutely sure of the soundness of his heart should have it
examined, or at least should stop over two days at Matucana, 7788
feet, where there is a fairly comfortable hotel. Any one is liable to
suffer somewhat from soroche, which may be avoided by the stop-
over. In general persons of good constitution, not too full blooded,
will be troubled only by a headache, perhaps accompanied by
nausea, and those who are careful to avoid rapid walking or over
exertion of any kind for a day or two after arrival above, and who do
not overeat before setting out on the journey or afterwards may
suffer no inconvenience whatever. No liquor of any kind should be
used except in collapse from heart failure. Ammonia is desirable in
case of headache.
From Oroya, terminus of the direct line, there are branches to the
north and south over the plateau. To reach the montaña interior,
which is more accessible here than from any other point in Peru, one
may go by automobile over another range a thousand feet above,
and beyond this, down, down, down into the montaña. Tarma at
10,000 feet has a delightful climate, and here are trees, perhaps the
first seen in Peru, growing as it were of their own accord. The
picturesque cañon below is lined with verdure, here and there are
entrances to side valleys. Tunnels and romantic swinging bridges
formerly lent variety to the ride. The new automobile road opens up a
rich and delightfully attractive country. La Merced, altitude 3000 feet,
is quite a little town with a pleasant summer climate.
A short distance farther is the Perené, a coffee plantation, at 2500
feet, belonging to the Peruvian Corporation. The estate of 5,000,000
acres is not half cultivated, though 1¹⁄₂ million coffee trees had been
planted in 1903. At this altitude the country is still in the foothills of
the Andes with steep slopes on every hand, a narrow way only
extending along the river bank. The Perené is a considerable stream
easily navigable, an affluent of the Tambo, which flows into the
Ucayali; but the stream goes south a long distance around, and
through a region inhabited by savage Indians. It is therefore not
used. The Chunchi Indians living close by are fine looking people
and friendly, sometimes working on the plantation. This plantation is
on the main and mail route from Lima to Iquitos, capital of Loreto, to
which with good luck a journey may be made in 15 days. Seven days
are spent between Oroya and Puerto Jessup, then one in canoe to
Puerto Bermudez, and 5 or 6 in steam launch to Iquitos, where a
steamer may be taken to Manaos, Pará, or New York.
A branch railway line, American owned, built by the Cerro de
Pasco Copper Company, extends north from Oroya to Cerro de
Pasco, about 90 miles over a hilly country, past Lake Junín. Along
the way many Quichua Indians are seen, the chief population of the
plateau region. Cerro de Pasco, the terminus of the road from Oroya,
is a town of 15,000 population at an altitude of 14,300 feet. A branch
railway leads to Goyllarisquisga, 26 miles, another to
Quishuarcancha, 11 miles, to their coal properties.
Another branch or a continuation of the Central Railway runs south
on the plateau in the valley of the Jauja River past a city of that
name, population 3000, altitude 11,050 feet, a resort for
consumptives for whom the coast is too damp. Seventy-eight miles
from Oroya at Huancayo, population 6000, the road halted some
years, but lately building has recommenced and the road is probably
open some miles farther. Construction is proceeding in the direction
of Ayacucho to continue from there to Cuzco. By the time this is
accomplished a long stretch of the Pan American Road will be
completed, probably from the Callejón de Huailas to Lake Titicaca,
but the crossing of three cañons, one 3000 feet deep, makes this an
expensive job.
The Southern Railway of Peru, also planned and partly
constructed by Henry Meiggs before he commenced the Central,
begins at the port of Mollendo; after a few miles along the beach it
climbs the high bluff on the side of projecting buttresses, winding
about till it reaches the edge of the desert plateau 3000 feet above.
Then it proceeds on the almost imperceptibly inclined desert,
presently along the edge of the Vitor Valley, 107 miles, to the
beautifully situated Arequipa, population 50,000, altitude 7550 feet.
The city is on the lower slope of El Misti, partly in the valley of the
Chili River which flows between Misti, 19,200 feet, and Chachani a
little higher. Arequipa has a fine cathedral, and cultured society, but
poor hotels. A good one, opened prematurely some years ago,
unfortunately failed; it would be a great success now. In the crater of
Misti are pure sulphur crystals, with some of which I once filled my
pocket; but other sources are more accessible. Much business is
transacted in the city, this being the centre of commerce for Southern
Peru, an immense district with many towns and mining centres on
and off the railroad. At least one night must be spent here on the way
up, and several days are desirable both for business and to become
proof against soroche. The city is the site of the machine shops for
the railway, which with 526 miles of track is the longest in the
Republic. From Vitor between Mollendo and Arequipa an automobile
road is to be constructed to the Majes Valley and Chuquibamba.
From Arequipa there are semi- or tri-weekly trains to Cuzco and
Puno. The road winds around the desert slopes of Chachani to the
higher land beyond. From the divide, 14,688 feet, the descent is
gradual to Puno on the shore of Lake Titicaca, 219 miles from
Arequipa.
At Juliaca, 30 miles before Puno, the line branches north towards
Cuzco, 210 miles, a journey of a day and a half. Sleeping cars run
from Arequipa. The highest point on the north division is 14,153 feet.
Cuzco itself is at an altitude of 11,445 feet. The place, almost
surrounded by hills, has a more genial climate than might be
expected at this altitude. The appearance of the country is very
different from that near Cerro de Pasco with more green and a
milder atmosphere. Cuzco is said once to have had a population of
400,000, instead of the present 30,000. Some progress has been
made since railway connection was established in 1908; a decent
hotel, the Pullman, has superseded the apologies for one then
available. The population is chiefly Indian, and many come in from
the surrounding country to the markets. The Department, a very rich
but undeveloped section, is on the border where Quichuas and
Aymarás mingle.
From the port of Puno, on the shore of Lake Titicaca, altitude
12,500 feet, there is, in connection with the railway, steamboat
service (an all night journey) to Guaqui, at the south end of the lake.
Here is railroad connection for La Paz, a three hours ride, all under
the management of the Peruvian Corporation, a British company
which controls also the Central Railway and most of the short lines
from the various ports; the Corporation has further among other
concessions one for the export of guano.
Proposed Railway Extension
It is evident that the railways of this great country which nowhere

touch the vast montaña region and which leave destitute most of the
towns of the sierra district, are totally inadequate for its development.
However delightful the climate or rich the country in agricultural or
mineral resources, few persons in the present age will settle in
regions remote from cities in time if not in distance, and where the
interchange of products is almost impossible for lack of means of
transportation. The leaders of the Government are well aware of this
fact and are doing their utmost to promote railway development, both
through their own initiative and by their willingness to grant favorable
terms and, to some extent, guaranteed concessions to foreign
capitalists. The importance of connecting the coast and sierra cities,
and these with the Amazon Basin and river transportation to the
Atlantic is perfectly apparent. The ideal is for three or four railways
serving different sections to extend from coast ports up over the
mountains down to the navigable waters of the Amazon affluents,
and that such roads should be connected by a north and south line
in the sierra country as a part of the great Pan American system long
ago planned. Branches would diverge from all of these lines, thus
opening up large mineral deposits for operation, and the rich
agricultural lands of the montaña for settlement and commerce.
For a long time several routes have been under discussion and
some concessions have been granted, which mismanagement or the
difficulty of getting capitalists to invest in so remote a field have
rendered abortive. Therefore there is still discussion; and
opportunities for construction are open.
Beginning at the north the first cross line proposed is that in the
Department Piura, continuing the road from the good port of Paita to
Puerto Molendez, Calantura, or Limón, on the Marañon River below
the Pongo de Manserriche. This plan has the great advantage of
crossing the Andes at its lowest point, 6600 feet. An important
consideration is that it would make practicable the export from Paita
of rubber which is now carried from Iquitos by way of the Amazon
and Pará; the far shorter journey by sea from Paita to New York,
easily made within ten days, would more than counterbalance the
rail freight from the river port 400 miles to Paita. It would surely be a
better route for business men and offers other advantages; among
these access to coal and iron mines en route.
Another transcontinental route proposed is from some point
connected with the Central Railway which has already surmounted
the divide. A route on which much money has been spent for
engineering investigation, surveys, and otherwise is from Cerro de
Pasco or Goyllarisquisga to Pucalpa or some other point on the
Ucayali. This central road for political reasons seems extremely
desirable. It would open up the fine grazing lands of the Pampa
Sacramento, and rich alluvial gold deposits in or on several streams,
as well as the forest and rubber country. Another suggestion is to
continue the road directly east from Oroya down to the Perené River
and to Puerto Wertheman; a better may be to build 175 miles from
Matahuasi, a station on the Oroya-Huancayo Railway, to Jesus
Marie on the Ené River near the mouth of the Pangoa, where 12 feet
of water would permit of commerce by large steamers by way of the
Tambo and Ucayali.
One important cross route would naturally be by the Southern
Railway, from a point on the Cuzco branch, Tirapata, Urcos, or
Cuzco, the earlier plans looking to a connection with the Madre de
Dios River. But as this route would necessitate a long roundabout
journey, as well as a passage through Bolivia and freightage on the
Madeira-Mamoré Railway, the Government has recently undertaken
for itself a line from Cuzco to Santa Ana on the Urubamba, by which
the journey is greatly shortened and will be wholly within the
Republic as far as Brazil, following down the Urubamba and Ucayali
to the Amazon and Iquitos. The drawback to this route is that only
very light draught steamers can come up to Santa Ana at any
season of the year.
Lines quoted as under construction by the Peruvian Government
in 1919 are that from Chimbote up the Huailas Valley to Recuay,
already referred to, which when completed will be immediately
profitable, the continuation of the road from Huancayo to Cuzco, now
open 30 miles from the former city; and the Cuzco to Santa Ana just
mentioned. A short line recently opened from Lima to Lurín, crossing
the Pachacamac River, brings two fertile valleys with their fruit and
vegetables into close connection with the capital. Lurín is but 16
miles from the suburb Chorillos, which for some years has had
railway service. The ancient pre-Inca ruins at Pachacamac are now
easily accessible.
The Longitudinal or Pan American Railway, crossing all the others,
would come in at the north from Cuenca and Loja in Ecuador,
continuing to Huancabamba, Jaen, and Cajamarca in that
Department, thence down the valley to the Santa River, there joining
the railway to Recuay, which will be prolonged to Goyllarisquisga. By
this time the connection will be complete to Cuzco, and so to La Paz,
La Quiaca, and Buenos Aires.
CHAPTER XXIII
PERU: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES
Agriculture
While for centuries Peru has been celebrated as a land of

marvelous mineral riches, especially of gold and silver, nevertheless,
in spite of her desert shore, her bleak table-land, and her
undeveloped montaña, like California, her chief wealth is in her
agriculture. What the figures say about the exports is easily
ascertainable; but though corroborating this statement they do not
tell all the story, since most of the mineral production is exported,
while the greater part of the agricultural stays at home. Of the latter,
sugar is the leading product.
Sugar grows along the coast and, where opportunity offers, up to
a height of 4500 feet; in the montaña to a height of 6000 feet. At
present most of it is raised near the coast. The Chicama Valley,
famed for its splendid estates, produces more sugar than the entire
Island of Porto Rico, and this of the finest quality. In the temperate,
equable climate, the cane matures early and may be cut all the year
around. It is unusually rich in sucrose. Some estates are 15-20 miles
square, producing 15,000-30,000 tons each; 50-60 tons of cane to
the acre is quite usual. The cane is cut and ground from 18 to 24
months after planting, and being cut throughout the year instead of
during four or five months only, the same amount of work may be
done with far less machinery and fewer laborers. In places a two
months suspension is made, when the river is full, to attend to
irrigation and to clean or repair machinery, etc.
The cane has more than 14 per cent sucrose, often 16 or 17 per
cent. The returns have nowhere been surpassed; the production to
the acre is double that of Cuba, where the average is 23-24 tons, in
Peru 45-50 tons. At Cartavio, an estate of 29,000 acres in the
Chicama Valley, they once cut 79.8 long tons of cane per acre from a
field of 85 acres. This had 15.24 per cent sucrose and gave 12 tons
of sugar an acre, a probable record. The grinding capacity is 1000
metric tons in 23 hours. In 1917 they ground 240,000 tons making
34,000 tons of sugar, mostly white granulated. The Casa Grande in
the same valley, said to be the largest estate in the world, has a
population of 11,000. Churches, schools, hospitals, and “movies” are
provided for the work people, and the luxuries of modern life for
owners and superintendents. In the montaña sugar cane is said to
grow to a height of 30 feet and once planted to persist for a century.
One writer speaks of two or three crops from one planting, but nine
years without replanting is not unusual on the coast.
In the year 1915-16, 100,000 tons were exported from Salaverry,
more the year following; half as much from the smaller port of
Huanchaco near by. Production in Peru reached 400,000 tons in
1918. The plantation Tambo Real, on the Santa River near
Chimbote, was recently sold for $1,750,000. Just back of the port is
plenty of good sugar land, now desert but easily irrigable. As the
nitrates have never been washed out of the land by rain, the soil is of
extraordinary fertility; with irrigation the cane receives the precise
amount of water required and at the right season. Back of Samanco
are two large sugar estates, one belonging to the British Sugar
Company, which has a larger at Cañete in the south, producing long
ago 30,000 tons a year. One estate had years ago 22 miles of
tramway which was to be increased. In some places small farmers
owning or renting land sell their cane to sugar mills. Most of the
estates have the best of machinery. In 1911 $100,000 worth of sugar
machinery was imported into one Department, Lambayeque. Labor
is cheaper than in Cuba, formerly 60 cents a day, but with housing
and other perquisites. Much sugar has been exported to Chile;
recently to Europe and the United States. Some years ago sugar
could be sold at a port at a profit for 1.5 cents a pound, more
recently at 2.5 cents. There is still a field for investment in desert
land, suitable for those with sufficient capital to arrange for irrigation.
About 600,000 acres are now devoted to sugar.
Cotton. Native to the country is cotton, and Peru has its own
special variety, Gossypium Peruvianum. It is so soft and fine that it is
called vegetable wool, and it is much used for weaving underwear,
stockings, etc., with wool, which it even improves, as the cloth is less
liable to shrinkage than all wool. This variety grows to a height of 10-
16 feet, giving a first small crop in eight months, but not reaching its
best until the sixth year. It holds out well through drought, requiring
but one irrigation yearly. The trees are planted 15 feet apart, the
interspace being occupied with vegetables and corn. No ploughing is
necessary and two crops a year are obtained. With the names full
rough and moderate rough it is mixed with wool for textile
manufacture. Piura is its special habitat, but it grows well in Ica at the
south.
The Egyptian, the Sea Island, or the ordinary American are
preferred by some growers on account of their earlier development.
The Egyptian is cultivated in Ica from the shore to 60 miles inland,
also in Lima; the Sea Island and the Peruvian Mitafifi, similar to the
Egyptian, near Huacho and Supe; the smooth cotton from ordinary
American seed anywhere. The Egyptian, also called Upland, grows
to about four feet, yielding two or three years, beginning six months
after sowing. It needs several waterings, but has an advantage in
being free from weevil blight. This and the ordinary American are the
most popular varieties. Peru is twelfth among world producers,
needing only more irrigated land for greatly increased production.
There is water enough but labor and capital have been wanting. All
conditions are favorable as in Egypt. The length of the various cotton
fibres is given as: Sea Island, 1.61 inches; Egyptian, 1.41; Peruvian,
1.30; Brazilian, 1.17; American upland, 1.02; Indian, 0.8.
Coffee. An important product is coffee, the best said to be grown
in the sierra region; but the finest I ever drank was raised on a small
plantation back of Samanco, where it was roasted, ground, and
made within the hour, of course pulverized and dripped as
universally in South America. In the deep valleys at the east also,
excellent coffee is grown: in Puno, in the Chanchamayo and the
Perené valleys, called the montaña by the sierra people, in Huánuco
farther north, in the Paucartambo valley of Cuzco south, as well as in
the Pacasmayo and other coast sections. Five hundred plants are
set to the acre, 800 in the Perené, which produce each 2 pounds
annually. Even with a low price for coffee its production is profitable
there, in spite of the one time $60 a ton freight rate to Callao; large
profits are made at good prices. After supplying home consumption
there is a considerable export.
Cacao. The production of cacao, which grows wild in the montaña,
should be greatly increased. The Department of Cuzco produces a
particularly fine article with exquisite taste and aroma, which brings a
higher price than that of Brazil or Ecuador, though little known
outside of the country. In the Perené Valley a plantation of 200,000
trees has been set out. Vast tracts in the Departments of Amazonas
and San Martín and in the Province of Jaen are also suited to its
growth.
Coca. The culture of coca is important, but more limited as to
future development since its medicinal use should not be greatly
increased and its general use not at all. The plant is a shrub, usually
six feet high, cultivated in the districts of Otuzco (the most important)
and Huamachuco (Libertad), Huanta (Ayacucho), Cuzco, and
Huánuco. It grows best in valleys of 3000 to 7000 feet altitude,
where the temperature varies from 60° to 85°, in clayey but not
marshy ground, with iron but no salt. It needs frequent rains and
humidity. Three or four crops may be picked annually, the first in 18
months; the yield continues 40 years. Care is needed in picking the
leaves and in drying. A great quantity is consumed by the Indians,
and some is exported to Europe and the United States, both as dried
leaves for making wines, tonics, etc., and for the extraction of
alkaloid; also as cocaine for the making of which over 20 small
factories exist in Peru. Chewing coca leaves is of great service on
the plateau for necessary and unusual exertion, but injurious and
stupefying when its use is continuous.
Rice is grown in the north in Lambayeque and in the Pacasmayo
Valley of Libertad. With one flooding and little ploughing the crops
are produced annually, 46,000 tons in 1917. A little is exported but
more is imported. The two varieties grown are Carolina and Jamaica.
The straw is not utilized.
Fruits of various kinds may be grown in all the coast valleys, but
south of Lima the culture, especially of grapes, is more advanced.
Even in poor years it is said that the grape crop is superior to the
European average; but too little attention has been paid to improving
and extending the industry. The vineyards are small and combined
with the other interests of a hacienda. The grapes are grown on
stocks about eight feet apart, supported first by canes, later by
trellises on adobe columns. Nine hundred gallons of wine an acre is
an average yield. Italia and Abilla are cultivated for white wines,
Quebranta, Moscatel, and others for red; the former of these two
being most prolific and generally grown. A pink Italia is a fine table
fruit. Wines cheap and good are manufactured to the amount of
2,200,000 gallons yearly, and 770,000 gallons of pisco, made from
white grapes, also quantities of alcohol. The sugar of the montaña is
used to make aguardiente or rum; in several coast districts a finer
quality is made from grapes and is probably what in some sections is
called pisco.
Peru is rich in the variety of fruit possibilities, but grapes and olives
are the only ones cultivated in a large way, with a view to commercial
profit. Olives grown in the south from imported trees are said to excel
those of Spain or California. About 70,000 pounds are exported. The
yield of oil is about 30 per cent; not enough is made for home
consumption. Large possibilities exist in this direction. Other fruits
grown are of course oranges, bananas, melons, pomegranates,
paltas, or aguacates, or as we call them, alligator pears, fine as
properly eaten, the half fruit with salad dressing inside; chirimoias,
when in perfection nothing better; strawberries nearly all the year
around at Lima, more like the wild fruit with delicate flavor; prickly
pears, peanuts, pears, cherries, etc.
Vegetables in great variety are raised, some like ours, others
never before met with. Potatoes in many varieties grow up to an
altitude of 13,000 feet or more. The wild bitter tuber from which the
varieties were probably developed still grows wild. Enock says the
yellow potato (not sweet) is unrivalled for excellence, but I saw none
superior to the best of our white. Other tubers cultivated are the yam
(three crops a year), manioc, and others.
Maize. The best maize in the world, says Vivian, is grown in Peru;
but I am sure that he never ate any sweet corn in Rhode Island.
Grown in all parts of the country up to 11,500 feet, it is native, like
potatoes and cotton, and is one of the main stays of the country.
Maize and potatoes are the chief foods of the Indians. Parched corn
is much eaten on the plateau; it is most useful where bread is not to
be had, and often is to be preferred. Toasted maize is called cancha.
Three, sometimes four, crops are had annually. Food for man and
beast, the stalks used for fodder, it is all consumed in the country.
That grown near Cuzco is said to be of the finest quality, with grains
the size of large beans, a very thin pellicle, and very farinaceous.
One district in Lima produces 10,000 tons a year.
Cereals are raised, wheat, barley, and oats, from 5000 to 11,500
feet. Wheat formerly grown on the coast is now seen on the uplands,
but large importations of wheat and flour are made. Barley grows to
a greater height, 12,000 feet or more and is much used for animal
fodder, for mules and horses, taking the place of oats, which are not
much cultivated. Alfalfa, much better for fodder than barley, is largely
used, growing in sheltered places up to 12,000 feet, about the same
as maize. A specialty of Peru and Bolivia is quinua, which is very
prolific and grows freely in poor soil from 9000 up to 13,500 feet. It
would be well if it were widely cultivated in other countries. Suitable
conditions could be found in many places not necessarily at such
altitudes. For many purposes it seems preferable to corn meal. It
may be eaten raw with sugar or water or cooked as mush; it is called
a tonic for soroche. The grains are round, about the size of mustard
seed.
Tobacco is raised to a small extent, especially in Tumbes and
adjoining districts. It is called of superior quality, and is preferred by
some Peruvians to the imported, but it is too strong and coarse for
many; the upper class Peruvians generally prefer Havanas. Perhaps
1000 tons are produced, some of which is exported to Bolivia, Chile,
and Brazil. The Government has a monopoly of its sale, regulating
price and profits of native and imported both, and owning the
cigarette factories.
Ramie grass and haricot beans produce each four crops a year,
flax and hemp, two crops; the castor oil plant is cultivated, and at the
south the mulberry with the silk-worm.

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