CEC 106 L. Note 2022-1

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
Prepared By:
CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 0

THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC, MUBI
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS (CEC 106) LECTURE NOTES
INTRODUCTION:
Strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials is a subject which deals with the
behavior of solid objects subjected to stresses and strains. The complete theory began with
the consideration of the behavior of one- or two-dimensional members of structure, whose
state of stresses can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then generalized to three
dimensions to develop a more complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of materials.
An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen Timoshenko.
The study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the
stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns and shafts. The methods
employed to predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various
failure modes, take place into account the properties of the materials, such as its yield
strength, ultimate strength, Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
1.0 RELATIONS BETWEEN STRESSES AND STRAINS
Whenever a body is subjected to the application of external forces or loads of any type,
the fibres or particles of which the body is made up transmit the forces or loads throughout
the lengths and sections of the body. The external forces applied to the body have the
tendency to deform the body, and hence the body develops an internal resistance in its
particles or fibres against the deforming forces. This resistance per unit area of the body to
deformation is known as “STRESS”. Mathematically, stress can be defined as “Force per unit
area”, i.e.
………………………………………………… (1), Where,
σ = Intensity of the force (stress);

P = Load or force acting on the body; and
A = Cross sectional area of the body.
However, whenever a single force (or systems of forces or loads) acts on a body, it undergoes
deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as “STRAIN”. Mathematically, strain
may be defined as the “deformation per unit length”, i.e. …………….…………. (2),

where,
ℓ = Strain,
L = Change in length of the body (deformation) and
L = Original length of the body.
1.1 TYPES OF STRESSES:
There are basically four (4) types of stresses. These include:

(i) Tensile stress;
(ii) Compressive stress;
(iii) Shear or tangential stress and
(iv) Bending stress.
Tensile and compressive stresses are usually referred to as a “Normal stress” being that they
are normal to the stressed surface under consideration and the most important from the
subject point of view.
1.1.1 TENSILE STRESS:
When a straight bar of uniform cross sectional area “A” is subjected to two equal and opposite
collinear forces, coinciding with the axis of the bar, such that the forces or loads are directed
away from the bar (as shown in figure 1a below) as a result of which the bar tends to lengthen,
the stress induced is called a “TENSILE STRESS”.
P A P
Figure 1a: Tensile stress
1.1.2 COMPRESSIVE STRESS

When a straight bar of uniform cross sectional area “A” is subjected to two equal and opposite
collinear forces, coinciding with the axis of the bar, such that the forces or loads are directed
towards the bar (as shown in figure 1b below) as a result of which the bar tends to shorten,
the stress induced is called a “COMPRESSIVE STRESS”.
P A P
Figure 1(b): Compressive stress

1.2 TYPES OF STRAINS:
Since strain is the direct outcome of stress, it is therefore classified as ‘Tensile’ and
‘Compressive’ strains.
1.2.1 TENSILE STRAINS:

When a body is subjected to tensile stress, the induced strain is called “TENSILE STRAIN”.
Tensile strains are taken as positive due to the increase in length of the body. Mathematically,
 ℓT = = ………………………..………………….. (3) where,
T = Tensile strain; = Change in length

Ln = New length L = Original length.
1.2.2 COMPRESSIVE STRAINS:

When a body is subjected to compressive stress, the induced strain is called “COMPRESSIVE
STRAIN”. Compressive strains are taken as negative due to the decrease in length of the body.
Mathematically,
 C = = ………………………………………...…... (4) where,
C = Compressive strain; = Change in length

Ln = New length L = Original length.
1.3 STRESS-STRAIN CURVES:

The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular material displays is known as
that particular material’s “STRESS-STRAIN CURVE”. It is unique for each material and is found
by recording the amount of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile and
compressive loading (stress). The curves reveal many of the material (including data to
establish the modulus of elasticity, E).
Stress – strain curves of various materials vary widely, and different tensile tests
conducted on the same material yield different results, depending upon the temperature of
the specimen and the speed of the loading. It is possible however to distinguish some common
characteristics among the stress – strain curves of various groups of materials, and on this
basis to divide materials into two broad categories, namely the ductile materials and the
brittle materials.

1.3.1 STRESS – STRAIN CURVES FOR DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS:
1.3.1.1 DUCTILE MATERIALS:

Ductile materials, which include structural steel and many alloys of other materials, are
characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperature. Low carbon steel generally
exhibits a very linear stress–strain relationship up to a well-defined yield point. The linear
portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s
Modulus, “E”. After the yield point, the curve typically decreases slightly because of
dislocations. As deformations continue, the stress increases on account of strain hardening
until it reaches the ultimate tensile stress.
σ u P = Limit of proportionality
e y e = Elastic limit
F y = Yield point
P u = Ultimate Strength
Stress
F = Failure or breaking point.
Figure 2(a): Stress-strain curve for

ductile materials.
0 Strain ℓ
1.3.1.2 BRITTLE MATERIALS:

Brittle materials, which include cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by the fact that
rupture occurs without significant deformation. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show
any plastic deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a
brittle material failed is that the two broken parts cannot be reassembled to produce the same
shape as the original component, as there will be no neck formation like in the case of ductile
materials. A typical stress-strain curve for this material will be linear. For some materials such
as concrete, tensile strength is negligible compared to the compressive strength, and it is
assumed zero for many engineering applications.
σ
1 1. Ultimate Strength
2 4 2. Yield strength
3 3. Limit of proportionality
4. Fracture
Stress
5. Offset strain (usually 0.2%)
Figure 2(b): Stress-strain curve for

0 5 Strain ℓ Brittle materials.

SOME COMMON DEFINITIONS
1. Limit of Proportionality: Is the limit at the stress-strain curve start behaving in a non-
linear way. It is the point on the graph where extension is no longer proportional to the
applied force. Just beyond this point, the material can behave in a non-linear elastic
manner until the elastic limit is reached.
2. Elastic Limit: Is the maximum stress (force per unit area) within a solid material that can
arise before the unset of permanent deformation. When stress up to the elastic limit is
removed, the material resumes to its original size and shape. Stress beyond the elastic
limit will cause the material to yield or flow. For such material, the elastic limit makes
the end of elastic behavior and beginning of the plastic behavior of the material.
3. Yield Point: Is the amount of stress at which an elastic material ceases to behave
elastic. It is the point on a stress-strain curve just after the limit of proportionality.
4. Elastic Range: In a stress-strain curve, the early stage of the curve rises steeply in a
straight line. This is the linear elastic range. Linear simply means that the stress is
proportional to strain. Elastic means that the extension is reversible, i.e. the material
will go back to its original position if the load is removed. Beyond this level, the material
starts to stretch significantly under more or less constant load. This is the plastic range.
5. Hooke’s Law: Hooke’s law states that, “For a material subjected to tensile or
compressive stress, within its elastic limit, the stress is proportional to strain”.
Mathematically, this is express as “stress α strain”.
Or = A constant. This constant proportionality is known as “Young’s Modulus”
or “Modulus of elasticity” and is denoted by ‘E’.
= E …………………………..……………………………… (5), where,

σ = Stress, ℓ = Strain, and E = Young’s Modulus.
The young’s Modulus is therefore be defined as the single tensile or compressive stress,
within elastic limits required to produce a unit strain. Young’s Modulus is named after a
Scientist, Thomas Young (1773 - 1829).
6. Proof Stress: Some of the structural materials, such as cast iron, concrete, timber, etc.
do not show a firm or well defined yield point limit. For such materials, proof stress
corresponding to yield point is generally specified. Proof stress is defined as the limiting
stress which produces a permanent set not exceeding 0.5% of the original length.

7. Ultimate Strength: Is the capacity of a material to withstand loads tending to elongate,
as opposed to compressive strength, which withstand loads tending to reduce size.
Ultimate strength is also called ultimate tensile strength or shortens to tensile strength.
In other words, tensile strength resists tension, whereas compressive strength resists
compression.
8. Lateral Strain: When a sample of material is stretched in one direction, it tends to get
thinner in the other two directions. Similarly, when a sample of material is compressed
in one direction, it tends to get thicker in the other two directions. Lateral strain of a
deformed body is defined as ratio of the change in length (breadth of a rectangular bar
or diameter of a circular bar) of the body due to the deformation of its original length
(breadth of a rectangular bar or a diameter of a circular bar) in a direction
perpendicular to the applied force.
1.4 DEFORMATION OF A BODY DUE TO APPLICATION OF LOADS:
Consider the mild steel wire (as in figure 2a above) to be subjected to a pull of load, P.
Let, L = original length of the material;
A = Cross sectional area of the material;
= Deformations caused by the load;
ℓ = Strain in the wire due to the load applied;
σ = Stress intensity in the material due to the applied load.
Then, from Hooke’s Law,
= E, But , .
 = E, = × = E, ⇒E = , ………….…………… (6)
The unit of Young’s modulus, E is N/mm2, kg/cm2, etc. The greater the value of E, the difficult it
is to cause deformation in the material.
1.4.1 FACTOR OF SAFETY

If a material is stressed beyond the elastic limit, it will retain part of the strain when
unloaded. It is not possible to however, accurately foresee the external load to which the
structure is subjected before this occurs. Moreover, at times, available materials are victims to
poor workmanship. To take care of these factors, therefore, a working stress that is lower than
the maximum stress, or (usually known as) the ultimate stress that the material is capable of
taking is adopted. Thus, if “Ʋ” is the ultimate stress for the material in a component, then:

Working Stress = …………………………………….……………. (7), where
= Ultimate stress, and = factor of safety.
The magnitude of the factor of safety to be adopted depends on certain factors, such as;
i. The nature of the load;
ii. The homogeneity of material used;
iii. The degree of safety required;
iv. The accuracy with which the stress in member and external forces can be avoided.
However, alternate approach was late introduced in terms of LOAD FACTOR based on the ratio
of loads rather than stress.
Load factor = ……………….………………………….. (8)
Using factor of safety ensures a satisfactory performance under working loads, but only
assumes reasonable margins against failure and assume a satisfactory performance under
working loads.
1.4.2 POISSON’S RATIO

Strains in the direction of applied load are known as “primary strains” or “longitudinal
strains”, while strains in the direction perpendicular (at right angle) to the direction of the
applied loads are known as “secondary strain” or “lateral strains”. When the load is tensile,
there is increase in length and decrease in diameter of the circular bar or width of the
rectangular bar. Therefore, the longitudinal strains are positive. Alternatively, when the load is
compressive, there is decrease in length and increase in diameter of the circular bar or width
of the rectangular bar. Therefore, the lateral strains are negative.
The ratio of the lateral strains to the longitudinal strains is constant within elastic limit,
for homogeneous material, and is known as “Poisson’s ratio”. Poisson’s ratio is denoted by
miu (μ) or . Therefore Poisson’s ratio, μ = …………………………. (9)
If the longitudinal or linear strain is ℓ, then lateral strain =

- × μ, - μ, or × = .
EXAMPLE 1
A steel rod of 20mm diameter and 50cm long is subjected to an axial pull, P of 3KN.
Determine:
a. The intensity of the stress, σ;
b. The strain,
c. The elongation of the rod,
Take modulus of elasticity, E of the rod as 2.1 X 106 Nmm2.

Solution:
Given that: Diameter, d of steel rod = 20mm
Length, L of the rod = 50cm = 500mm
Axial load, P =3KN = 3000N
Modulus of Elasticity, E = 2.1 X 106Nmm-2.
a. Intensity of stress:
,
Using the relation, ; But Area, A = == = = 314.2mm2.
,
Therefore, stress, = 9.55Nmm-2.
b. Strain, :
From Hooke’s law, E = ; = = 0.00000457 = 4.5 X 10-6.

c. Elongation of the rod,
Using the relation, = = 0.0022733mm = 2.27 X 10-3mm.
Or,
Elongation, = ℓ . L = 4.5 X 10-6 x 500mm = 0.0022733mm = 2.27 X 10-3mm.
EXAMPLE 2
A rod of 150cm long and square thickness of 4cm cross section is subjected to a pull of 1500kg
force. Determine the elongation of the rod, if the modulus of elasticity of the rod is 2.0 X
106kgcm-2.
Solution:
Given that: Length, L of the rod = 150cm, Area, A = (4cm)2 = 4 X 4 = 16cm2
Pull, P = 1500kg, E = 2.0 X 106kgcm-2, =?
Using the relation, = = = 0.00703125cm = 7.0 X 10-3cm.
OR: Stress, = = 93.75kgcm-2
Strain, = = 0.000046875 = 4.7 X 10-5
Elongation, =ℓ.L = 4.7 X 10-5 X 150cm = 0.00703125cm = 7.0 X 10-3cm.

EXAMPLE 3
A load of 2KN is to be raised with a steel wire to which it was held at one end. The Young’s
Modulus, E of the steel wire is 2.1 X 106N/mm2, and if the stress induced must not exceed
80N/mm2;
a. What is the minimum diameter, “d” required?

b. What will be the extension, ΔL if the length of the wire is 3m?
Solution:
Given that: Load, P = 2KN = 2000N, E = 2.1 X 106N/mm2 , Diameter, d = ?

Stress, σ = 80N/mm2, Length, L = 3m = 3000mm, =?
Cross sectional area, A = = = 25mm2
a. From Area of the cross section, A = ,
 25mm2 = d2 = , = = 31.83098862
 d= (31.83098862) = 5.641895835 = 5.6mm.
b. = = = 0.114285714 = 0.11mm

2.0 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
2.1.1 SHEAR FORCE:

This may be defined as the unbalanced vertical forces from the left or right section of the
beam, and is therefore written as S.F. at the cross section of the beam.
2.1.2 BENDING MOMENT:

Bending moment may be defined as the algebraic sum of all moments of forces from the left
or right sections of the beam. It is written as B.M. at the cross section of the beam.
2.2 TYPES OF SUPPORTS TO A BEAM

Whenever a horizontal beam is loaded with vertical loads, sometimes it bends due to the
action of the loads. The amount with which a beam bends depends upon the amount and
types of the loads, length of the beam, elasticity of the beam material and types of beam. In
general, beams are classified as follows;
a. Cantilever beam: This is a beam fixed at Figure 15(a)

one end and free at the other end.
b. Simply supported beam: This is a beam Figure 15(b)

supported or rested freely on the walls
or columns at its both ends.
c. Rigidly fixed beam: This is a beam whose Figure 15(c)

Both ends are rigidly fixed or built in walls.
d. Overhanging beam: This is a beam having its

End portion (or portions) extended in the form Figure 15(d)
of cantilever beyond the support. A beam may
be overhanged on one side or on both sides.
e. Continuous beam: This is a beam supported Figure 15(e)

on more than two supports. It may be noted
that a continuous beam may or may not be
overhanging beam.

2.3 TYPES OF LOADING:
A beam may be subjected to the following types of loads:
i. A concentrated load or point load;
ii. Uniformly distributed load; and iii. Uniformly varying loads.
a. Concentrated load or point loads: P
This is when one or more loads acting
on some points on a beam. Figure 16 (a)
b. Uniformly distributed load:

This is a load which is spread over a beam in which a manner that each unit length is
loaded to the same extent as shown below.
This is briefly written as u.d.l. For all
calculations, the total u.d.l. is assumed Figure 16 (b)
to act at the centre of gravity of the beam.
c. Uniformly varying load;
This is a load which is spread over a beam in which a manner that its extent varies
uniformly on each unit length as shown below.
Sometimes the load is zero at one end and
Increase uniformly to the other end is Figure 16 (c)
Known as a ‘triangular load’.
Sometimes a beam may carry any one of the above load system or a combination of two or
more systems at the same time.
2.4 SIGN CONVENSIONS OF THE SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
2.4.1 SHEAR FORCE: As earlier defined shear force, let us consider simple beam carrying load,
‘W’ and support reactions R1 and R2.
W
y x
R1 y x R2
(W – R2) = R1
Shear at x–x (+ve)
(W – R1) = R2
Figure 17 Shear at y–y (-ve)

Nature of the shear for at x-x and y-y is clearly different. In the first case, shear at x-x section
has a tendency to move the right portion of the beam downward, and to the left upward. This
is treated as a “positive shear”. While at y-y section has the tendency to move the right
portion of the beam upward and the left downward. This is also treated as a “negative shear”.
Rule to follow in this calculation is that the right – up, left – down = Negative shear.
Alternatively, left – up, right – down = positive shear.
3.4.2 BENDING MOMENT: As earlier defined bending moment, a section where the bending
moment is such that it tends to bend the beam at the point to a curvature having concavity at
the top (sagging), is taken as “positive bending”. On the other hand, where the bending
moment is such that it tends to bend the beam at a point to a curvature having convexity at
the top (hogging), is taken as “negative bending”.
Hogging (-ve)
Figure 18. Sagging (+ve)
Bending moment is said to be positive at a section when it is acting in an anticlockwise

direction to the right and negative when it is acting in a clockwise direction. On the other
hand, the bending moment is said to be negative when it is acting in a clockwise direction to
the left and positive when it is acting in an anti-clockwise direction to the right.
2.5 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

The shear force and bending moment at any section may be obtained analytically. But
sometimes we are interesting to know the manner in which these values vary along the length
of the beam. This is done by plotting the shear force or bending moment as ordinates against
the position of the cross section as abscissa. Such ordinates are drawn at important points of
the beam, and a straight line or a curve is drawn joining the tops of all such ordinates. These
diagrams are very useful as they give the clear picture of the distribution of the shear force
and bending moment all along the beam.
The following points should be clearly borne in mind for drawing the shear force and
bending moment diagrams:
i. The positive values of the shear force and bending moment are plotted above the
base line; and negative values below it.
ii. If there is a vertical load (including reactions) at a section, the shear force diagram
will increase or decrease suddenly, i.e. by a vertical straight line at the section.
iii. If there is no loading at a section, the shear force will not change at the section, or in
other words the shear force between any two vertical loads will remain unchanged,
i.e. shear force diagram will be horizontal, and the bending moment will be inclined.

iv.If there is uniformly distributed load between two sections, the shear force diagram
will be an inclined straight line and the bending moment diagram will be a smooth
curve.
v. The bending moment at a free end of a cantilever and the two supports of a simply
supported beam will be zero.
vi. The bending moment diagram will consist of either straight line or a smooth curve.
NB: While calculating shear force and bending moment at any section, the weight of the beam
is assumed to be zero.
2.6 ASSUMPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING.
The following are assumptions made in the theory of simple bending:
1. The material of the beam is perfectly homogeneous (i.e., of the same kind throughout)
and Isotropic (i.e., of equal elastic properties in all directions).
2. The beam material is stressed within its elastic limit and, thus obeys Hooke’s law.
3. The transverse sections of the beam which were plane before bending also remain
plane after bending.
4. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently, of the layer above
or below it.
5. The value of Young’s Modulus is the same in both tension and compression.
2.7 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT ON SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.
2.7.1 Simply supported beam with point load at its midpoint:

Consider a simply supported beam, AB of span, ‘L’ and carrying a point load, ‘P’ at its
midpoint, ‘C’ as shown below:
P
C
A B
L
(+)
C
A B S.F.D
(-)
Figure 19
B.M.D
𝑃𝐿
(+) 4
A B
C

Since the load is at the midpoint of the beam, therefore the reactions at the supports are:
RA = RB =
The shear force at any section between A and C (i.e. up to the point just before the
load, P) is constant, and is equal to the unequal balanced vertical force. And the shear
force at any between B and C (i.e. up to the point just after the load, P) is constant and
is equal to the unbalanced vertical force.
 F A = RA = , FB = -RB =
Where FA and FB denotes shear force at A and B respectively.
The bending moment at A and B is zero. It increases by a straight line law, and is
maximum at the centre of the beam where shear forces changes sign. Therefore
bending moment at C = Mc = X = .
4
2.7.2 Simply supported beam with an eccentric point load:

Consider a simply supported beam, AB of the length, ‘L’ and carrying an eccentric point load,
‘P’ at C as shown below.
P
A C B
a b
L
(+)
C
A B S.F.D
(-)
Figure 20
B.M.D
𝑷𝒂𝒃
(+) 𝒍
A C B
The shear force at any section between A and C (i.e. up to the point just before the
load, P) is constant, and is equal to the unequal balanced vertical force. And the shear
force at any between B and C (i.e. up to the point just after the load, P) is constant and
is equal to the unbalanced vertical force.

RA = , RB = . FA = +RA, FB = -RB
The bending moment at A and B is zero. It increases by a straight-line law and maximum
at the centre of the beam where shear forces changes sign. Therefore, bending moment
at C = Mc = X = .
2.7.3 Simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load:

Consider a simply supported beam, AB of length, ‘L’ and carrying a uniformly distributed load,
‘ω’ per unit length as shown below.
X
A B
x x
L
C Fx
A B
Mx
ω 2
8
A C B
Since the load is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the beam, therefore the
reaction at the supports can be computed as: RA = RB = .
Shear force at A, FA = RA = .
 The shear force at any section at distance, x from B is given as;
Fx = –RB + =-
 Shear force at A, FA = RA = ; Shear force at B, FB = -RB = - .
Alternatively, we see that the FB = - (where x = 0) and increases uniformly by a straight line
law to zero at C, the midpoint of the beam (where x = ). It continuous to increase uniformly to
+ at A (where x = l).
The bending moment at any section at a distance, x from B is thus computed as:
Mx = RB.x - = =

Thus we see that the B.M at A and B is zero, (where x = l, and x = 0) and increases uniformly in
the form parabolic curve at C, i.e. midpoint of the beam where S.F changes sign.
Bending moment at C, MC = ( ) ( ) = - = .
EXAMPLE 4
A simply supported beam 4m long is subjected to point loads of 2KN and 4KN each at distances
of 1.5m and 3m from the left end. Compute the reactions, shear force and bending moment
values and draw their diagrams.
Solution:
2KN 4KN
C D
A B
1.5m 1.5m 1m
RA RB
Taking moment about point A.

-RB x 4m + (4KN x 3m) – (2KN x 1.5m) = 0
RB x 4m = (4x3)KNm + (2x1.5)KNm; 4RB = (12 + 3); 4RB = 15KN;
RB = (15/4)KN = 3.75KN.
RA + RB = (2KN + 4KN) = 6KN; RA =6KN - RB = 6KN – 3.75KN;
RA = 2.25KN.
Shear Force, S.F:

S.FA = RA = 2.25KN; S.FC = 2.25KN – 2KN = 0.25KN;
S.FD = 0.25KN – 4KN = -3.75KN; S.FB = -3.75KN + 3.75KN = 0.
Bending Moment, M:
MA = 0KNm;
MC = (2.25KN x 1.5m = 3.375KNm;
MD = (2.25KN x 3m) – (2KN x 1.5m) = 3.75KNm.
MB = (2.25KN x 4m) – (2KN x 2.5m) – (4KN x 1m) = 9KNm - 5KNm - 4KNm = 0KNm.
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS:

2KN 4KN
A B
RA = 2.25KN 1.5m 1.5m 1m RB = 3.75KN
2.25KN
(+) 0.25KN
A + (+) D B S.F.D
C (-)
-3.75KN
3.75KNm
3.375KNm
(+) B.M.D
A C D B
EXAMPLE 5
A simply supported beam 6m long is carrying a uniformly distributed load of 2500kg per meter
over the entire length as shown below. Determine the reactions, shear force and bending
moment values; and hence draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam.
2500kg/m
A B
C
, 6m ,
RA RB
Solution:
Given u.d.l = 2500kg/m
Length, L = 6m.
RA = RB = =( =( ) = 7500kg.
F A = RA = =( Kg = 7500kg.
F C = RA - = 7500kg – ( ) = 0kg
FB = -RB =- =-( =-( ) = -7500kg.
Bending Moment, MA = 0; MB = 0.
Taking C as the mid-point of the section,
MC = [ ( ) ( ) ] = = = 11250kg.m.

A B
6m
C B
A
𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈 𝒎
C
A C B
EXAMPLE 6
Compute the reactions, shear force and bending moment values for the loaded beam shown
below; and hence draw their shear force and bending moment diagrams.
40KN 15KN
A B C D E
3m , 3m , 2m , 2m
RA 20KN RE
Solutions:
a. Support reactions; ∑ ; RA + 20KN + RE – 40KN – 15KN = 0;
RA + RE = 40KN + 15KN – 20KN; RA + RE = 35KN ……………………………..……(i)
∑ A =0 Taking moment about point E.
RA x 10m – (40KN x 7m) + (20KN x 4m) – (15KN x 2m) = 0
10mRA = 280KNm – 80KNm + 30KNm.
10RA = 23OKN, RA = (230KN/10) = 23KN.
Substitute 230KN for RA in equation (i)
 23KN + RE = 35KN; RE = 35KN – 23KN = 12KN.
B. Shear Force, S.F:

S.F.A = RA = 23KN; S.F.B = 23KN – 40KN = -17KN;
S.F.C -17KN + 20KN = 3KN; S.F.D 3KN – 15KN = -12KN;
S.F.E -12KN + RE (12KN) = 0KN
C. Bending Moment, B.M:
B.MA = 0KNm; B.MB = 23KN x 3m = 69KNm;
B.MC = (23KN x 6m) – (40KN x 3m) = 18KNm;
B.MD = (23KN x 8m) – (40KN x 5m) + (20KN x 2m) = 24KNm;
B.ME = (23KN x 10m) – (40KN x 7m) + (20KN x 4m) – (15KN x 2m) = 0KNm.
D. Shear force and bending moment diagrams:
SCALES: S.F.D: xx – axis: 1cm = 1m; yy – axis; 1cm = 5KN

B.M.D: xx – axis: 1cm = 1m; yy – axis: 1cm = 10KNm
40KN 15KN
A B C D E
3m , 3m , 2m , 2m
RA = 23KN 20KN RE = 12KN
23KN
Shear force
(+)
Diagram
3KN
(+)
A B C D E
(-)
(-) -12KN
-17KN
69KNm
Bending Moment
Diagram
24KNm
(+)
18KNm
A B C D E

2.8 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR SOME LOADED BEAMS
(i) W (iii) P
A C B A B
L/2 L/2 L
P S.F.D
A B A B
A B
𝐰𝐋
B.M.D
𝟒
A C B PL
(ii) ω/L (iv) ω/L
A B A B
L L1 L2
𝛚𝐥
𝛚𝐥1
𝟐
2
S.F.D
A B
A C B
𝛚𝐥
A C B
𝟐
𝛚𝐋𝟐
𝟖
A B ω1
𝟒

2.9 POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE
It is clearly known that overhanging beams will be analyzed as a combination of simply

supported beams and cantilever beams. From article 3.8 above, we have seen that the
bending moment in a cantilever beam is negative; whereas that in simply supported beam is
positive. It is therefore obvious that in an overhanging beam, there will a point where bending
moment will change sign from negative to positive or vice versa. Such a point where bending
moment changes sign is known as “point of contraflexure”.
EXAMPLE 7
Consider the overhanging beam shown below. Calculate the reactions, shear force and
bending moment values, and hence draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams and
locate point of contraflexure.
2t
2t/m
A C
B
4m 2m ,
RA RB
Solution
a. ∑ . RA + RB – (2t/m x 6m) – 2t= 0; RA + RB = 14t ………………………….(i)
Taking moment about A;

RB x 4m – 2t x 6m – 2t/m x 6m x 6m/2 = 0
RB x 4m = 12tm + 36tm = 48tm;
RB = (48tm/4m) = 12t.
Substitute 12t for RB in equation (i).

 RA + 12t = 14t; RA = (14t – 12t) = 2t.
b. Shear Force, S.F:

S.F.A = RA = 2t; S.F.B = 2t – (2t/m x 4m) + 12t = 6t;
S.F.C = 6t – (2t/m x 2m) - 2t = 0.
c. Bending Moment B.M:

B.M.A = 0; B.M.B = (2t x 4) – (2t/m x 4m x 4m/2) = – 8t;
B.M.C = (2t x 6m) + (12t x 2m) – (2t/m x 6m x 6m/2) = 12tm + 24tm – 36tm = 0tm.

d. Shear force and bending moment diagrams:
2t/m 2t
A C
B
4m 2m ,
RA= 2t RB= 12t
x 6t
2t
(+) 2t
(+) 2t
A B C
(-)
-6t
B C
A
(-)
-8tm
e. Point of Contraflexure:
Let the point of contraflexure (p) be at a distance of x meters from A. it will be between A
and B (as seen in the bending moment diagram). We know that bending moment at any
section AB at a distance from A is given as:
B.M.x = 2t. x – 2t/m . x2/2 Divide throughout by t.
 2.t – (2x2/2) = 2x – x2 = x2 – 2x ……………………..(i)
Equating equation (i) to zero.
 x2 – 2x = 0. x2 = 2x x = 2m.

3.0 DEFLECTION
When a beam is loaded, it deflects from its original position. The initially straight beam, when
loaded will deflect and its axis bends in a curve which is known as an elastic curve or
deflection curve. That is why when an engineer is designing a beam; he is not only concerned
with the stress produced by the load acting on the beam, but also on the deflection of the
beam resulting from the loading. Deflection of a point on the axis of a beam is the distance
between its position and after bending.
Deflection of beams is the deformation of a beam as direct effect of that bending

tendency, which affects their serviceability and stability. A beam may be strong enough to
resist safety, the bending moments due to the applied loading and yet not be suitable because
its deflection is too high. Excessive deflection impairs the strength and stability of the structure
give rise to minor troubles such as cracking of plaster, ceiling, partitions and other finishes as
well as adversely affecting the functional needs and aesthetic requirements or simply being
unsightly.
The relevant British Standard (B.S) specifications and codes of practice stipulate that the
deflection of a beam shall be restricted within limits appropriate to the type of structure. For
many beams in most types of buildings like flats, offices, ware houses; it will usually be found
that, if the beams are made big enough to resist the bending stresses, the deflection will not
exceed the permitted values. However, in beams of long spans, it may be necessary to
calculate deflections to ensure that they are not excessive.
3.1 VALUES OF COEFFICENT, “C” FOR DEFLECTION FORMULA (V = (CWL 3/EI) AT C.
UNIVERSAL BEAMS:
W ω/L
(i) (ii)
A C B A B
L/2 , L/2 L
Ѵ = .WL3/EI Ѵ= .WL3/EI
(iii) ½W ½W (iv) ½W ½W
A C B A C B
⅓L , ⅓L , ⅓L ¼L , ½L , ¼L
L L

Ѵ= .WL3/EI Ѵ= .WL3/EI
FIXED BEAMS:
W ω/L
(v) (vi)
A B A B
L/2 , L/2 L
Ѵ= .WL3/EI Ѵ= .WL3/EI
CANTILIVER BEAM:
W ω/L
(vii) (viii)
A B A B
L , L ,
Ѵ = .WL3/EI Ѵ= .WL3/EI
EXAMPLE 8
A simply supported universal beam of a span 5m long carries a uniformly distributed load of
60KN/m. Determine the maximum deflection. Take Young’s Modulus, E as 2.0 x 106N/mm2 and
second moment of area, I as 1,400cm4.
Solution:
Given that: Length, L of the beam = 5m = 5,000mm;
u.d.l. ω = 60KN/m;
Load, W = 60 x 1000N/m x 5m = 3 x 105N;
Young’s Modulus, E = 2.0 x 106N/mm2;
Second moment of Area, I = 1,4000cm4 = 1,4000 x 1000mm4 = 1.4 x 107mm4.
Using the relation, deflection, Ѵ= .WL3/EI.
 Ѵ= . 3 x 105N x (5000mm)3/(2.0 x 106 x 1.4 x 107mm4)
 Ѵ= (1.875 x 1017Nmm)/(1.0752 x 1016mm) = 17.43861607mm

 Ѵ= 17mm (to the nearest whole number).

EXAMPLE 9
A simply supported beam AB of length 10m is carrying a point load of 10KN at the mid-point of
the span. The width and depth of the beam is 150mm and 230mm respectively. Determine the
deflection under the load at C. Take E = 2.1 x 106KN/cm2.
Solution:
Given that: Length, L of the beam = 10m = 1000cm;

Load, w = 10KN;
Width, b of the beam = 150mm = 15cm;
Depth, h of the beam = 230mm = 23cm;
Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.1 x 106cm2.
Second moment of area, I = = = = 15208.75cm2.
Using the relation, Ѵ = .WL3/EI
 Ѵ= x 10KN x (1000cm03/(2.1 x 106/cm2 x 15208.75cm2)
 Ѵ= cm = 6.522978496 x 10-3cm = 6.5 x 10-3cm

4

4.0 TORSION OF CIRCULAR SHAFTS
Rotating shafts are very commonly adopted as means for transmitting energy in various
mechanisms, especially in workshops and factories. Energy is transmitted by rotation. The
turning force is either applied to the rim of a pulley, keyed to the shaft, or to any other
suitable point at some distance from the axis of the shaft and its tangent. The product of the
turning force and the distance between the point of application of the force and the axis of the
shaft is known as “torque”, “turning moment” or “twisting moment”. The shaft is said to be
subjected to “Torsion”. Under torsion every section of the shaft is subjected to shear stress.
Shafts are rotated by applying at their one end forces at a distance away from the axis and
tangential to the shaft, while the other end rotates the mechanisms which are rigidly
connected to it.
Figure 22(A) P
T R y
T
B A
Consider the figure 22(A) above. The shaft of length, L is subjected to force; ‘P’ at ‘A’ and at a
distance, y from the axis of shaft, and to the end B of the shaft is fixed at a pulley intended to
be rotated. The turning moment transmitted by the shaft is “T” = P x y.
In deriving the torsion formulae, the following assumptions are made:
(i) Circular sections remain circular even after twisting;
(ii) Plain sections remain plain and do not twist or warp;
(iii) All diameters of the normal cross section which were originally straight remain
straight after twisting and their magnitude do not change;
(iv) Stresses do not exceed the proportional limit;
(v) Material of the shaft is uniform throughout;
(vi) Shaft is loaded by twisting couples on planes that are perpendicular to the axis of
the shaft;
(vii) Twisting along the shaft is uniform.

Figure 22(B) T
Á Á
B ф O θ O
θ A A R
T
L
Consider a shaft of length, L fixed at B as shown above. As a result of the application of the
torque, T, the shaft is twisted. Let the straight line AB on the surface of the shaft and parallel
to its axis take up the new position as ÁB. Let AÔÁ = θ, (where θ is the angle of twist) and
angle ABÁ = ф, (where ф is the shear strain on the surface of the shaft).
 = , (where AB = L);
But θ = Lθ; θ = , . (where R is the radius of the shaft) ………………. (i)
Moreover, if ‘qs’ be shear stress on the outermost surface of the shaft, and ‘C’ the modulus of
,
rigidity of the shaft material, then; ………………………..…….(ii)
,
Where is the deformation of the shaft.

Now from equation (i) and (ii), we find that:
; or ……………………………………….…….(iii)
If q be the intensity of the stress, any layer at a distance, r from the center of the shaft, then:
………………………………………(iv)
4.1 MOMENT OF RESISTANCE

Moment of resistance simply refers to the couple formed by an internal force in a beam
subjected to bending under the maximum permissible stress.
Figure 22(C)
Δa
The section of a circular shaft of radius, R and
r
length, L subjected to a torque, T as shown in figure
R
22(C). Let qs be the maximum stress produced on
the surface of the shaft due to torque, T.

Consider an elemental area ‘Δa’ at a distance, r from the axis of the shaft. At the elemental
area, Δa, the shear stress, [from equation (iv) above].
Therefore, total shear resistance offered by the area, Δa under consideration = q. Δa.
 . Δa ………………………………….(v)
Moment of resistance offered by the area, Δa under consideration;
= Force x r; = . Δa.r = . Δa …………………………………… (vi)
Total resistance offered by the whole section is:
∑ 2 (where ∑ 2 is known as “polar moment of inertia of the section”

and is denoted by J.
 or .
But from equation (iv) above,
 = ……………………………………………(vii)
4.2 POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA

The moment of inertia of a plane area with respect to an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
figure is called “Polar moment of inertia” with respect to the point where the axis intersects
the plane. In a circular plane, this point is always the centre of the circle.
From the previous articles, we see that;
, But qs ………………………(viii) [for strength of a solid shaft]
 qs = Substituting the value of qs in equation (iii).
 = = ; (But
 , = where .
is also known as ‘polar moment of inertia’.

Note:
(i) In hollow circular shaft, the polar moment of inertia, . ……….. (ix)
Where d is the internal diameter of the shaft.
(ii) The term is known as “Torsional section modulus” or “polar modulus”. It is similar
to section modulus which is .

(iii) Thus, polar modulus for a solid shaft, ZP = = ………………………….…(x)
And polar modulus for hollow shaft, ZP = = ………. (xi)
4.3 POWER TRANSMITTED BY A SHAFT
We have already discussed that the main purpose of a shaft is to transmit power from the
shaft to another in workshops or factories. Now consider a rotating shaft, which transmits
power from one of its ends to another.
Let
N = Number of revolutions per minute, and
T = Average torque in kg.m.
It is known that work done per minute, W = force x distance
= average torque x Angular displacement;
=Tx2 =2 …………………………………..(xii)
Note: While designing a shaft, the value of the torque is taken from 30% to 40% higher than
the average value.
Power, P = (h.p)
4
Note: In S.I units, the average torque is taken in Newton meter (N.m). Therefore, power
transmitted, watts = T.ω …………………………… (xiii) Where ω is the angular displacement of
the shaft in radians/second; such that ω = .
EXAMPLE 10
Find the twist per meter length of a circular hollow shaft 12cm outer diameter and 9cm inner
diameter if the shear stress is not exceeding 600kgcm-2. Take C = 0.8 x 106kgcm-2.
Solution:
Given: Outer diameter, D = 12cm;
Inner diameter, d = 9cm;
Maximum stress, qs = 600kgcm-2;
Length, L = 1m; Angle of twist, =?

4 4
Using the relation, T = [for strength of hollow shaft]
4 4
 T= 6 12 9
 T= 14175] kg.cm
 T = 139162.7 kg = 139200kg.cm (to the nearest hundred)
Known that polar moment of inertia of the hollow circular shaft, .

 124 94 = 1391 627371 cm4 = 1392cm4.
Now using the relation, (from equation 7).
 ;
 = = 0.0125 rad/m length. = 0.7o/m length.
EXAMPLE 11
A shaft transmits 100KW at 180 r.p.m. If the allowable stress in the material 60N/mm 2,
determine the suitable diameter of the shaft. The shaft is not to twist more than 1 o in a length
of 3 meters. Take C = 80KN/mm2.
Solution:
Given that: Power, P = 100KW = 10 x 104W;
Shaft revolution, N = 180 r.p.m;
Allowable stress, qs = 60N/mm2;
Angle of twist, = 1o = radians;
Length of the shaft, L 3m = 3000mm;
C = 80KN/mm2 = 80 x 1000 = 80,000N/mm2.
Let T = Torque transmitted by the shaft, and D = diameter of the shaft.
Known that angular speed of the shaft, ω = .
ω= = 6 radians/second.
Using the relation, P = T.ω (from equation 13)
 10000 = T. 6
 T= = 5305.2 N.m = 5.3052 x 106N.mm.

(a) Diameter of the shaft based on strength:
Using the relation qs x (from equation 8)
 5.3052 x 106N.mm = 60 x = 11.78D3;
 D3 = = 450.36 x 103; D = 45 = 76.7mm
(b) Diameter of the shaft based on stiffness:
Using the relation, ;
4 4
 ; = = 0.465421133.
4 4 4
 = ; =√ = 103.8mm.
4 4

5.0 MOMENT OF INERTIA
Inertia is a property of a body to continue in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line. For bodies in linear motion, the force required to change its state of motion shall depend
upon the force of the motion for body in rotation about an axis.
The moment of a force about a point is the product of a force (P) and perpendicular
distance (x) between the point and line of action of the force (P.x). This moment is called “First
moment of force”. If this moment is again multiplied by perpendicular distance (x) between
the point and line of action of the force, i.e. (p.x)x = px2. Then this quantity is called “Moment
of moment of a force” or “Second moment of a force” or “moment of inertia”, briefly written
as (M.I).
Sometimes, instead of force, the area or mass of figure or body is taken into
consideration. Then the second moment is known as “second moment of area” or “second
moment of mass”. But all such second moments are broadly termed as “Moment of inertia”.
5.1 MOMENT OF INERTIA THEOREMS
PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM: It states that “Moment of inertia of a lamina about any axis in the
plane of the lamina is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis
parallel to the given axis and the product of the given area and square o the perpendicular
distance between the two axes”. The moment of Inertia Theorem is used in the determination
of moment of inertia about axis away from the centroid.
h
G1 G G2
y
A B
Figure 3: Parallel Axis Theorem
Consider an elemental area, ‘A’ at a distance, h from the centroid line, G1, G2 parallel to AB as
shown in Figure 3 above. Moment of inertia of the elemental area, A about AB is given as:
IAB = IG + Ay2.

5.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A RECTANGULAR SECTION.
y
Consider a rectangular section ABCD as shown. A B
Let b = width of the section, and.

h = depth of the section h
Now consider a strip, PQ of thickness x parallel to x x
x
x-x axis and at a distance x from it P Q
Δx
Therefore, area of the strip = b. x C b D
Moment of inertia of the strip about y-y axis y
= Area x x2 = (b. x)x2 = b.x2. x Figure 4:
The moment of inertia of the whole section can be found out by integrating for the whole
length of the lamina, i.e. from – to + .
Ixx ∫ = ∫
– –
𝐡
𝟐
3 3
Ixx = * +𝐡 = b( ) + b( ) =
4
+
4
= .
𝟐
3 3
Similarly, Iyy = .
5.3 SECTION MODULUS, ‘Z’

The section modulus or modulus of a section of a figure is the quantity obtained by dividing
the moment of inertia of a figure about its centroid by the distance of the extreme fibres from
the centroidal axis. It is denoted by Z, and suffixes xx and yy indicates the axes about which
distance is measured.
y
Consider a rectangular section ABCD of width, ‘b’ A B
and depth, ‘h’. Let Ixx is the moment of inertia about
x-x axis. Therefore, section modulus about x-x is
given by: x x
𝓍𝓍
Z𝓍𝓍 = = , and Zyy = = .
Where and are the distances of the extreme C D

fibres AB or CD and AC or BD from x-x and y-y axes b/2 b/2
respectively. y

5.4 RADIUS OF GYRATION, ‘K’.
The radius of gyration of any shape of cross section is a property which takes into account the
size of the section (i.e. area) and its shape (i.e. the arrangement of the material in the cross
section). It is used to describe the distribution of the cross sectional area in a column around
its centroidal axis. The radius of gyration can be denoted by Rg. K, or G. It is given by the
following formula:
K2 = , K = √ . Where: I = The second moment of area,
A = The cross sectional area.

𝓍𝓍 𝓎𝓎
Therefore K𝓍𝓍 = √ ; K𝓎𝓎 = √
EXAMPLE 12
For the rectangle of width 8cm and depth 16cm as shown. y
Determine the following:
a. Moment of inertia about the centroidal axis
parallel to the two sides. 16cm
b. The radius of gyration, K about the same axis; x x
c. Section modulus, Z.
8cm
Solution: y
Given that: h = 16cm
B = 8cm
a. I𝓍𝓍 = = = = 2730.67cm4.
I = = = = 682.67cm4.
𝓍𝓍
b. K𝓍𝓍 = √ , but area A = 16cm X 8cm = 128cm2
 K𝓍𝓍 = √ = 21 33 4 62
𝓎𝓎
K𝓎𝓎 = √ =√ = 5 33 = 2.31cm.
𝓍𝓍
c. Z𝓍𝓍 = , but y = = = 8cm. Therefore, Z𝓍𝓍 = = 341.33cm3
𝓎𝓎
Z = , but x = = = 4cm. Therefore, Z = = 170.67cm3
4

5.5 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A HOLLOW RECTANGULAR
SECTION y
A B
Consider a hollow rectangular section, in which
ABCD is the main section and EFGH is the cut-out E F
section as shown in figure five.
B = width of the outer rectangle = AB,CD; x x
H = depth of the outer rectangle = AC,BD;
b = width of the inner rectangle = EF,GH; and G H
h = depth of the inner rectangle = EG,FH.
C y D
Known that moment of inertia of the outer rectangle ABCD about x-x axis is and the
moment of inertia of the inner rectangle about x-x axis is . Therefore, moment of inertia of
the hollow rectangular section about x-x axis, Ixx is equal to the moment of inertia of the outer
rectangle minus the moment of inertia of the inner rectangle.
 I𝓍𝓍 = =
Similarly, I = - = .
EXAMPLE 13
Find the moment of inertia of a hollow rectangular section about its centre of gravity, if the
widths and depths of the external and internal dimensions are 7cm and 10cm, and 4cm and
5cm respectively.
Solution:
Given that: Outer width, B = 7cm; Outer depth, H = 10cm;
Inner width, b = 4cm; Inner depth, h = 5cm.
Using the relation,
4
I𝓍𝓍 = = = = = 541.67cm4
4 4
Similarly, I = = = = = 259.17cm4

5.6 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF OTHER SHAPES
Moment of inertia of a triangle

A Moment of inertia about the neutral axis
Figure 6 along x-x axis, Ixx = .
h Moment of inertia about the base, BC along x-x axis,
Ixx = .
x x
⅓h
B b C
Moment of inertia of a circular section

y
Figure 7 Moment of inertia about the neutral axis along x-x
axis is equal to the moment of inertia about the
neutral axis along y-y axis
x x
Ixx = Iyy = .
4
Moment of inertia of a hollow circular section

y
Fig. 8 Moment of inertia of the outer circle about x-x axis,
Ixx = .
4
d Moment of inertia of the inner circle about D x-x
x x
axis, Ixx = .
4
Moment of inertia of the hollow section about x-x
axis, Ixx = = (D4 – d4)

4 4
x

6.0 PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS
6.1 CENTROIDS OF SECTIONS

Every particle of a body is attracted by the earth towards its centre. The force of attraction,
which is proportional to the mass of the particle acts vertically downwards, and is known as
“weight of the body”. The point, through which the resultant attraction of the earth acts,
irrespective of the position of the body, is known as “centre of gravity”. Therefore, the centre
of gravity of a body is the point at which the centre mass of the body may be assumed to be
concentrated.
The plane figures, such as triangles, rectangles, circles, square, etc. have only area. The
centre of area of such figures is known as “centroid”.
6.2 LOCATION OF CENTROIDS:

Since centroid is the point at which the entire area is assumed to act, the algebraic sum of all
the elemental areas about the centroid must be zero.
Consider an irregular area, A in figure 9. The

centroid is to be defined with reference to y
two mutually perpendicular axes 0x and oy. x3 a3
Let us imagine that the reference axes are
x1, x2, x3, … and y1, y2, y3, … If and be the x2 a2
corresponding values for the centre of gravity, y3
c.g. with respect some axis of reference, then: x1 a1 y2
∑
= = y1
∑
∑
Similarly, = = . 0 x
∑
Where: a1, a2, a3, etc. are the areas into which the whole is divided.
x1, x2, x3, etc. are the respective co-ordinates of the areas, a1, a2, a3 on x-x axis with
respect to same axis of reference.
y1, y2, y3, etc. are the respective co-ordinates of the areas, a1, a2, a3 on y-y axis with
respect to same axis of reference. Knowing and fixed the points of the centroids of
the given area.
Instead of elemental area, if we take elemental masses, say m1, m2, m3, etc. of a solid body,
then we can determine the Centre of that body as:
∑ ∑
= ; =
∑ ∑

6.3 PROCEDURE FOR LOCATING THE CENTROID OF GEOMETRICAL FIGURES
After knowing the position of a centroid in a case of simple geometrical figures, such as
rectangle, circle, triangle, etc. we can proceed to locate the centroid of complex geometrical
figures which are combinations of two or more single ones. To do so, we proceed as follows:
i. Centroid must be of course on the axis of symmetry (if any);
ii. Break up the complex figure into number of plane geometrical figures;
iii. Find out the area of each constituent broken up geometrical figure;
iv. Choose suitable axis of reference with respect to which the position of centroid of a
given figure is desired to be determined;
v. Find the distance of the centroid of the geometrical figures from the axis of
reference;
vi. Take moment of the area of each constituent broken up geometrical figure about
the axis of reference by taking the product of each area with respective distance of
centroid from the axis of reference.
vii. Divide the sum total of all moments found about by the total area of the given figure
to get distance of its centroid from the axis of reference.
EXAMPLE 14
Find the centroid of an L-section shown below
3cm 3cm
10cm (1) 10cm
Figure (a) Figure (b)

3cm (2) 3cm
6cm 6cm
Solution:
As the section is symmetrical about both x-x and y-y axes, therefore the centroid of the section
will lie on either x-x or y-y axes. Split up the section into two rectangles (1) and (2) as shown in
figure (b).
Let be the distance between centroid and bottom, the axis of reference.
1. In rectangle (1): a1 = 10cm X 3cm = 30cm2 , y1 = 3 + (10/2) = 8cm.
2
2. In rectangle (2): a2 = 6cm X 3cm = 18cm , y2 = 3/2 = 1.5cm.
Using the relation,

4
= = = = ; = 5.6cm
4 4

EXAMPLE 15
Find the centroid of a channel section 10cm X 6cm x 2cm as shown in the figure A below.
Solution: 6cm
As the section is symmetrical about x-x 2cm (1)
axis, therefore the centroid of the section
will lie on this axis. Now split up the section 2cm
into three rectangles as shown in fig. b. 6cm (2) Fig. B.
Fig. A
2cm (3)
Let be the distance between centroid and the axis of reference.

i. In rectangle (1): a1 = 6cm X 2cm = 12cm2, x1 = (6/2)cm = 3cm
ii. In rectangle (2): a2 = 6cm X 2cm = 12cm2, x2 = (2/2)cm = 1cm
iii. In rectangle (3): a3 = 6cm X 2cm = 12cm2, x3 = (6/2)cm = 3cm.
Using the relation,
4
= = = = 2.3cm
EXAMPLE 16: Find the centroid of an “I” section having top flange10cm×2cm, web 30cm×2cm
and bottom flange 20cm×4cm as shown below:
10cm 10cm
Solution
2cm (1) 2cm
Figure (a) 2cm 30cm Figure (b) (2) 30cm
2cm
(3) 2cm
20cm 20cm
As the section is symmetrical about y-y axis, therefore the centroid of the section will lie on
this axis. Now split up the section into three rectangles (1), (2), (3) as shown in figure (b).
Let = be the distance between the centroid of the section and bottom of the lower
flange, the axis of reference.
i. In rectangle (1): A1 = 10cm X 2cm = 20cm2; y1 = 2 + 30 + (2/2) = 33cm.
2
ii. In rectangle (2): A2 = 30cm X 2cm = 60cm ; y2 = 2 + (30/2) = 17cm.
2
iii. In rectangle (3): A3 = 20cm X 2cm = 40cm ; y3 = (2cm/2) = 1cm.
Using the relation,
4
= = = = 14.3cm.
4

6.4 NEUTRAL AXIS
In theory of simple bending, there is a layer which is neither compressed nor stretched and
which is usually lies along the centroid of a figure along the x-x axis, when the section is
symmetrical about the x-x axis. Such layer is known as “Neutral plane” or “Neutral layer”.
Neutral axis is an imaginary plane which divides the cross section of a beam into a tension and
compression zones on the opposite sides of the plane. The line of intersection of the neutral
layer with any cross section of a beam is known as the “Neutral axis” of the section. At the
neutral axis, there is no stress of any kind.
There are two types of neutral axis. These are:
a. The critical neutral axis;
b. The actual neutral axis.
6.4.1 THE CRITICAL NEUTRAL AXIS:

The critical neutral axis is based on the principle that the neutral axis is situated at the centre
of gravity of a given section. The depth of the critical neutral axis from the top of the section
may be derived from the first principles, and is useful where stresses in the concrete and steel
are known.
b c
Consider a reinforced concrete as shown
In figure. Ƞ
N N
Let h = Effective depth of the beam; h h
Ƞ = Depth of neutral axis (N.A) from
the top of the beam;
t = Tensile stress in steel; t
c = compressive stress in concrete. Fig14: Reinforced concrete beam
= ……………………………. (1)
, ,
But = E, Strain, =
,
 Strain in concrete, = = ; Strain in steel, = =

Substituting these values, and in equation (1)
=
 x = ; = . But = m (modular ratio).
 = = (h - (m )= ; hm - m = .
 + m =hm ; m )=hm
 .
6.4.2 THE ACTUAL NEUTRAL AXIS:

The actual neutral axis of a section is based on the principle that the moment of area of
compression zone is equal to the moment of area of tension zone on either side of it. Since a
reinforced section is composed of two dissimilar materials, one of these two materials must be
converted into an equivalent section composed of only one material. The general practice is to
convert the area of reinforcement into equivalent area of concrete, by multiplying it by the
modular ratio.
b
Consider a reinforced concrete beam as shown in the
Figure shown.
Let b = The breadth of the beam; h
D = Overall depth of the beam; N h A
h = Effective depth of the beam
= Depth of neutral axis, N.A from the top of the beam;
As = area of steel;
Ac = Area of concrete;
m = Modular ratio. Fig. 14: A reinforced
concrete beam.
 Equivalent area of concrete, Ac = m.As.
 Moment of concrete (area about N.A):
=b X = ………………………………………………… (1)
Similarly, moment of steel (i.e. equivalent area of concrete)
= m.As (h - ) …………………………………………………….. (ii)
Equating equations (i) and (ii), we obtain:

2 2
= m.As(h - ); = 2 m. As (h - ); = 2.m.h. As - 2 m . As
2
+ 2.m .As – 2.m.h. As = 0
This can be seen to be a form of quadratic equation for . It should be noted that, it is only the
positive value of is considered, and the negative value is disregarded.

EXAMPLE 17
Find the position of the critical neutral axis of a beam having an effective depth of 27cm, given
that the stress in concrete and steel are 50kg/cm2 and 700kg/cm2 respectively. Take modular
ratio, m to be 18.
Solution:
Given: Effective depth, h = 27cm = 270mm
Stress in concrete, = 50kg/cm2 = = 5N/mm2.
Stress in steel, = 700kg/cm2 = = 70N/mm2.

Modular ratio, m = 18.
Depth of neutral axis from the top of the beam, =?
Using the relation, .
4
= = = 151.875 = 152mm.
EXAMPLE 18
A reinforced concrete beam of 30cm wide has an overall depth, D of 50cm. The reinforcement
which consists of 4-members of 2cm diameter bars is placed at 5cm above the base of the
beam. Find the actual neutral axis, N.A. Take modular ratio, m as 18.
Solution:
Given that: Width of the beam, b = 30cm = 300mm;
Overall depth, D = 50cm = 500mm;
Diameter of the reinforcement, d = 20mm
Effective depth of the beam, h = D – c - = 500 – 50 - = 440mm
Number of reinforcement bars = 4; Modular ratio, m = 18.
4
Area of the reinforcement bars, As = 4 = = 1256.637061
4 4
2
= 1256.64mm2 OR 400 mm
Depth of the neutral axis from the top of the beam, = ?

Using the relation, 2 - 2 mh. As + 2 m . As = 0; 2
+ 2m . As - 2 m . As = 0
2
 3 + 2 X 18 X X 400 – 2 X 18 X 440 x 400 = 0
2
 3 + 45238.9342 - 19905131.05 = 0; (Divide throughout by 300)

2
 + 150.7964474 - 66350.43684 = 0.
4
Using the relation, ,
Where: a = 1, b = 150.7964474, c = - 66350.43684
15 7964474 √ 15 7964474 4 1 6635 43684

2 1
44 4 √ 4 4 4
=
44 4 4
= =
44 4 4 44
= = = 192.9957572
= +193mm
or
44 4 4 44
= = = -343.792204
= -343mm
Therefore, = 193mm (to the nearest whole number).

7.0 CONSTRUCTION OF MOHR’S CIRCLE:
Mohr’s circle is another method for the determination of normal, tangential, and resultant
stresses graphically across a plane. The construction of Mohr’s circle is easier than the other
graphical methods. The main concentration here is about the nature and intensity of the
stresses on planes, other than that, which is at right angle to the line of action of the forces.
7.1 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND PLANES

It has been observed that at any point in a strained material, there are three planes mutually
perpendicular to each other which carry direct stresses only, and no shear stress. A little
consideration will show that out of these three direct stresses; one will be maximum,
minimum and third will be an intermediate between the two. These particular stresses which
have no shear stress are known as “principal planes” The magnitude of direct stress across
principal plane is known as “Principal stress”. The determination of principal planes and then
principal stress is an important factor in the design of various structures and machine
components.
There are two basic methods of determining stresses on oblique sections of strained
materials; these are:
i. The analytical method; and
ii. The graphical method.
A German engineer, Otto Mohr devised a very handy graphical method of determining
principal stresses on a plane subjected to two mutually perpendicular normal stresses and to
shear and/or to find normal and shear stresses acting on a plane subjected to two principal
stresses.
Consider a rectangular body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal tensile
stresses and an oblique section on which we are to find out the stresses.
P
Let q1 = Major tensile stress;
Figure 23
q2 = Minor tensile stress;
θ B 𝛉 = Angle which the
O A X
C Q oblique section makes
q2
with the minor tensile
q1
stress.
Now draw the Mohr’s circle of the stresses of the above figure as discussed below.
a. First of all take some suitable point, O and draw a horizontal line, OX.
b. Cut off OA and OB equal to stress q1 and q2 respectively to some suitable scale on the
same of O (because the two stress are equal)
c. Bisect BA at C as center and radius equal to BC or CA, draw a circle.
d. Now though C, draw a line CP making an angle 2 with CX, meeting the circle at P.
e. Through P, draw PQ perpendicular to OA. Now join OP.
f. Now OQ and PQ will give normal and tangential stresses to the scale. OP will give the
required resultant stress to the scale. The angle POA is called angle of obliquity.
EXAMPLE 19
At a point in a strained material, the normal tensile stresses are 80N/mm 2 and 40n/mm2.
Determine by Mohr’s circle the resultant intensity of stresses on a plane inclined at 40 o to the
axis of the minor stress. Also check the answer analytically.
Solution:
Given that: Major tensile stress, q1 = 80N/mm2;

Minor tensile stress, q2 = 40N/mm2;
Angle which the plane makes with the axis of the minor stress, = 40o.
Graphical solution:
a. First of all, take suitable point, O and draw a horizontal line OX;
b. Cut off OA equal to 80cm and OB equal to 40cm as scaled on the same side of O;
c. Bisect BA at C. Now C at centre, and radius equal to CB or CA draw a circle;
d. Now through C, draw OP making an angle 2 x 40o = 80o with CX, meeting the circle at P.
 Join OP, by measurement, the resultant stress, qR is found as 66.5N/mm2
P
ANALYTICAL CHECK
qn = Normal stress on the plane;

O B 2𝛉 A X
C Q qT = Tangential stress on the
q2 = 40N/mm2
q1 = 80N/mm2 plane; and
qR = Resultant stress on the plane.
Scale: 1cm = 10N/mm2 on both sides
Normal stress, qn = + COS 2 ; But 2 = 2 x 40o = 80o.

4 4
 qn = + COS 80O = 60 + 20 COS 80O = 63.47296355 = 63.5N/mm2
Tangential stress, qT = Sin 2 But 2 = 2 x 40o = 80o.

4
 qT = x Sin 80o = 20 Sin 80o =19.69615506 = 19.7N/mm2.
Resultant stress, qR = √ qR = 63 5 19 7
= 66.48563755. qR = 66.5N/mm2

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 0

1.0 RELATIONS BETWEEN STRESSES AND STRAINS

………………………………………………… (1), Where,

σ = Intensity of the force (stress);

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 1

1.1 TYPES OF STRESSES:

There are basically four (4) types of stresses. These include:

1.1.1 TENSILE STRESS:

1.1.2 COMPRESSIVE STRESS

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 2

1.2.1 TENSILE STRAINS:

 ℓT = = ………………………..………………….. (3) where,

T = Tensile strain; = Change in length

1.2.2 COMPRESSIVE STRAINS:

 C = = ………………………………………...…... (4) where,

C = Compressive strain; = Change in length

1.3 STRESS-STRAIN CURVES:

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 3

1.3.1.1 DUCTILE MATERIALS:

F = Failure or breaking point.

Figure 2(a): Stress-strain curve for

1.3.1.2 BRITTLE MATERIALS:

5. Offset strain (usually 0.2%)

Figure 2(b): Stress-strain curve for

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 4

= E …………………………..……………………………… (5), where,

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 5

1.4 DEFORMATION OF A BODY DUE TO APPLICATION OF LOADS:

1.4.1 FACTOR OF SAFETY

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 6

Load factor = ……………….………………………….. (8)

1.4.2 POISSON’S RATIO

If the longitudinal or linear strain is ℓ, then lateral strain =

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 7

Therefore, stress, = 9.55Nmm-2.

From Hooke’s law, E = ; = = 0.00000457 = 4.5 X 10-6.

Elongation, = ℓ . L = 4.5 X 10-6 x 500mm = 0.0022733mm = 2.27 X 10-3mm.

Given that: Length, L of the rod = 150cm, Area, A = (4cm)2 = 4 X 4 = 16cm2

Pull, P = 1500kg, E = 2.0 X 106kgcm-2, =?

Using the relation, = = = 0.00703125cm = 7.0 X 10-3cm.

OR: Stress, = = 93.75kgcm-2

Strain, = = 0.000046875 = 4.7 X 10-5

Elongation, =ℓ.L = 4.7 X 10-5 X 150cm = 0.00703125cm = 7.0 X 10-3cm.

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 8

a. What is the minimum diameter, “d” required?

Given that: Load, P = 2KN = 2000N, E = 2.1 X 106N/mm2 , Diameter, d = ?

Cross sectional area, A = = = 25mm2

a. From Area of the cross section, A = ,

 d= (31.83098862) = 5.641895835 = 5.6mm.

CEC 106 By Malam Inuwa Umar B. Page 9

2.1.1 SHEAR FORCE:

2.1.2 BENDING MOMENT:

2.2 TYPES OF SUPPORTS TO A BEAM

a. Cantilever beam: This is a beam fixed at Figure 15(a)

b. Simply supported beam: This is a beam Figure 15(b)

c. Rigidly fixed beam: This is a beam whose Figure 15(c)

d. Overhanging beam: This is a beam having its

e. Continuous beam: This is a beam supported Figure 15(e)