THE PRESENT INDEFINITE

The Present Indefinite Tense is used to denote:

1) habitual, recurrent (repeated) actions expressed by terminative verbs. The
character of the action is normally indicated by adverbials of frequency such as
often, always, usually, seldom, rarely, sometimes, never, generally, as a rule,
every day (month), every other day (week, month, etc.,), once a week, etc.
e.g. They get up at 8.
2) permanent actions expressed by durative verbs:
e.g. He lives in Minsk.
3) an action or a state permanently characterizing the subject (working
hours, characteristics)
e.g. He speaks English fluently.
4) general rules, laws of nature, universal truths
e.g. Snow melts at 0° C.
ACTIONS / STATES AT THE MOMENT OF SPEAKING
5) a state at the moment of speaking expressed by stative verbs. These verbs
do not admit of Continuous forms.
e.g. I hear the music well.
The following is the list of most commonly used stative verbs:

a) verbs denoting physical perceptions: to hear, to notice, to see;

b) verbs denoting emotions: to adore, to care for, to detest, to dislike, to hate, to
like, to love, to respect;
c) verbs denoting wish: to desire, to want, to wish;
d) verbs denoting mental processes: to admire (=to be of high opinion), to
appreciate, to assume, to believe (=to consider), to consider (=to regard), to doubt,
to expect (=to suppose), to feel (=to consider), to imagine, to know, to mind (=to
object), to perceive, to presume, to recall, to recognize, to recollect, to regard, to
remember, to suppose, to think (=to consider), to trust, to understand;
e) relational verbs: to apply, to be, to belong, to concern, to consist, to contain,
to depend, to deserve, to differ, to equal, to fit, to have, to hold (=to contain), to
include, to involve, to lack, to matter, to need, to owe, to own, to possess, to
remain, to require, to resemble, to result, to signify, to suffice;
f) some other verbs: to agree, to allow, to appear (=to seem), to astonish, to
claim, to consent, to displease, to envy, to fail to do, to feel (intr), to find, to forbid,
to forgive, to intend, to interest, to keep doing, to manage to do, to mean, to object,
to please, to prefer, to prevent, to puzzle, to realize, to refuse, to remind, to satisfy,
to seem, to smell (intr), to sound (intr), to succeed, to suit, to surprise, to taste
(intr), to tend, to value.

But sometimes stative verbs change their meaning and denote an action, and
consequently be used in Continuous forms.

6) an action in declarations and announcements, observations,

commentaries, stage directions referring to the moment of speaking
e.g. I declare the meeting open.
7) a succession of actions in a TV commentary, a demonstration, a recipe, etc.
e.g. I take a match, light it, put it into the glass and … nothing happens.
8) an action in instructions, directions
e.g. Before you place a phone call, first you think what the purpose of the call is.
9) an action going on at the present moment when the fact of it is more
important than the progress
e.g. Why do you look at me as if you had never seen me?
– Can I use your phone? – Sorry, it doesn’t work.
10) an action going on at the present moment if a verb (stand, sit, lie) is
followed by Participle I
e.g. The managing director sits reading the annual report.
11) an action going on at the present moment in sentences with formal
subjects Here …, There …
e.g. Look, here comes your Mum.
12) an action going on at the moment of speaking with the verbs to itch, to
ache, to hurt, to feel
e.g. I feel well now.
13) an action going on at the moment speaking when the subject is
expressed by an inanimate noun.
e.g. I can see the letter that lies on the table.
FUTURE ACTIONS
14) a future action in timetables, programmes, schedules, plans
e.g. The train leaves at three o’clock.
15) a future action in subordinate clauses of
- time (after the conjunctions: when, while, till, until, before, after, as soon as,
once)
- condition (after the conjunctions: if, unless, on condition(that), provided,
providing, in case)
- concession (after the conjunctions: even if, even though, no matter how,
whenever, whatever, however, etc.)
- in object clauses (after to see (to), to take care, to make sure)
e.g. When she comes, I will ring you up.
I’ll see that the lady is properly looked after.
16) an immediate future action in some special questions
e.g. What do we do next? (Что будем делать?)
Where do we go now? (Куда сейчас пойдем?)
What happens next? (Что сейчас будет?)
17) a future action in special negative questions to make suggestions, offers,
invitations
e.g. Why don’t they go on a day-trip?
PAST ACTIONS
18) an action with perfect meaning in introductory expressions I hear, I see,
I understand
e.g. I hear you are getting married.
NB It’s possible to use the Present Perfect with the verb to hear to express an
action.
e.g. I’ve heard he has arrived. (someone has told me)
I hear he has arrived. (I know he has arrived)
19) a succession of actions in the past to make a narration more vivid
e.g. She arrives full of life and spirit. Then she sits down in a chair, says she
doesn’t feel well, gasps a bit and dies.
20) an action in headlines to make the events closer to the reader
e.g. Blind girl climbs Everest.
Comment on the use of the Present Indefinite in the following sentences:
Model:
1. Every day I come to the University early in the morning. - The verb to come is
used in its Present Indefinite tense form to denote a habitual action. The
repeated character of the action is shown by the adverbial every day.
2. Peter is a member of the University team because he plays football very well. -
The verb to play is used in its Present Indefinite tense form to denote an action
permanently characterizing the subject.
3. When spring comes, the rays of the sun warm the earth. - The verb to warm is
used in its Present Indefinite tense form to denote a law of nature.
4. Do you feel cold? Why don't you answer? You speak too slowly. - The verbs
to feel, to answer, and to speak are used in their Present Indefinite tense forms
to denote actions going on at the present moment when the fact is more
important than the process.
5. I understand you quite well. - The verb to understand is used in its Present
Indefinite tense form to denote a state at the moment of speaking.
6. If I come home early, I will call you. – The verb to come is used in its Present
Indefinite tense form to denote a future action in a subordinate clause of
condition.
A. 1. Nurses look after patients in hospitals. 2. Why don't you give up smoking? 3.
I am weighing myself. I weigh 65 kilos. 4. This coat belongs to you. 5. She drives to
London once a week. 6. The car stops outside the National Bank. Three men get out
and the driver stays in the car. The three men walk into the bank and take out their
guns. 7. Let me explain what you have to do. First you take the photos and sort
them into categories. Then you file them according to subject. 8. Gases expand
when heated. 9. The coach leaves at 6 this morning. 10. Ellis throws the ball in to
Snow, but he loses it. 11. I hear she is getting married. 12. If it keeps on raining, we’ll
have to stay at home. 13. The concert starts at 7.30 tomorrow night. 14. I’ll make
sure he does everything in time. 15. I hear you are leaving for Canada.
B.1. She loves her baby more than anything. 2. I occasionally eat meat. 3.
Vegetarians don't eat meat or fish. 4. Why doesn't he take up tennis? 5. Something
smells strange. 6. The conference starts on June 3rd and finishes on June 10th. 7.
Watson gives the ball to Tanner. Tanner goes past two men, he shoots, but the ball
hits a Liverpool player. 8. If you need money, why don't you get a job? 9. The earth
goes round the sun. 10. You cook it for five minutes, and then you put the onions in.
11. Look. Here comes the bus. 12. Hot air rises. 13. I hear a bird. It is singing. 14.
I'm hungry. I want a sandwich.

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

The Present Continuous Tense is used to denote:

1. an action going on at the moment of speaking
e.g. Don’t bother him, he is working.
2. an action happening at the present period of time
e.g. He is building his own house.
3. changing situations
e.g. The population of our country is growing.
4. frequently repeated actions provoking annoyance or criticism (with always,
constantly, continually, forever)
e.g. He is always asking stupid questions.
5. two or more simultaneous/parallel actions in progress at the moment of
speaking or at the present period of time (conjunctions: while, when, as)
e.g.: While the speaker is summarizing the main ideas of his report, the listeners
are already packing their things.
6. temporary actions (with the verbs to work, to live)
e.g. I’m working at a shop.
7. an unusual behavior
e.g. He is being very naughty these days.
8. great intensity of feelings with stative verbs
e.g. I am liking my new life very much.
9. insistence
e.g. I’m telling you to come.
FUTURE ACTIONS
10. a planned action in the near future
e.g. We are having a party tonight.
11. an action which will be taking place at a definite moment in the future
(instead of the Future Continuous tense) in subordinate clauses of
time (after the conjunctions: when, while, till, until, before, after, as soon as,
once),
condition (after the conjunctions: if, unless, on condition(that), provided,
providing, in case),
concession (after the conjunctions: even if, even though, no matter how,
whenever, whatever, however, etc.)
e.g.: Tomorrow when you are making a presentation, I’ll be listening to you
attentively.

Comment on the use of the Present Continuous in the following sentences:

Model:
1. Look at that woman. What a nice dress she is wearing! - The verb to wear is
used in its Present Continuous tense form to denote an action taking place
at the moment of speaking.
2. He isn’t playing football this season. - The verb to play is used in its
Present Continuous tense form to express an action taking place during the
present period of time.
3. We are moving to a new flat soon - The verb to move is used in its Present
Continuous tense form to denote a planned action in the near future.
4. Benny's grandmother is going to give him his usual morning milk. - The
construction to be going to is used to denote the speaker’s intention.
5. He is always speaking in a loud voice. - The verb to speak is used in its
Present Continuous tense form to express a frequently repeated action
provoking irritation, criticism.
6. While Ann is cooking Mary is laying the table. - The verbs to cook and to
lay are used in their Present Continuous tense form to denote two
simultaneous actions at present.
A. 1. I'm always paying for your coffee. Why can't you pay for a change? 2. We're
spending next winter in Australia. 3. Don't rush me. I'm working as fast as I can. 4.
We're enjoying our holiday here very much. 5. Young people are becoming more
and more politically aware these days. 6. You are constantly panicking, aren't you?
Calm down. 7. She is running 1,500 metres in the next Olympics. 8. What is Maria
doing these days? — She is studying English at a school in London. 9. She is forever
forgetting to lock the front door. 10. Prices are rising all the time. Everything is
getting more and more expensive. 11. I'm having treatment on my bad back for a few
weeks. 12. While you are cooking dinner tomorrow, I will be watching a film on
TV. 13. Ben and Patty are in London on holiday. They are staying at a small hotel
near Hyde Park. 14. I'm meeting Sue on Saturday evening. 15. He's hurrying to catch
his train.
B. 1. He is always upsetting people by asking personal questions. 2. Tom isn't
playing football this season. He wants to concentrate on his studies. 3. Is your
English getting better? 4. He's always lying. You can't believe a word he says. 5.
Let's go out now. It isn't raining any more. 6. My sister is very busy these days.
She's writing an article. 7. Jennifer's always losing her key. 8. We are having our
examinations in January. 9. You know that cinema audiences are declining in the
United States. 10. What book are you reading this term? 11. While they are
travelling I am working. 12. Someone is knocking on the door. 13. I hear your
parents are coming to see you. 14. Why are you feeling my forehead? 15. We are
going ice-skating tomorrow.

THE PRESENT PERFECT

The Present Perfect Tense is used to denote:

1. a completed action which is a part of the present situation (connected with
the present in its result)
e.g. The place looks neat. He has cut the grass.
2. an action which is over but the period of time within which it was
performed is not over yet
e.g. I have seen her today.
3. a state of some duration which began in the past and continues into or up to
the moment of speaking (instead of the Present Perfect Continuous tense):
- with state/stative verbs, i.e. the verbs which don’t admit of the continuous
form,
e.g. We have been partners since we first met. I have missed you since you’ve
been away.
- in negative sentences (preferred to the Present Perfect Continuous tense)
when it’s the action that is completely negated.
e.g. It hasn’t rained for several weeks.
NB But when the negation doesn’t refer to the action itself but to the circumstances
/ or the duration of an action is emphasized the Present Perfect Continuous is used
e.g. The children haven’t been sleeping well recently.
4. to introduce a new topic, to announce a piece of news
e.g. We have had a terrible day at the office. My secretary fell ill, we lost three
contracts.
5. a future action in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition to
emphasise the completion of the action (but not with the verbs of motion)
e.g. I’ll stay with you until you have finished everything.
6. to sum up a situation or to emphasize number
e.g. You have been good to me.
e.g. He has worked in two schools
7. a more permanent action (instead of the Present Perfect Continuous) with
verbs to work, to live, to feel, etc.
e.g. I have worked here for 20 years.
But to emphasize the process Present Perfect Continuous is used
e.g. I have been working here for 20 years.
8. two parallel states in complex sentences with the conjunction since
e.g. He has loved her since he has known her.
Comment on the use of the Present Perfect in the following sentences:
Model:
1. Nick has already finished school. - The verb to finish is used in its Present
Perfect tense form to denote a completed action which is a part of the present
situation / connected with the present in its result
2. Nick has been in the library since early morning / for two hours. - The verb to be
is used in its Present Perfect tense form to denote a state of some duration
which began in the past and continues into the moment of speaking. The starting
point of the action is indicated by the preposition since/the whole period of
duration is indicated by the preposition for
3. After he has paid all the money, he can call the house his own - The verb to pay
is used in its Present Perfect tense form to denote the completion of the future
action in a subordinate clause of time.

A. 1. Look. Somebody has spilled milk on the carpet. 2. I have done a lot of work
today. 3. I haven’t heard from him since he moved to London. 4. We’ll continue
the discussion as soon as you have collected more facts. 5. Luckily we haven’t had
any trouble so far. 6. She is in hospital. She has had a bad crash. 7. He has played
a lot of football this year. 8. She has had a headache since she got up this morning.
9. I’ll tell you the news after I have learnt everything. 10. I have seen my dentist
this morning. 11. I have known him for a long time. 12. What a shame. I have lost
my umbrella. 13. They haven’t decided yet what further actions to take. 14. Have
you heard their new records? 15. Jane is crying. She has hurt her knee.

B. 1. I’m sorry for her. She has had bad luck all her life. 2. We have had a lot of
visitors this year. 3. After we've done all the packing it w i l l be nice to have a light
meal. 4. The cheese is mouldy. I think it has gone off. 5. You can go for a walk
only after you have done your homework. 6. Peter has asked for a pay-rise three
times this year. 7. I haven’t seen him for three years. I wonder where he is. 8. We
have missed the bus. Now we’ll have to walk. 9. My brother has written three
books. 10. I have known Mary since I was six. 11. When I’ve finished this I'll go
and put the child to bed. 12. I have loved chocolate since I was a child. 13. I have
learnt a lot in this class. 14. I'm going to eat something. I haven't had anything
since last night. 15. I shall probably bore you to death by the time I've finished
talking about myself.

THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used to denote:

1. an action of some duration that started in the past and continues into or up
to the moment of speaking
e.g. He has been washing his bike for an hour.
2. a past action of certain duration having visible results in the present (the
period of time is implied)
e.g. You look sad. Have you been crying?
3. an action of some duration with a repeated character
e.g. I have been shopping successfully recently.
4. a future action in progress before a certain moment in the future in
subordinate clauses of time and condition to denote
e.g. He’ll get accustomed after he has been staying here for a week or two.
5. two parallel actions in complex sentences with the conjunction since
e.g. I have been learning more and more since I have been studying here.
6. anger, irritation, annoyance or criticism
e.g. Someone has been lying to me!
Comment on the use of the Present Perfect Continuous in the following
sentences:
Model:
1. It has been raining for a week. - The verb to rain is used in its Present Perfect
Continuous tense form to denote an action of some duration which began in the
past, and continues into the moment of speaking. The whole period of duration is
indicated by the preposition for.
2. I’m so tired. I have been shopping the whole morning. - The verb to shop is used
in its Present Perfect Continuous tense form to denote a past action of certain
duration having visible results in the present
A. 1. Who has been drinking my orange juice? 2. She has been doing the
crossword since morning. 3. They are so scruffy because they have been camping
for three weeks. 4. Her feet are sore. She has been walking all morning. 5. He has
been laughing at me since the very morning! 6. You will know everything after
you have been working here for some months. 7. I have been waiting for you since
4 o’clock. 8. I have been learning English for 10 years. 9. He is tired. He has been
working non-stop all morning. 10. It has been raining steadily for three days on
end now. 11. He has been collecting stamps since his childhood. 12. You are out of
breath. Have you been running? 13. I don't want anyone to know I've been crying.
14. I am not really hot. It's just that I’ve been running. 15. She has been playing
since 12 o'clock.
B. 1. I have been trying to learn English for years. 2. He has been overworking.
That is why he looks so tired. 3. I have been looking for my bag for ages. 4. I have
been bathing. That’s why my hair is all wet. 5. I have been driving for ten years. 6.
I have been shopping and I don’t have a penny left. 7. The children have been
looking forward to this holiday for months. 8. I have been waiting for you for
about an hour. 9. How long have you been wearing glasses? 10. I’m on a diet. I
have been eating nothing but bananas for the last month. 11. He has been teaching
in this school for years. 12. Sorry, I’m late. Have you been waiting for me? 13.
That pipe has been leaking for ages. We must get it mended. 14. Someone has
been using my bicycle. The chin has fallen off. 15. Your fingers are brown you
have been smoking too much.

THE PAST INDEFINITE

The Past Indefinite Tense is used to denote:

1. actions performed at a definite moment in the past (indicators: yesterday,
last week (month, year, time, etc.), ago, in 2005, just now (=a moment ago),
the other day (на днях), in those days (в те дни, в то время), etc.)
e.g. I saw him yesterday.
Note 1: sometimes there is no indication of past time in the sentence but the
moment is definite in the minds of the speaker and his listener/listeners either
because the action has already been mentioned or because the situation is very well
known to the listener/listeners.
e.g.: What did you say? – Что вы сказали?
I didn’t hear your question. – Я не слышал вашего вопроса.
Did you hear what he said?
Did you enjoy the play?
Did you have a good journey (trip, ride, flight, time, day, etc.)?
Did you see the accident?
Note 2: sometimes an adverbial modifier of place points to a past period of time
and can be easily transformed into an adverbial modifier of time.
e.g.: Did you see him at the theatre (= when you were at the theatre)?
I ran into her in Oxford Street (= when I was in Oxford Street).
Note 3: in questions introduced by when, where, how (to show definite time, place,
attendant circumstances).
e.g. How did you get in?
2. a succession of past actions
e.g. He got up, put on his hat and left.
3. repeated actions in the past which are no longer valid (can also be
expressed by used to (for actions and states) or would (for actions only))
e.g. He made an entry in his diary every night.
He used to write articles at night.
4. states at a certain moment in the past
e.g. He heard what they were speaking about.
5. an action going on at the definite moment in the past if a verb (stand, sit, lie)
is followed by Participle I
e.g. The managing director sat reading the annual report.
6. inquiries, requests, suggestions with verbs like hope, think, wonder, etc. in
situations referring to the present
e.g. I wondered if you could give me a lift.
7. a belief that has just been shown to be true or false
e.g. You’re older than I thought.
8. an action performed within a period of time in the past which is already
over (indicators: for 3 years, during his vacations, etc.). The emphasis is placed
on the reference of the fact to the past, not on the duration of the activity. The
period of duration belongs completely to the past time sphere.
e.g.: I baked the cake for 30 minutes yesterday.
 They lived in Minsk for 5 years before the war.
9. a future action in subordinate clauses of time and condition depending on
principal clauses referring to the past (with the predicate verb in a past tense
form)
e.g. She said she would come when the film was over.
10. two fully simultaneous actions joined by the conjunction as
e.g. They talked as they walked.

Comment on the use of the Past Indefinite in the following sentences:

Model:
1. John played tennis for two hours yesterday. - The verb to play is used in the
Past Indefinite tense form to denote an action performed within a period of time
in the past which is already over.
2. First he did the exercise then had dinner and went for a walk. - The verbs to do,
to have, to go are used in the Past Indefinite tense form to denote a succession
of past actions
3. Every morning at 8 o’clock he went out into the street to walk about the city. He
often went to the Neva. - The verbs to go out, to go are used in the Past
Indefinite tense forms to denote repeated actions in the past.
4. She used to get up early in the morning. – The expression used to get up is used
to denote a repeated action in the past which is no longer valid.

A. 1. I felt very happy in those days. 2. The dog picked up the bone and carried it
away. 3. Every week he took his girl out. 4. He used to like comedies. 5. He lived
on the farm for ten years. 6. As a student he travelled a lot. 7. The book is not as
interesting as I expected. 8. She promised she would phone me when he finished
doing the washing up. 9. Where did you see him? 10. I felt very happy in those
days. 11. He lived in London for 3 years when his father worked there. 12. In those
days Paul looked young and handsome. 13. We walked in silence for a long time.
14. They set out early in the morning. 15. He often felt ill.
B. 1. He said he would help me when he came home from work. 2. Before coming
to the city we lived on the farm. 3. The film is not as interesting as I expected. 4. I
thought you could give me a piece of advice. 5. I remember you smoked 30
cigarettes a day. How did you give up? 6. My father burst into a rage and
demanded his money back. 7. In those days Paul looked young and handsome. 8.
She came in and laid all the books on the table. 9. I asked him what he was going
to do if he was sacked. 10. He collected books on Carribean flora. 11. Last year we
won a TV set on the lottery. 12. We met in the foyer and went into the hall. 13.
When I was a teenager I went to a disco every week. 14. She taught Russian for
two years when she lived in France. 15. He looked up as Eric came in.

THE PAST CONTINUOUS

The Past Continuous Tense is used to denote:

1. actions going on at a definite moment or period of time in the past which
can be indicated by
a) some exact time mentioning
e.g. It was 12 and he was still sitting.
b) some other action in the past
e.g. I was playing football when I broke my ankle.
2. frequently repeated past actions provoking annoyance or criticism (with
always, constantly, continually, forever)
e.g. He was constantly losing things.
3. future planned actions viewed from the past
e.g. She said she was leaving in a week.
4. a planned action which wasn’t carried out with the verbs to expect, to
intend, to hope, to plan, to mean
e.g. I was meaning to go there.
5. two or more simultaneous past actions in progress
e.g. He was cooking while she was sleeping.
6. background description to events in a story
e.g. The sun was shining and the birds were singing …

Comment on the use of the Past Continuous in the following sentences:

Model:
1. When I left the house, it was raining. -The verb to rain is used in the Past
Continuous tense form to denote an action which was going on at a definite
moment in the past. The definite moment is indicated by another past action,
expressed by the verb to leave used in the Past Indefinite tense form.
2. While Jane was doing her homework Peter was repairing the bike. -The verbs to
do and to repair are used in the Past Continuous tense form to denote two
simultaneous actions in the past.
3. It was drizzling the whole day. - The verb to drizzle is used in the Past
Continuous tense form to denote an action which was going on at a certain
period of time in the past.
4. She was always idling away her time at school. -The verb to idle is used in the
Past Continuous tense form to denote a frequently repeated past action
provoking annoyance or irritation.

A. 1. She was sitting in the library from 2 to 4 yesterday. 2. When John arrived I
was cooking supper. 3. In those days he was always borrowing money and
forgetting to pay it back. 4. While he was watching TV I was working in the
garden. 5. She said she was going abroad in summer. 6. I was planning to move
house. 7. I wasn’t driving very fast when the accident happened. 8. As I was
driving to London I was listening to music on the radio. 9. At 6 o’clock this
morning I was having a wonderful dream. 10. He remembered that Jack was
coming for lunch in the evening. 11. Nick was always teasing me when we were at
school. 12. He was gardening all weekend. 13. Sue met her husband while she was
working in Paris. 14. It was snowing heavily when we got to Warsaw. 15. Are you
going to Rome? I thought that you were going to Milan.
B. 1. When I first met him he was studying painting. 2. Some children were
bathing, others were looking for shells. 3. He was always losing his things when he
was at school. 4. I was intending to visit my grandmother this summer. 5. He was
playing the guitar and everybody was listening attentively. 6. He explained that he
was leaving for Australia the following year. 7. When I was looking for my
passport I found this old photo. 8. I knew Harry was coming sometime on Monday.
9. It was raining when I left. 10. At 10.20 yesterday I was playing chess with my
wife. 11. Ann was sitting on the park bench while the children were playing. 12.
He was always leaving dirty clothes on the floor! 13. While I was working in my
offices yesterday my cousin stopped by to visit me. 14. He was constantly showing
that he was smarter than me. 15. He was meaning to help me.

THE PAST PERFECT

The Past Perfect Tense is used to denote:

1. an action completed before another action or a certain moment in the past
e.g. He had spent all his money by the end of the month.
2. the completion of the action but not priority
e.g. He waited until she had found the key and opened the door.
3. a succession of past actions preceding the narrative as a whole
e.g. In front of me was a neat square of grass and a path. Someone had opened the
gate, had walked very quietly up to the house …
4. an action completed before a certain moment in the past in complex
sentences with the conjunctions: hardly … when, scarcely … when, no sooner
… than.
e.g. He had hardly finished doing his homework when the telephone rang.
NB If a sentence starts with hardly, scarcely, no sooner, the sentence has an
inverted word order.
e.g. Hardly had he finished doing his homework when the telephone rang.
5. a state of some duration which began before a definite moment in the past,
continued into or up to that moment.
e.g. I had known him for many years before I learnt about the tragedy.
6. an action of some duration which began before a definite moment in the
past, continued into or up to that moment and which is completely negated.
e.g. They hadn’t spoken to each other for three days before they made up.
6. an action accomplished before another still in progress ( in combination
with the Past Continuous)
e.g. She had got up and was breathing deeply.
7. a future action in a subordinate clause of time to emphasize the completion
of an action
e.g. He decided to read nothing but the dictionary until he had mastered every
word of it.

Comment on the use of the Past Perfect in the following sentences:

Model:
1. She had finished her homework by 5 o’clock. - The verb to finish is used in the
Past Perfect tense form to denote an action completed before a certain moment
in the past. The definite moment is indicated by an adverbial phrase by 5
o’clock.
2. Hardly had she laid the table when she heard the telephone ring. - The verb to
lay is used in the Past Perfect tense form to denote an action completed before
another moment in the past indicated by the verb to ring in a complex sentence
with the conjunctions hardly … when.
3. Ann added she hadn’t seen much of Nick since 1986/for 3 years. - The verb to
see is used in the Past Perfect tense form to denote an action which began
before the definite moment in the past indicated by the verb to add and
continued into it and which is completely negated.

A. 1. I understood they had just fallen asleep. 2. When John came home his sister
hadn’t gone to bed yet. 3. Maggy had scarcely introduced her boy-friend to me
when I recognized him. 4. He was pleased to meet Dave again. He had known him
for ten or eleven years. 5. He waited until she had finished doing her homework
and left the room. 6. The rain had stopped and the sun was shining. 7. Mary had
hardly come home when it began to rain. 8. The Hiltons hadn’t bought tickets
before they took the train. 9. Mary said she hadn’t gone to her grandmother since
she finished school. 10. She mentioned that she had lived in London for 5 years.
11. Nelly was out of practice in English. She hadn’t taught it since she left
London. 12. I noticed that my car had disappeared. 13. Sam had already left when
Ann got here. 14. Jack chose the hotel. He had never been there before but he had
heard his mother speak of it once. 15. He was pleased to meet Dave again. He had
known him for ten or eleven years.
B. 1. I knew they had been married for nearly 50 years. 2. I did not remember
much about the Pimleys, whom I had not seen for about ten years. 3. Hardly had
she arrived when she started to complain. 4. By the time we arrived at the zoo they
had already fed the elephants. 5. He told me he had not heard from her since the
day she walked out of their office. 6. He had finished working and was having a
rest. 7. When we left the beach the rain had already started. 8. I told him I had
been in all evening. 9. Hardly had we put up the tent when it started to rain. 10. I
rang the shop as soon as I had checked the contents of the box. 11. By the time we
arrived the party had finished. 12. They had locked the gates before I got there. 13.
Before I went to London I had never been abroad before. 14. Hardly had we
started lunch when the doorbell rang. 15. At last he returned home. His wife had
cooked dinner for him, had cleaned the house, and had done the shopping.

THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to denote:

1. an action of some duration that started before the moment of speaking in
the past and continued into or up to it
e.g. She had been trying to get a visa for months before she gave up.
2. an action of certain duration which had visible results in the past
e.g. Her fingers hurt because she had been playing the guitar all day.

Comment on the use of the Past Perfect Continuous in the following sentences:
Model:
1. By last year she had been studying English for 3 years. - The verb to study is
used in the Past Perfect Continuous tense form to denote an action which
began before some definite moment in the past indicated by the expression by
last year, and continued into that moment.
2. She was tired. She had been working in the garden all day. - The verb to work is
used in the Past Perfect Continuous tense form to denote an action of certain
duration which had visible results in the past.
A. 1. He had only been sitting there for half an hour when his friend entered the
room. 2. I knew she had been doing nothing since she came home. 3. After he had
been looking out of the window for a short time he began to write. 4. They had
been working for three hours before they stopped for a meal. 5. John got tired as he
had been hunting since early morning. 6. I was sure she had been listening to the
radio since she came home. 7. The travelers looked tired because they had been
travelling since the beginning of the month. 8. Tom had been travelling abroad for
a year before he returned home. 9. Mary could see that the child had been crying.
10. They felt exhausted that morning because they had been driving all night. 11.
James was very cross. He had been working in the kitchen all morning. 12. Diana
had been waiting for an hour before Nick arrived. 13. My eyes ached because I
had been reading for three hours. 14. The Browns had been living in the same
house for ten years before they decided to move. 15. I was tired. I had been
digging all day.

B. 1. I had been waiting outside the cinema for half an hour before my friend
turned up. 2. He said that they had now been hunting hard for ten days. 3. She was
aware that they had been getting on each other's nerves lately. 4. I told him I had
been waiting to talk with him. 5. We were all wet because we had been running in
the rain. 6. They had been talking for three hours when it got dark. 7. His legs hurt
because he had been jumping too much. 8. Patrick had been waiting for a new
appointment until last year. 9. We got a suntan because we had been lying in the
sun for three hours. 10. She had been working here for ten years before she
resigned. 11. We had been cooking for the party all day and by 8 o’clock we still
weren’t ready. 12. We talked about what we had been doing since we left school.
13. The noise woke the baby who had been sleeping in his pram. 14. He said he
had been writing all day. 15. His hands were covered in oil because he had been
trying to fix his car all morning.

THE FUTURE INDEFINITE

The Future Indefinite Tense is used to denote:

1. a single point future action (indicators: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow,
in a week (month, year), next week (month, year, time, etc.); in a day or two,
one of these days)
e.g. It will ruin her.
2. an action occupying a whole period of time in the future
e.g. I will remain in love with you all my life.
3. a succession of actions in the future
e.g. We will just talk and then we will have dinner.
4. a future action in the object and attributive subordinate clauses
e.g. I don’t know if he will help us.
I don’t know the exact time when he will come.
5. decisions taken at the moment of speaking (on-the-spot decisions)
e.g. It’s cold in here. I will turn on the heating.
6. hopes, fears, threats, warnings, offers, promises, invitations, suggestions,
etc. after the corresponding verbs and expressions to hope, to fear, to be afraid,
etc
e.g. I hope he will like his birthday present.
7. actions and predictions which may (not) happen in the future with the
adverb probably
e.g. She will probably win.
8. actions which we cannot control and will inevitably happen
e.g. The baby will be born after Christmas.
9. an officially planned future action
e.g. The government will lower taxes.

BUT I’m leaving tomorrow. (an individually planned future action)

Comment on the use of the Future Indefinite in the following sentences:

Model:
1. She will help you. - The verb to help is used in the Future Indefinite tense
form to denote a single point future action.
2. Spring will come soon. - The verb to come is used in the Future Indefinite
tense form to denote an action which we cannot control and which will inevitably
happen.
3. I don’t know whether the play will be interesting. - The verb to be is used in
the Future Indefinite tense form to denote a future state in the object subordinate
clause.
A. 1. She will be thirty next February. 2. I think they will easily win the match. 3.
He will lend you the money you need. 4. He will have to help us. 5. I wonder if he
will catch any fish. 6. The world will become overpopulated in 50 years. 7. I
wonder how many of us will be here next year. 8. It’s very hot in here. – I’ll open
the window. 9. The Indian Government will probably impose a ban on tiger
hunting. 10. Soon the sun will rise and will paint the land in bright colours and the
camp will awake. 11. The days will become shorter soon. 12. They hope the
company will make a profit next year. 13. Perhaps he will arrive in time for lunch.
14. I hope I will find it. 15.

B. 1. I wonder if he will succeed. 2. It’s getting chilly in the room. –Is it? I will
turn on the heating. 3. Christmas will fall on Saturday this year. 4. I will go and
sort out some drinks for the guests. 5. Tom will probably get the promotion he
wants. 6. I will be back at 8.30. 7. The fire has gone out. – So it has. I will go and
get some sticks. 8. Jack will be 21 next month. 9. We are not sure if he will return
soon. 10. Probably they will stay with us. 11. I don’t know when he will return. 12.
I am dying of thirst. – I will go and fetch you some water. 13. I doubt if everything
will happen as we expect. 14. I have spilt my coffee. – I will get you a cloth. 15. I
wonder when we will write our test in history.

THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS

The Future Continuous Tense is used to denote:

1. an action in progress at a definite future moment or a period of time
(indicators: at 2 p.m., at this time tomorrow, all evening, from October to
December, from 4 till 6p.m., etc.)
e.g. I will be revising for my exam the whole evening tomorrow.
2. actions which are the result of a routine, which doesn’t need any special
arrangement
e.g. I will be going to the bank tomorrow.
3. an implicit request (to ask politely about people’s arrangements to see if
they can do something for us)
e.g. Will you be driving into town this afternoon? Can you give me a lift?
4. an action which is supposed or anticipated in the future
e.g. I hope that during our holidays we will be skating on the ice and skiing in the
woods.
5. an action which the speaker expects to take place in the natural course of
events
e.g. The leaves will be falling off soon.

Comment on the use of the Future Continuous in the following sentences:

Model:
1. This time tomorrow I will be enjoying skating. - The verb to enjoy is used in
the Future Continuous tense form to denote an action which will be going on at a
definite moment in the future indicated by the adverbial phrase this time tomorrow.
2. When you come to him, he will be having a wonderful time. - The verb to
have is used in the Future Continuous tense form to denote an action which will be
going on at a definite moment in the future indicated by another future action
expressed by the verb to come.
3. I hope that during our holidays we will be skating on the ice and skiing in the
woods. - The verbs to skate and to ski are used in the Future Continuous tense
form to denote actions which are supposed or anticipated in the future.

A. 1. At four o’clock tomorrow we will be flying over Vienna. 2. I will be passing

the post-office on my way home from work, so I’ll buy you a newspaper. 3. From
9 to 10 tomorrow I will be walking the dog. 4. Will you be using your iron in the
evening? Could you lend it to me? 5. I’m sure they will be enjoying their stay at the
summer camp. 6. I won’t bother to fix the time to see you, because I will be calling
into the office several times next week. 7. I will be waiting for you all morning
tomorrow. 8. When you see me I will be wearing my new dress. 9. Will you be
using the car this afternoon? 10. I think it will be raining hard in about ten minutes.
11. What will you be doing early on Monday night? 12. At 3 o’clock tomorrow I
will be attending a conference. 13. This time next month I will be sitting on a
beach. 14. I will be waiting for you when you come out. 15. They are pulling down
all the old houses in this street. I expect they will be pulling down mine in a few
years’ time.

B. 1. You’d better go back now your mother will be wondering where you are. 2. It
won’t be easy to get out of the country. The police will be watching all the ports. 3.
Will you be using your camera tomorrow or can I borrow it? 4. We’ve just got to
the top in time. The sun will be rising in a minute. 5. We’d better go out tomorrow
because Mary will be practicing the piano all day. 6. Don’t ring her up at 6.00; she
will be putting the children to bed. 7. I will be going to the shop so I can buy you
some milk. 8. This time tomorrow Maria will be sunbathing on a beach in
Majorca. 9. Look, I can give you a lift to the station. I will be driving that way
anyway. 10. When you get to the station, I will be waiting for you outside. 11. I
must phone Julia. – Well, don’t phone her now. She will be sleeping. 12. “The
evenings will be getting long soon," I said to my aunt, to cheer her up. 13. Will you
be working all tomorrow evening? 14. I will be working at home tomorrow. You
can call me there. 15. Don't phone them now: they will be having dinner.

THE FUTURE PERFECT

The Future Perfect Tense is used to denote:

1. an action completed before a definite future moment
e.g. I will have received your answer before this letter reaches you.
2. a state of some duration which began before a definite moment in the
future, will continue into or up to this moment (instead of the Future Perfect
Continuous tense)
e.g. They will have been friends for 20 years by this time next year.

THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The Future Perfect Continuous Tense is used to denote:

1. an action of some duration which began before a definite moment in the
future, will continue into or up to this moment
e.g. By this time next month he will have been studying the piano for two years.

Comment on the use of the Future Perfect (Continuous) in the following

sentences:
Model:
1. My sister will have left school by July. - The verb to leave is used in the
Future Perfect tense form to denote an action which will be completed before the
definite future moment which is indicated by the adverbial phrase by July.
2. Kate will have been a student for half a year by March. - The verb to be is
used in the Future Perfect tense form to denote a state which began before the
definite moment in the future indicated by the adverbial by March and will
continue into this moment.
3. By the end of the year, they will have been working at this project for two
years. - The verb to work is used in the Future Perfect Continuous tense form to
denote an action which began before the definite moment in the future indicated
by the adverbial phrase by the end of the year and will continue into this moment.

A. 1. By the end of the year the workers will have completed the project. 2. They
will have completed the bridge by the end of the year. 3. By the end of the week I
will have been waiting seven weeks for my car to be repaired. 4. On August 15 I
will have been living in this house for 50 years. 5. I hope I will have finished the
report by the end of the day. 6. They will have known each other for a year by
September. 7. Next year they will have been making furniture for 50 years. 8. Your
aunt will have cooked dinner by the time we arrive. 9. How long will you have had
your old car before you buy a new one? 10. She will have been waiting for some
time before we meet her. 11. By next Christmas they will have been here for 8
years. 12. She will have left before the children get home. 13. I hope when I call
 you, you will have returned from work. 14. By the end of the interview the
reporters will have found out a lot of interesting facts. 15. The train will have left
the station before we reach it.
B. 1. We will have been flying non-stop for 14 hours before we get to Calcutta. 2.
When you come back I will have finished all the housework. 3. By December I will
have been studying English for 3 years. 4. Next month he will have been in prison
for 10 years. 5. By this time next year I will have saved 250$. 6. By the end of the
year she will have been working here for two years. 7. I will have finished this job
by 5 o’clock. 8. On Saturday we will have been repairing the flat for two weeks. 9.
I will have finished this book by tomorrow evening. 10. Next year our grandmother
will have been living with us for a year. 11. By 5 o’clock she will have been
waiting for her friend for 20 minutes. 12. By the end of the term I will have read
all twelve volumes. 13. Come back in an hour. I will have done my packing by
then and we will be able to have a talk. 14. By September I will have known him
for 12 years. 15. If we don’t hurry the sun will have risen by the time we reach the
top.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

Voice is a grammatical category of the verb which indicates the relation

between an action and its agent. It shows whether the subject is the doer of the
action or whether it is acted upon.
THE PASSIVE VOICE shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject is
acted upon. Thus, the subject of a passive construction, unlike the subject of an
active one, is not the doer of the action but the receiver of it, while the doer of a
passive verb is expressed by the object of the passive construction. The passive
voice is used mostly with transitive verbs.
Subject Predicate Object

The roof was damaged by the storm.

receiver doer

Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect

(Simple) (Progressive) Continuous
Present am/is/are am/is/are being invitedhas/have been –
invited invited
Past was/were was/were being invited had been invited –
invited
Future will be – will have been –
 invited invited
Future- would be – would have been –
in-the- invited invited
Past
The Passive Voice is used:
1. When it is not necessary to mention the doer of the action as it is obvious
who he is.
e.g. The streets are swept every day.
2. When we don’t know who did the action.
e.g. You will be met at the station.
3. When we are more interested in the action than the person who does it.
e.g. A new public library is being built.

The Passive Voice is not used when the object is expressed by:
1. an infinitive
e.g. We agreed to meet at 5 p.m.
2. a gerund/gerundial phrase
e.g. John enjoyed seeing his native town.
3. a reflexive pronoun or a noun with a possessive pronoun referring to the
same person as the subject of the sentence.
e.g. He hurt himself. He cut his finger.
4. an object clause (introduced by the conjunction that)
e.g. Helen said that everything was all right.
In this case however we can use either the passive construction with the
anticipatory it or Complex Subject.
e.g.: It was said that everything was all right. OR Everything was said to be all
right.
Sometimes we use get instead of be in the Passive Voice. It is informal and is
used for something happening by chance or unexpectedly. In negative and
interrogative sentences the auxiliary verb do is used.
e.g. There was a fight at the party but nobody got hurt. The windows don’t
get cleaned very often. How did the painting get damaged?
We also use get in the following expressions: get dressed/changed, get
washed (=wash oneself), get engaged/married/divorced, get started (=start), get
lost (=lose one’s way).
The doer of the action, e.g. a thing, a team, a group of people, an organization
or a company who/which performs an action in a passive sentence is introduced by
BY:
e.g. He was accompanied by his friend.
 The building was hit by lightning.
WITH is used to introduce an instrument, materials and ingredients.
e.g. He was killed with a knife.
The room was filled with smoke.

HAVE SOMETHING DONE

We use the structure have something done to say that we arranged for
somebody else to do something for us. In negative and interrogative sentences the
auxiliary verb do is used.
e.g. Claire decorated the room. (= she decorated it herself)
Claire had the room decorated. (= she arranged for a decorator to do it)
We can also use the construction to get something done in the same meaning
but it is more informal.
e.g.: We’re getting the carpet cleaned. Where did you get your hair cut?
The structure to have something done can be used in the meaning ‘to
experience something’, often something unpleasant.
e.g.: The car had its mirrors pulled off. Have you ever had your passport
stolen?

Comment on the use of the Passive Voice in the following sentences:

Model:
1. Tom was praised by the teacher yesterday. - The verb to praise is used in the
Past Indefinite Passive tense form to denote a single point action performed at
a definite moment in the past.
2. An examination dictation is being written in this room. - The verb to write is
used in the Present Continuous Passive tense form to denote an action going on
at the moment of speaking.

A. 1. The best cream cakes are made by Mary. 2. By the end of the party all the
food had been eaten. 3. Williams was beaten by Azarenko in the Women's Tennis
Final. 4. The building is being examined by Health and Safety experts this week. 5.
Who was the television invented by? 6. The English language is now spoken by
over two billion people worldwide. 7. My overdraft will be extended by the bank
tomorrow. 8. Hundreds of free gifts are being given away by Donels this Saturday.
9. The beds haven’t been made yet. 10. The tickets were booked weeks ago. 11. A
new shopping centre is being built on the outskirts of town. 12. She hasn't been
christened yet. 13. A new shampoo is being developed in the lab. 14. The awards
will be presented by Tom Hanks. 15. Rainforests are being cut down in the
Amazon at present.
B. 1. The old barn has been pulled down. 2. The results will be published in July.
3. The trip was ruined by bad weather. 4. Why hasn't the house been painted yet?
5. His car has been stolen. 6. A famous actress will be chosen to advertise the
product. 7. John was made to do the washing up. 8. The ozone layer is gradually
being destroyed by pollution. 9. A bring-and-buy sale is being held next month. 10.
Thousands of rare birds are killed by hunters every year. 11. Her purse was stolen
on the bus. 12. An ancient village has been uncovered by archaeologists. 13. Why
hasn't the dishwasher been repaired yet? 14. A new drug is being developed by
scientists. 15. The furniture will have been removed by noon.

THE SEQUENSE OF TENSES

In English the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause (mainly, an object clause)
depends on that of the verb in the principal clause. This adjustment of tense-forms
is called The Sequence of Tenses.
The following are the rules of the Sequence of Tenses:
1. A present or future tense in the principal clause may be followed in the
subordinate by any tense that is required by the sense.
e.g. His horoscope reads that he has just had a rather difficult financial period, but
that this week he will be lucky with money matters.

2. A past tense in the principal clause is usually followed by a past tense or

future-in-the past in the subordinate clause. The choice of the type of a past tense
depends on the time relations between the principal and the subordinate clause.
a) If the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action of
the principal clause the Past Simple or the Past Continuous is used in the
subordinate clause:
e.g. I didn’t know you two were related to each other.

b) If the action of the subordinate clause is prior to the action of the principal
clause or lasted a certain time before the action of the principal clause, the Past
Perfect or Past Perfect Continuous is used in the subordinate clause:
e.g. I knew she had not played the piano for a long time.

c) If the action of the subordinate clause is posterior to the action of the

principal clause, a Future tense-form is replaced by the so-called Future-in-the-
Past.
 e.g. They were sure that they would have sold the house by the end of the
year.

The change of tenses according to the rule of the sequence of tenses.

the Present Indefinite
the Present Continuous
the Present Perfect
the Present Perfect Continuous
the Past Indefinite
the Past Continuous
the Past Perfect
the Past Perfect Continuous
the Future Indefinite
the Future Continuous
the Future Perfect
the Future Perfect Continuous
is replaced the Past Indefinite
by the Past Continuous
the Past Perfect
the Past Perfect Continuous
the Past Perfect
the Past Perfect Continuous
remains unchanged
remains unchanged
the Future Indefinite in the Past
the Future Continuous in the Past
the Future Perfect in the Past
the Future Perfect Continuous in
the Past

The change of demonstrative pronouns and adverbials:

this that
these those
here there
today that day
is replaced by

tonight that night

ago before
now then, at that time, at the moment, immediately
last night the previous night/the night before
tomorrow the next/following day, the day after
the day after tomorrow two days later, in two day’s time
yesterday the day before/(on) the previous day
the day before yesterday two days before/previously

The change of modal verbs according to the rule of the sequence of tenses.
must must (supposition)/had to (necessity)
is replaced by

have to had to
needn’t needn’t/ didn’t need to/ didn’t have to
can could/would be able to (future reference)
may might
shall should
 will would
would, could, might, should, do not change
ought to

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed:

1. In subordinate clauses of time the Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous are
not changed then the verb in the main clause can either remain unchanged or
change:
e.g. “While I was staying in Madrid, I met Pedro,” she said. – She said she met/
had met Pedro while she was staying in Madrid.
2. When a definite past moment is indicated:
e.g. My aunt said, “I moved to the seaside in 1995.” – My aunt boasted that she
moved to the seaside in 1995.
3. When there is a succession of past actions:
e.g. He said, “We decided to go to the pictures, got a 63 bus and got off at the
Elephant Castle as the pictures were just next door.” – He told me that they
decided to go to the pictures, got a 63 bus and got off at the Elephant Castle as the
pictures were just next door.
4. after the conjunction since. The Past Indefinite remains unchanged; used to +
the Infinitive and would + the Infinitive also remain unchanged:
e.g. She said, “I have been writing since I came.” – She said she had been writing
since she came.
She said, “He used to get up/would get up at 6 a.m.” – She said that he used to get
up/would get up at 6 a.m.
5. If the action in an object clause expresses general truths, existing laws and
permanent actions, states, conditions.
e.g. “Water boils at 100°C”, she said. – She said water boils at 100°C.
6. When a future action is still to come
e.g. He said, “The next Olympic games will take place in Paris in 2024.” - He said
that the next Olympic games will take place in Paris in 2024.
7. In conditional sentences (type 2 and type 3)
e.g. “If I were you, I would apologize,” he said. – He said if he were me, he would
apologize. (type 2)
“I would have helped you if you had asked me,” she said. – She said she
would have helped me if I had asked her. (type 3)
8. In object clauses after the expressions It’s time…, I wish… . The forms of
Subjunctive II are not changed.
e.g. “It is time he went,” she said. – She said it was time he went.
“I wish he were here,” she said. – She said she wished he were there.
Comment on the use of the Sequence of Tenses in the following sentences:
Model:
1. Mary remarked that she had food for a dozen people. – The verb to have is used
in its Past Indefinite tense form to denote a state simultaneous with the action
expressed by the verb to remark in its Past Indefinite tense form in the principal
clause.
2. Mary confessed that she had had a bad night. – The verb to have is used in its
Past Perfect tense form to denote an action prior to the action expressed by the
verb to confess in its Past Indefinite tense form in the principal clause.
3. He informed us that we would go abroad. – The verb to go is used in its Future
Indefinite in the Past tense form to denote an action posterior to the action
expressed by the verb to inform in its Past Indefinite tense form in the principal
clause.

A. 1. She always told people that she was good at languages. 2. When I came to
the station I saw my cousin. I understood that she had missed the 8 o’clock train. 3.
Nick didn’t want to stay at his relatives’. He explained he would put up at a hotel.
4. Everybody praised the film. Mary was sorry she hadn’t seen it. 5. He predicted
that he would discover the tiny particle when he conducted his next experiment. 6.
It was raining hard. Mrs Parker regretted she hadn’t taken an umbrella. 7.
Everybody knew that Susan was strict about keeping things tidy. 8. I was not sure I
would be able to remember the exact details. 9. My friend called on me yesterday.
He boasted he had bought two tickets for the match. 10. I forgot that she was
always letting people down. 11. I hoped that she would mature as the years went
by. 12. Harry didn’t come to the party. We thought he hadn’t received our
invitation. 13. What he was saying was not true. 14. The company promised that
they would reimburse our expenses. 15. Liz told me she had had a really weird
dream the previous night.
B. 1. We wanted to know where she had been all that time. 2. Mary complained
that she was bored with the same old routine day after day. 3. We decided that we
would travel to New York by sea rather than go by air. 4. Jack was happy to have
got a ticket. He didn’t complain he had been standing in a queue for 2 hours. 5.
Max was sure that we all needed a holiday. 6. I had always believed that one day I
would see him. 7. He knew that his grandparents always went to church on
Sundays. 8. He explained that when he was born his parents had been married for
12 years already. 9. He wanted us to see that he was not hostile. 10. He insisted
that the reforms would save the system, not destroy it. 11. We knew that the bridge
was unsafe. 12. She was sure that her kids would like a light breakfast. 13. We
heard on the radio that only a minority of people had voted for him. 14. My sister
agreed that she needed a shoulder to cry on. 15. When she said she wouldn’t give
me my money back I got furious.

INDIRECT SPEECH
Indirect speech is a complex sentence with a subordinate object clause in which the
reporting phrase forms the principal clause, while the quoted speech forms the
subordinate clause.
Peculiarities of the sentence structure in indirect speech are revealed by
considering indirect statements, questions, imperatives.
Indirect statements are typically introduced by the verbs to say, to tell, to
announce, to inform, to declare, to promise, to remark, to remind, to assure, to
admit, to deny, etc.
e.g. She said to us, “I’ll be back directly.” – She told us she would be back
directly.
e.g. She said to him, “Don’t forget to buy some bread.” – She reminded him to buy
some bread.
e.g. She said to him, “I didn’t do it.” – She denied doing it.
NB. The verb to say introduces both direct and indirect speech. The verb to tell
introduces indirect speech only. If a person is mentioned, the verb to tell is
preferable.
Indirect questions are generally introduced by the verbs to ask, to inquire, to
want, to know, to wonder, to interest, to be interested. An indirect general
question is introduced by the conjunction if or whether. An indirect special
question is introduced by the same adverb or pronoun that introduces a direct
question. The word order is direct.
e.g. I said to her, “Have you lived here long?” – I asked her if she had lived there
long.
She said (to him), “When will the secretary come?” – She inquired when the
secretary would come.
Imperatives – an order, a request, an invitation, a warning or advice – are
generally reported with the help of an infinitive. The choice of the verb is
determined by the character of the order/request etc.
e.g. The officer said to the soldiers, “Stop!” – The officer commanded the soldiers
to stop.
He said to her, “Shall I fetch you a glass of water?” She said, “Do, please./No,
don’t trouble.” – He offered to fetch her a glass of water and she accepted/declined
the offer.
Comment on the use of the Indirect orders, requests, special and general
questions in the following sentences:
Model:
1. The mother told her son to come home at 7. - The infinitive to come is used to
express an indirect order.
2. He asked Ann where she came from. - Where she came from is an indirect
special question, introduced by the adverb where. The word order is the same as
in a statement.
3. I wanted to know if the meeting had been held the day before. - If the meeting
had been held the day before is an indirect general question, introduced by the
conjunction if. The word order is the same as in a statement.

A. 1. Mrs. Wilson begged her husband to drive more carefully. 2. The foreign
tourists wanted to know when the building of the University was built. 3. She asked
her son if he had enjoyed the view of the city. 4. Irene asked her husband not to
drive the car too fast. 5. Mr. Wilson told his wife to get ready for the trip. 6. Helen
asked Peter what places of interest in Kiev he had already seen. 7. Henry asked if
Ann really didn’t like to go to the theatre. 8. I advised her not to worry about the
missing money. 9. My mother warned us not to ignore traffic lights while crossing
the street. 10. Jenny asked us if we could water her plants for a week. 11. He
wanted to know which was the best way to drive to Portsmouth. 12. They invited
us to go round and see the new baby. 13. Anne inquired when she could hand in
her resignation. 14. I asked my parents if we had to change trains. 15. Jane asked
what had caused her success.
B. 1. Ann asked if he had ever been interested in painting. 2. Tom asked when she
had taken up her new post. 3. He advised them to buy a burglar alarm. 4. His
mother warned him not to put sticky things in his pockets. 5. Grand wanted to
know how much my new guitar was. 6. She asked if the seat was taken. 7. My
mother asked who had started the fight. 8. Nina was wondering where she had left
her watch the day before. 9. My mother warned me not to do anything dangerous.
10. My brother advised me to say nothing about it. 11. He asked if he could park
there. 12. She wondered who had been using her computer. 13. The man asked if I
had ever seen a flying saucer. 14. The driving instructor ordered me to get into the
right lane. 15. They invited us to spend the weekend with them.