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Tribology and
Fundamentals of Abrasive
Machining Processes
Third Edition

Bahman Azarhoushang
Ioan D. Marinescu
W. Brian Rowe
Boris Dimitrov
Hitoshi Ohmori
William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier
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To Zeinab and Kiana, for your love and support throughout my work.
Bahman
Contents

List of contributors xiii

About the authors xv
Preface to the first edition xvii
Preface to the second edition xxi
Preface to the third edition xxiii
Acknowledgments xxv

Part One Science of abrasive machining and

tribology (introduction) 1

1 Abrasives 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Corundum 5
1.3 Silicon carbide 13
1.4 Diamond 14
1.5 Cubic boron nitride 20
1.6 Lapping and polishing abrasives 24
1.7 Abrasive sizes and shapes 27
References 29

2 Abrasive tools 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Bonded abrasives 31
2.3 Coated abrasives and abrasive belts 62
2.4 Loose abrasives and abrasive pastes 69
References 71

3 Abrasive machining processes 75

3.1 Introduction 75
3.2 Bonded and coated abrasive processes 76
3.3 Loose abrasive processes 93
References 117
viii Contents

4 Tribosystems of abrasive machining processes 121

4.1 Introduction 121
4.2 Tribological principles 121
4.3 Structure of tribomechanical processing 122
4.4 Tribosystems in abrasive machining 124
4.5 Modeling tribosystems of abrasive processes 126
4.6 Conclusions 131
References 132

Part Two Principles of abrasive machining processes 135

5 Kinematics of bonded abrasive machining processes 137

5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Chip thickness or grain penetration depth 137
5.3 Equivalent chip thickness 138
5.4 Cutting edge density 140
5.5 Grain spacing 140
5.6 Variability of active cutting edge density 141
5.7 Mean chip volume 142
5.8 Grain shapes 143
5.9 Geometric contact length 144
5.10 Kinematic contact length 144
5.11 Mean uncut chip cross-sectional area 145
5.12 Irregular grain spacing 146
5.13 Irregular grain protrusion 148
5.14 Contact times and tribological implications 149
References 149

6 Material removal mechanisms of bonded abrasive machining

(forces, friction, and energy) 153
6.1 Introduction 153
6.2 Removal mechanism of ductile materials 154
6.3 Removal mechanism of brittle materials 156
6.4 Forces and power 163
6.5 Force ratio and friction coefficient 164
6.6 Specific energy 165
6.7 Size effect 169
6.8 Chip formation, sliding, and ploughing energies 171
6.9 Specific removal rate 174
6.10 Energy partition 174
References 176
Contents ix

7 Contact mechanics 179

7.1 Introduction 179
7.2 Contact area 179
7.3 Contact length 180
7.4 Smooth body analysis 185
7.5 Rough surface analysis 188
7.6 Experimental measurements of the roughness factor 191
7.7 Elastic stresses due to abrasion 196
7.8 Indentation mechanics approach 198
7.9 Summary 199
References 199

8 Grinding wheel macrodesign and microtopography 203

8.1 Introduction 203
8.2 Wheel body and shape 203
8.3 The importance of microtopography 217
8.4 Topographical definitions 218
8.5 Measurement techniques for grinding tool microtopography 222
8.6 Topography changes in grinding 233
References 236

9 Grinding tool conditioning 241

9.1 Introduction 241
9.2 Dressing, cleaning, and structuring 242
9.3 Dressing methods 245
9.4 Mechanical dressing processes 246
9.5 Tribology of mechanical dressing 246
9.6 Diamond types for dressing tools 247
9.7 Dressing with stationary diamond tools 251
9.8 Rotary dressing tools 263
9.9 Diamond form rollers 268
9.10 Diamond profile rollers 282
9.11 Diamond cup dresser 292
9.12 Continuous dressing 293
9.13 Crushing 295
9.14 Touch dressing 298
9.15 Cross-axis dressing 300
9.16 Wear and tool life of diamond dressing tools 301
9.17 Mechanical dressing of resin-, metal-, and hybrid-bonded
grinding wheels 306
9.18 Sharpening 311
9.19 Removal mechanisms in mechanical dressing processes 315
9.20 Nonconventional conditioning processes 319
9.21 Summary 338
References 341
x Contents

10 Principles of grinding processes 351

10.1 Overview of the grinding process 351
10.2 External cylindrical grinding between centers 378
10.3 External cylindrical centerless grinding 406
10.4 Surface grinding 428
10.5 Internal cylindrical grinding 451
References 466

11 Cutting temperature and energy partitioning in grinding 469

11.1 Introduction 469
11.2 Heat generation and dissipation 469
11.3 Measuring and estimating temperatures 472
11.4 Heat partitioning 477
11.5 Workpiece temperatures 486
11.6 Case studies 494
References 503

12 Kinematics and material removal mechanisms of loose

abrasive machining 507
12.1 Introduction 507
12.2 Lapping 507
12.3 Polishing 516
12.4 Mass finishing and tumbling 524
12.5 Chemomechanical polishing 528
References 534

Part Three Tool wear, induced surface integrity of

workpiece material, and machineability of materials 537

13 Mechanisms of tool wear 539

13.1 Introduction 539
13.2 Wear types and mechanisms 539
13.3 Analysis of adhesive and abrasive wear 546
13.4 Abrasive tool loading or clogging 548
13.5 G-ratio 550
13.6 Tool wear and loading measurement 550
References 553

14 Thermal aspects of abrasive machining processes 555

14.1 Introduction 555
14.2 Grinding burn 555
14.3 Surface damage 559
14.4 Thermal softening 562
14.5 Rehardening 563
Contents xi

14.6 Crack formation 565

14.7 Microhardness 565
14.8 Residual stresses 566
14.9 Spheroidal swarf 570
References 572

15 Workpiece surface roughness 575

15.1 Introduction 575
15.2 Surface roughness parameters 576
15.3 Factors affecting surface roughness 579
15.4 Measurement of surface roughness 587
15.5 Application of acoustic emission to predict surface roughness
behavior 589
References 589

16 Machinability of materials 591

16.1 Introduction 591
16.2 Metals 593
16.3 Structural aspects and machinability of nonmetals 600
16.4 Conclusions 608
References 609

Part Four Process fluids and tribochemistry of abrasive

machining 613

17 Process fluids for abrasive machining 615

17.1 Introduction 615
17.2 Types and classes of process fluids 617
17.3 Physical properties of process fluids 629
17.4 Chemical properties of process fluids 632
17.5 Tribological properties of process fluids 634
17.6 Biological properties of process fluids 635
17.7 Degradation of fluid properties during operation 636
17.8 Analysis of physicochemical and biological properties 637
17.9 Tribological and application characteristics 640
17.10 Selection of process fluids 640
17.11 Adjustment and maintenance of fluid properties in operation 645
17.12 Disposal of process fluids 648
17.13 Conclusions and recommendations 649
References 649
xii Contents

18 Fluid delivery 653

18.1 Introduction 653
18.2 The tasks and role of process fluid supply 654
18.3 Cooling and lubrication techniques 654
18.4 Process fluid delivery and supply system 656
18.5 Considerations and challenges of process fluid delivery 658
18.6 Fluid nozzles for high-performance grinding processes 673
References 684

19 Tribochemistry of abrasive machining 689

19.1 Introduction 689
19.2 Tribochemical behavior of abrasive tools 692
19.3 Tribochemical aspects of the workpiece material structure 699
19.4 Tribochemical aspects of dry abrasive machining 701
19.5 Tribochemical aspects of wet abrasive machining 702
19.6 Conclusions 712
References 713

Symbols and abbreviations 721

Index 727
List of contributors

Amir Daneshi Institute of Precision Machining (KSF), Furtwangen University,

Tuttlingen, Germany
Mohammadali Kadivar Institute of Precision Machining (KSF), Furtwangen
University, Tuttlingen, Germany
Heike Kitzig-Frank Institute of Precision Machining (KSF), Furtwangen University,
Tuttlingen, Germany
Ali Zahedi Institute of Precision Machining (KSF), Furtwangen University,
Tuttlingen, Germany
About the authors

Bahman Azarhoushang
Professor at the Furtwangen University (Germany),
Head of the Institute of Precision Machining
(KSF), assoz. Full Prof. Albert-Ludwigs-Universit€at
Freiburg, Head of the Industrial Working Group
“Grinding Technology”, Deputy Spokesman for
BW-CAR, Dean of Master Program “Precision
Manufacturing and Management (PMM)” at
Furtwangen University, Expert and Consultant in
Precision Manufacturing Domains, Member of the
Association of German Engineers (VDI).

Dr Ioan D. Marinescu
Professor and Director of Precision Micro-
Machining Center (PMMC) at the University of
Toledo, Ohio, USA. President and CEO of
Advanced Manufacturing Solutions, LLC Doctor
Honoris Causa, University of Iashi, Romania, Hon-
orary Professor, De La Salle University, Manila,
Philippines
Member of American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers (ASME), Society of Manufacturing Engineers
(SME), American Society for Precision Engineering
(ASPE), American Society for Abrasive Technol-
ogy (ASAT)
xvi About the authors

Dr W. Brian Rowe
Consulting Engineer and Emeritus Professor of Me-
chanical Engineering at Liverpool JMUniversity.
Former Director of Advanced Manufacturing Tech-
nology and Tribology Research Laboratory (AMT-
TREL). Doctor of Science, Manchester University.
Research and development of new grinding ma-
chines in industry.
Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers
(F.I.Mech.E.) Fellow of the International Academy
for Production Engineering (CIRP)

Dr Boris Dimitrov
Consulting Engineer in Mechanics & Chemistry
Domains. Former Chief Scientist of the Romanian
Research Institute of Applied Mechanics and
formerly of the Romanian Institute for Precision
Mechanics in Bucharest.
Developed new bonds and diamond tools under
Winter License for a quarter of a century. Formerly
developed new lubricants for abrasive
manufacturing processes.
Romanian Society for Applied Tribology.

Dr Hitoshi Ohmori
Chief Scientist, Materials Fabrication Laboratory,
RIKEN
Japan Society of Precision Engineering (JSPE)
Japan Society of Abrasive Technology (JSAT)
Japan Society of Mechanical Engineering (JSME)
The International Academy for Production Engi-
neering (CIRP)
Preface to the first edition

In 1966, a report published by the UK Department of Education and Science intro-

duced the concept of tribology, which was defined as the science of interacting sur-
faces in relative motion. Tribology, as a “new science,” studies friction, wear, and
lubrication. These three processes affect each other with interacting causes and effects:
tribology is the study of them as they interact.
Abrasive machining processes are part of the large field of “manufacturing pro-
cesses” and include: grinding, superfinishing, honing, lapping, polishing, etc. The
common characteristic of these processes is the fact that the main stock removal mech-
anism is the abrasive process. But, different from classic tribology, in this case
“abrasive wear” is a useful process, helping remove unwanted material from work-
pieces. At the same time, “abrasive wear” is a negative term when applied to abrasive
tools which, during all abrasive machining processes, exhibit predominant abrasive
wear.
Most abrasive machining processes have been studied very little and most of the
studies were deterministic, based on experiments and experience and less on science.
It is often said that abrasive machining processes are more an art rather than a science.
This book is an attempt to introduce science into the study of abrasive machining
processes. The authors considered that the “marriage” between tribology and abrasive
machining processes is a good match because tribology provides the right tool to study
these processes. The main characteristic of abrasive machining processes is that these
processes are more random than many manufacturing processes. Tribology offers a
good approach for describing abrasive machining processes and offers the ability to
predict some of the outputs of the processes.
This book aims to bring attention back to tribology. Tribology was fashionable in
the sixties, but today academia and the research community in the U.S., Japan, and to
some extent in Europe consider the field of less importance. I asked Dr. Ernest
Rabinovicz, one of my mentors in the field of tribology, why this happened. He
answered that the concept of tribology was oversold in the mid 1970s and very
soon other topics became more fashionable: robotics, manufacturing systems, etc.
This book considers knowledge in the field of tribology as a tool for the study of
abrasive machining processes. This will help to explain scientifically each process
as well as to quantify the relationships between the main parameters involved in
abrasive machining processes.
In this book, we consider the important elements of the abrasive machining system
and the tribological factors which control the efficiency and quality of the processes.
xviii Preface to the first edition

Since grinding is by far the most commonly employed abrasive machining process,
it will be given detailed consideration. By understanding tribological principles, it
is possible to propose process improvements and solutions to many commonly
experienced industrial problems such as poor accuracy, poor surface quality, rapid
wheel wear, vibrations, workpiece burn, and high process costs.
The chapter on kinematics examines factors affecting the size, shape and variability
of the material in the process of being removed. These factors influence the wear of the
abrasive tool, the surface roughness of the machined parts, the process forces and
energy, and the surface integrity of the workpiece. Whereas traditional texts assume
a uniform distribution of abrasive grains, this analysis addresses the effects of variable
grain distributions.
Traditionally, it is assumed that the machining energy is distributed over an area
represented by the geometry of the undeformed contact between the abrasive tool
and the workpiece. The chapter on contact mechanics reveals that this assumption is
quite misleading for many cases of precision machining and provides a more practical
analysis. Realistically, the power density in the contact zone may be less than half the
value given by traditional calculations.
The study of friction, forces, and energy explores the importance of the various
factors which govern the stresses and deformations of abrasion. The effects of grain
shape, depth of penetration, and lubrication on the process forces are explored.
With knowledge of contact mechanics and process energy, the principles of heat
transfer can be applied to explore the effect of process variables on surface tempera-
tures and surface quality. It is also shown how thermal processes define permissible
domains of operation ranging from creep grinding with deep cuts at low work-
speeds to conventional grinding with shallow cuts at higher work-speeds to
high-efficiency deep grinding with deep cuts at extremely high removal rates.
Process fluids play important roles in cooling and lubrication. New information is
provided on the requirements for effective fluid delivery.
Further chapters deal with important aspects such as assessment of the workpiece
surface, the grinding wheel topography, the nature of abrasive tools, dressing
processes, free abrasive processes, lubricants and process fluids, tribochemical pro-
cesses, and the characteristics of workpiece materials. The final chapter examines
some fundamental information about deformation processes revealed through molec-
ular dynamics simulation.
The reader should not have to read every chapter consecutively to understand the
development of the subject. The material is presented in a logical order so that a reader
can refer back to earlier passages to fully understand some aspects.
The reader can use this text as a reference work to directly access a topic of interest.
It is designed to make the material accessible to technicians, undergraduates, and grad-
uates. The book could well form the basis for a series of lectures for a specialized
course at any of these levels.
The idea for this book came to me in the early 1980s when, in a CIRP paper, I
published a table which contained the analogy between technological parameters
and tribological parameters for the grinding process. I have had the privilege to spend
many years in Europe, many years in the US and a lot of time in Japan during the last
Preface to the first edition xix

five years. I was able to observe the evolution of tribology in these parts of the world
and to get in touch with the professors and researchers in this field. I was very encour-
aged to continue to look at abrasive machining processes by my colleagues from Japan
(Drs. Koji Kato and Takeo Nakagawa,), from Europe (Drs. W. Koenig, Hans Kurt
Toenshoff, Tom Childs, and Trevor Howes), as well as from my colleagues from
the US (Drs. Nam Suh, Ken Ludema, Said Jahanamir, Steven Malkin, and Steven
Danyluk). I would like to thank all of them for their encouragement and for their help.
I would like to express special thanks to Dr. R. Rentsch for help with Chapter 7
regarding molecular dynamics simulation of abrasive processes, and my former
student, Dr. C. Spanu, for his help with Chapters 9 and 12.
The authors of this book cover some regions of the world where tribology was
initiated and developed in the last forty years: Western and Eastern Europe, the US,
and Japan. I would like to thank my co-authors for taking time from their busy sched-
ules to write these chapters and to review each others’ chapters. This means that the
book is unitary with integrated chapters, not just a collection of disparate chapters.
My special thanks to my wife Jocelyn for encouraging me, checking my English,
and putting up with my long working days punctuated by more working days on
the weekends. She minimizes the friction and wear in my life.
Ioan D. Marinescu
Toledo, Ohio
Preface to the second edition

Eight quick years have passed and now we present the second edition of Tribology of
Abrasive Machining Processes. During the intervening years many changes have
occurred, including the fact that our initial publisher was purchased by Elsevier, the
company who has decided to publish this second edition.
For some areas of research, eight years is a long period of time and to have a second
edition of a book is a challenging task in comparison with writing a completely new
book. This is especially true in disciplines which are now related to the nano field.
I would like to stress that the nano field is not as new as many people think. The first
scientist who used the word “nanotechnology,” Japanese professor Norio Taniguchi
of Tokyo University, was doing this type of research beginning in 1940; however,
he used the term “ultra precision machining” and not “nano-machining”. As people
say in my native Romania, this is a case of “the same lady with a different hat”.
The authors tried to update this book without writing a completely new one. We
have largely kept the fundamentals of the processes where only few changes have
occurred. The grouping of chapters is slightly changed for clarity. Chapters on physical
mechanisms of grinding are presented first, followed by chapters on the application of
abrasive tools integrated with fundamental principles for their design and operation.
Finally chapters are presented that focus on the tribology of process fluids, tribo-
chemistry and materials. We introduced a new chapter on desk top machine-tools of
particular relevance for ultra-precision grinding of small parts and up-to-date informa-
tion on molecular dynamics simulation. A revised version of the thermal model of
grinding is presented that corresponds better with convective cooling theory. Fluid
delivery is also updated and a new laminar flow model of convective cooling is
introduced.
Regarding the authors, we faced the fact that our collaborator and long-time friend,
Ichiro Inasaki, retired from Keio University and accepted a position as Provost of Chuo
University. Under these circumstances, he was not able to contribute to the book and at
his suggestion we replaced him with Dr. Hitoshi Ohmori. Thus, we replaced a
Japanese star with a rising star of the present generation.
What is very important to mention is the fact that Professor Brian Rowe took over
coordination of the book and, in addition to his original research contributions, spent
long hours going through every chapter with scrupulous attention to English clarity,
notations, symbols, and uniformity. All the authors are very thankful to Brian for
his help and the time he spent with the manuscript of this book. Brian is good example
for all of us with his love and devotion to science and research from which he will
xxii Preface to the second edition

never retire. I can say that too about my mentor and friend of more than 30 years, Dr.
Boris Dimitrov. He made his contributions from a new Romania in post-revolutionary
conditions.
As the initiator of the first edition, I am happy about the book’s reception in
academia and industry. Finally, I again thank the entire team that made the second
edition possible.
All the authors would like to express thanks to their families who supported the
writers during the long hours required on this new manuscript. Understanding us for
our dedication to this project was very important not only for the project, but for
our lives.
Ioan D. Marinescu
White Lake, Michigan
Preface to the third edition

Abrasive machining processes, including grinding, honing, superfinishing, lapping,

and polishing, are among the most important material removal processes and are essen-
tial in producing high-precision, complex components. In both academia and industry,
the importance of these processes has continuously increased primarily as a result of
constantly increasing demands on surface quality and dimensional accuracy as well
as further developments in the materials sector and additive manufacturing that create
new challenges in machining.
This handbook, Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes,
thoroughly covers the main abrasive machining processes and reviews the primary ap-
plications and recent developments of these processes. The third edition is a complete
update of the previous editions. It addresses the fundamentals of abrasive machining
processes and the scientific principles of processes that lie within the tribology domain.
The whole book is rewritten and restructured, the latest knowledge about abrasive
machining processes is brought together, and ten new chapters are added. In contrast,
some chapters from the previous editions with less relevance to recent developments
have been removed. Different parts of the handbook and individual chapters are linked
and built upon each other. Theoretical explanations are simplified to address both
academia and industry.
The book’s first part covers the science of abrasive machining and tribology and
explains the characteristics and applications of abrasives, abrasive tools, and abrasive
machining processes. The second part addresses the principles of abrasive machining
processes, including kinematics and material removal mechanisms of bonded and
loose abrasive machining processes, contact mechanics, grinding wheel macrodesign
and microtopography, and conditioning of grinding tools, and principles of grinding
processes. The third part deals with the machinability of materials and process output
parameters, such as tool wear and the induced surface integrity of workpiece material.
Finally, the book’s fourth part explains process fluids, their delivery into the contact
zone, and abrasive machining tribochemistry.
I hope this handbook offers new insights, understanding, and solutions regarding
the complex topics of abrasive machining processes for academics and industrial ex-
perts. This book can also be used as a complementary textbook for undergraduate and
graduate students.
Bahman Azarhoushang
Black Forest, Germany
July 2021
Acknowledgments

Writing this book was more complicated than I thought it would be and at the same
time more rewarding than I had ever imagined. None of this would have been possible
without the support provided by researchers at KSF Institute with whom I had the
privilege to work and whose valuable contributions made this edition possible. These
colleagues are A. Zahedi, A. Daneshi, M. Kadivar, J. Khosravi, and E. Ghadiri. I
would especially like to mention Heike Kitzig-Frank, who helped me succeed in
this project through her invaluable input.
I also wish to record my sincere gratitude to the authors of the first and second
editions of this volume: Prof. Ioan D. Marinescu, Prof. W. Brian Rowe, Prof. Ichiro
Inasaki, Dr. Boris Dimitrov, and Dr. Hitoshi Ohmori.
Part One

Science of abrasive machining

and tribology (introduction)
This page intentionally left blank
Abrasives
Bahman Azarhoushang
1
1.1 Introduction
The performance of abrasive machining processes is influenced mainly by abrasives
because those abrasives remove workpiece materials. The requirements for abrasive
materials are very diverse. Abrasives should be significantly harder than workpieces
so they can cut or remove workpiece material without an excessive wear rate. High
thermal and chemical resistance and proper toughness are other important require-
ments for abrasive grains. Abrasives should retain their hardness at the cutting temper-
ature. These temperatures of short contact duration between abrasives and the
workpiece can be very high. The rapid temperature gradient may also lead to abrasive
wear or fracture when the abrasive material has a limited thermal resistance. Addition-
ally, it is important to ensure that no grain weakening or wear occurs during abrasive
machining through chemical reactions between abrasive material and cooling lubri-
cant, air, and workpiece material, even at elevated temperatures and pressures. The
cutting ability of abrasives depends, among other things, on specific features, such
as grain structure and cleavage. The ability to cut grains to regenerate new sharp cut-
ting edges and points depends on their structure and cleavage. Appropriate toughness
and fracture behavior of the abrasive material guarantee a low grain wear rate and self-
sharpening of abrasive tools. Friable abrasive grains, i.e., abrasive grains with rather
low fracture toughness, are easily fractured by impact and consequently expose fresh
cutting crystals. Semifriable or blocky abrasive grains, i.e., abrasive grains with rela-
tively high fracture toughness, do not fracture as easily as friable grains. This results in
longer grain life during abrasive machining but negatively impacts free cutting. In
addition, there are application-dependent requirements regarding grain shape and
geometry.
There is a basic distinction between natural and synthetic abrasives. Natural abra-
sives include those that are rather softde.g., quartz (SiO2), emery, and garnetdand
hard abrasives, i.e., natural corundum or diamond [Kloc05]. The quality of natural
abrasives is often not reproducible owing to their natural origin. In addition, apart
from natural diamond, natural abrasives have low hardness and stiffness. Hence,
they are rarely used in industrial applications. Natural diamonds, however, are still
used in dressing tools and frequently in tools for grinding and cutting glass, plastics,
or natural stones. Synthetic abrasive materials, used mainly in bonded abrasive pro-
cesses such as grinding, honing, and superfinishing, are divided into conventional
abrasives and superabrasives. Conventional abrasives include macro- and microcrys-
talline corundums (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC), whereas cubic boron nitride
(CBN) and diamond are superabrasives.

Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823777-9.00009-4

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4 Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes

Superabrasives are much harder and hence more wear-resistant than conventional
abrasives. Diamond is the hardest known abrasive material. CBN is the second-
hardest abrasive after diamond. CBN is also known by its trade name, Borazon,
from General Electric, who discovered it, Amborite and amber boron nitride after
De Beers, or in the Russian research literature as Elbor, Cubonite, or b-BN. Boron
carbide (B4C) is another synthetic abrasive material used in loose abrasive processes
(Chapter 3), such as lapping and polishing. However, B4C is very expensive compared
with silicon carbide and is therefore rarely used. Table 1.1 shows the main grain
materials used in various abrasive machining processes. These processes are explained
in Chapter 3.
Hardness is usually defined as the resistance to penetration by another material. For
abrasives, the broadly used hardness scales are Knoop and Mohs. Fig. 1.1 provides an
overview of the hardness and fracture toughness of the most important synthetic abra-
sive materials. Fig. 1.2 shows the most important requirements of abrasive materials
and compares synthetic abrasive materials used in bonded abrasive processes.
The choice of abrasive for a particular application is based on various criteria
related to workpiece material, geometry and removal conditions. Abrasives must be
tough enough to withstand thermal and mechanical shocks induced by the abrasive
machining process. On the other hand, the friability of abrasives is essential for
ensuring fracture and self-sharpening (producing new cutting edges). Moderate to
high fracture toughness is required for abrasives that should be used in high material
removal applications or interrupted cutting (due to the geometry of the workpiece or
process kinematic). Abrasives with a high thermal conductivity enable efficient heat
dissipation from the contact zone, reducing the risk of thermal damage to the work-
piece. The chemical resistance or inertness of the abrasives guarantees that no chemical
reaction occurs between the abrasives and workpiece material or coolant lubricant
during the abrasive machining process. The thermal resistance of abrasives defines
the maximum allowable cutting temperature.
Durability tests involving impact strength, fatigue compression strength, dynamic
friability, and resistance to spalling, which occur under the influence of single or cyclic
thermal stress, are used to classify abrasives according to their material properties.
The following sections introduce the primary abrasive materials and their
properties.

Table 1.1 Main grain materials used in various abrasive machining processes.

Bonded abrasive processes Superabrasivesddiamond and cubic boron nitride

(grinding, honing, (CBN)dand the conventional abrasives
superfinishing) corundum (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC)
Lapping Superabrasives (diamond and CBN), Al2O3, SiC,
boron carbide (B4C), chrome oxide (Cr2O3),
garnet, and emery
Polishing Diamond, Al2O3, SiC, iron oxide, Vienna lime,
chalk, and talc
Abrasive blasting Al2O3, SiC, B4C, quartz (SiO2), and garnet
Abrasives 5

Figure 1.1 Hardness and fracture toughness of the most important synthetic grain materials
[Azar21].

Figure 1.2 The most important requirements of abrasive materials and comparisons of synthetic
abrasive materials used in bonded abrasive processes [Azar21].

1.2 Corundum
Alumina ore, also called corundum (Al2O3), was mined as early as 2000 BCE on the
Greek island of Naxos. Its crystal structure is based on the rhombohedral crystalline
a-Al2O3 and various admixtures. Precious grades of Al2O3 are used as gemstones,
including sapphire, ruby, topaz, amethyst, and emerald.
Raw bauxite is the base material for all fused aluminum oxides. Alumina abrasives
are produced by either electrofusion or chemical precipitation and sintering. Sintered
corundum materials include sintered bauxite and sol-gel corundum.
Corundum is available in an extensive range of grades because it allows the substi-
tution of other oxides in solid solution, and defect content can be controlled. Addition-
ally, mono- or single-crystalline corundum and zirconium corundum, as special
corundum types, are developed to address various applications. Table 1.2 shows
various corundum types with the structures and chemical compositions of abrasive
materials widely used in industry.
6 Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes

Table 1.2 Common corundums used in industry as abrasive materials.

Relative
Chemical Hardness toughness
composition Color Knoop HK (%)

Zirconium corundum w60%e75% Gray/Brown 1450e1700 50

Al2O3
w25%e40%
ZrO2
Semifriable corundum w98% Al2O3 Gray 1950e2000 20
w1.5% TiO2
Brown corundum w96% Al2O3 Brown 1950 21
(BC) w3% TiO2
Hollow sphere >98% Al2O3 up White w1950 (>WFC)
corundum to 1% SiO2
White fused 99.8% Al2O3 White 2000e2160 15
corundum (WFC) 0.2 Na2O
Pink fused corundum 99.5% Al2O3 Pink 2160 18
w0.3 Cr2O3
0.2 Na2O
Ruby fused corundum w98% Al2O3 Ruby/Red 2150 19
(RFC) w2% Cr2O3
Mono- or single- w99% Al2O3 Light gray 2300 >RFC
crystalline <BC
corundum (MCC)
Sintered bauxite Al2O3 Brown 1300e1400 Extremely
corundum Nk/Nk þ ZrO2 tough
(>50)
Sol-gel corundum 95%e99% Al2O3 Various 2300e2400 wMCC
(sintered 0%e5% MgO/
corundum) Fe2O3 various
additives

Fig. 1.3 represents the hardness and relative friability of different corundum types.
Corundums and fused or sintered/sol-gel corundums possess lower hardnesses than
other primary abrasive materials such as SiC, CBN, and diamond. The poor thermal
conductivity of corundum (33.5 W/m K) adversely affects grinding performance.
Single crystals of polycrystalline corundum vary in size depending on the
manufacturing processes and parameters used, such as the cooling rate of molten
corundum. Fused corundum has an average crystal size of 100e250 mm. The crystal
size is much smaller for zirconium corundum than fused corundums and is approxi-
mately 10e12 mm [Wash12]. The finest-sized polycrystalline corundum crystal is
that of the sol-gel or sintered corundum and is below 1 mm. Hence, the wear rate
can be kept much lower for sol-gel corundum than for fused corundum mainly because
of its microfracture and distinctive self-sharpening behavior. Polycrystalline corundum
toughness and hardness increase with reductions in crystal grain size [Krel95, Kloc03].
Abrasives 7

Figure 1.3 Hardness and relative friability of various corundum types [Azar21].

1.2.1 Manufacture of corundum

Corundum abrasives are derived by either electrofusion or sol-gel chemical precipita-
tion and sintering (Fig. 1.4).

1.2.1.1 Electrofusion
In electrofusion, the raw material bauxite, containing 85%e90% aluminum oxide
(Al2O3), 2%e5% titanium dioxide (TiO2), and as much as 10% iron oxide (Fe2O3),
silica, and basic oxides, is fused in an electric-arc furnace at 2600 C. The bed of

Figure 1.4 Various corundum abrasives [Azar21].

8 Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes

crushed and calcined bauxite, mixed with coke and iron to remove impurities, is
poured into the bottom of the furnace, where a carbon starter rod is laid down. A
couple of large vertical carbon rods are then brought down to touch, and a heavy elec-
trical discharge is applied. The starter rod is rapidly consumed, and the heat melts the
bauxite, which becomes an electrolyte. Bauxite is added over several hours to increase
the melt volume. The current is controlled by adjusting the height of the electrodes,
which are eventually consumed in the process.
After cooling, the corundum (aluminum oxide) is broken up and passed through a
series of hammer, beater, crush, roller, or ball mills to reduce it to the required grain
size and shape, which produces either blocky or thin splintered grains. After milling,
the product is sieved to the appropriate sizes down to about 40 mm (#400). The result
is brown corundum containing typically 3% TiO2. Increased TiO2 content increases
toughness while reducing hardness. Brown corundum has a Knoop hardness of almost
1950 and a medium friability.
Electrofused corundum, which is more than 99% pure, is also made by the Bayer
process using low-sodium oxide. Karl Bayer invented a unique bauxite purification
process in 1887 in Russia. In the first step of the Bayer process, a pressure vessel
with sodium hydroxide solution heats the bauxite to as high as 150e200 C. After-
ward, iron-based residues, known as red mud, are filtered, and pure gibbsite is precip-
itated by cooling the liquid and seeding with fine-grained aluminum hydroxide
[Jack11]. Subsequently, aluminum oxide is produced by calcining gibbsite. Almost
all of the natural impurities of raw bauxite, apart from 0.1% to 0.4% sodium oxide
(Na2O), are removed by the Bayer process. The resulting white fused corundum grain
is one of the hardest and most friable members of the alumina family, and it provides a
cool cutting action (low cutting temperature during abrasive machining through self-
sharpening). White corundum is one of the most popular grades for micron-sized abra-
sives. To produce micron grain sizes, corundum is ball-milled or vibro-milled after
crushing and then traditionally separated into different sizes using an elutriation pro-
cess. This process chain consists of two primary sequences, including (1) passing abra-
sive slurry and (2) water through a series of vertical columns. The width of the columns
is adjusted to produce a progressively slower vertical flow velocity from column to col-
umn. Heavier abrasive settles out in the faster-flowing columns, while lighter particles
are carried over to the next. The process is effective down to about 5 mm and is also
used for micron sizing of SiC. Air classification has also been employed.
Mono- or single-crystalline corundum is obtained by sulfidation of bauxite, which
outputs different sizes of isometric corundum grains without the need for crushing. The
crystals are hard, are sharp, and have better cleavage than other aluminum oxides,
which qualifies them for grinding hardened steels and other tough and ductile mate-
rials. Single-crystalline corundum is the hardest abrasive of the fused corundum
family.
Diverse types of electrofused corundums with different material properties such as
hardness and friability can be produced through variations in the manufacturing pro-
cess in starting compositions and processing routes:
• Brown or gray (semifriable) corundum. These corundums contain 96%e98% Al2O3 and
have rather high toughness.
Abrasives 9

• Chrome addition. These forms are Pink fused corundum with 0.2%e0.3% chromium oxide
(Cr2O3) and ruby (red) fused corundum with 2% Cr2O3. The chromium oxide is built into
the Al2O3 crystal structure [Link16]. Pink fused corundum is slightly harder than white fused
corundum, and the addition of a small amount of TiO2 increases its toughness. The resultant
product is a medium-sized grain available in elongated or blocky but sharp shapes. Ruby
fused corundum has a higher chrome oxide content of 2% and is slightly tougher and harder
than pink alumina. The grains are blocky, sharp-edged, and cool cutting. Vanadium oxide
has also been used as an additive giving a distinctive green hue.
• Zirconia addition. Zirconium corundum is obtained during the production process by add-
ing 10%e40% zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) to aluminum oxide. At least three different
corundumezirconia compositions are used in grinding wheels: 75% Al2O3 and 25%
ZrO2, 60% Al2O3 and 40% ZrO2, and finally, 65% Al2O3, 30% ZrO2, and 5% TiO2. Their
manufacture usually includes rapid solidification to produce a finely grained and tough struc-
ture. The resulting abrasives are finely grained, tough, highly ductile, and long-lived in me-
dium to heavy stock removal applications and grinding with high pressures, such as billet
grinding in foundries.
• TiO2 (titania) addition. The addition of TiO2 improves corundum ductility. It is recommen-
ded when large and variable mechanical loads are involved. Brown fused corundum contains
2%e4% titania. Semifriable fused corundum includes 1%e2% TiO2 and is slightly tougher
than white fused corundum but more friable than brown fused corundum.
• Mono- or single-crystalline corundum. The grain growth is carefully controlled in a sulfide
matrix and is separated by acid leaching without crushing. The grain shape is nodular, which
aids bond retention, avoiding the need for crushing and reducing mechanical defects from
processing. The defectless crystal structure induces higher toughness than conventionally
molten corundum [Enge02].
• Postfusion processing methods. This type of particle reduction method can greatly affect
grain shape. Impact crushers such as hammer mills create a blocky shape, whereas roll
crushers cause splintering. Using electrostatic forces to separate sharp shapes from blocky
grains, it is possible to provide grades of the same composition but with very different cutting
actions.
• Hollow spherical corundum has been known for more than 80 years and has been commer-
cially manufactured for more than 30 years [Hors25, Uelt63]. Compact corundum spheres
are produced by blowing a pouring stream of liquid corundum under reducing conditions,
using compressed air or steam. The polycrystalline hollow spherical corundum abrasives
can also be manufactured by using ultrasonic assistance for dispersion of the liquid-fused
aluminum oxide into fine drops and for cooling [Alar06]. Hollow spherical corundum
(Fig. 1.5) is mainly used to produce closed pores (conveniently controlled shape and size)
in abrasive tools and for applications where the cutting temperature should be kept as low
as possible.

Figure 1.5 Hollow spherical corundum. (A) Geometry and microstructure [Wang17], (B)
Fractured morphology with a particle size of 250 mm [Wang17], (C) Using hollow spherical
corundum as closed porosity for a corundum grinding tool.
10 Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining Processes

• Corundum performance can also be altered by heat treatment, particularly for brown
corundum. The grit is heated to 1100e1300 C, depending on the grit size, to anneal cracks
and flaws created by the crushing process. This can enhance toughness by 25%e40%.

In general, the larger the crystals, the more friable the grain. The slower the cooling
process, the larger are the crystals. To obtain very fine crystals, the charge is cooled as
quickly as possible, and the abrasive grain is fused in small pigs of up to 2 tons. Coarse
crystalline abrasive grains are obtained from 5- to 6-ton pigs allowed to cool in the
furnace shell.
Depending upon the chemical composition, there are various types of fused
corundum. Traces of chromium give alumina a red hue, iron makes it black, and
titanium makes it blue. Fig. 1.6 shows examples of electrofused corundums.
It should be mentioned that several coating processes exist to improve the bonding
of the corundum grains in grinding tools. Red Fe2O3 is applied at high temperatures to
increase the surface area for better bonding in resin cut-off wheels. Silane is applied in
resin bond wheel applications to repel coolant infiltration between the bond and
abrasive grit and thus protect the resin bond.

Figure 1.6 Various corundums. (A) Brown corundum, (B) Zirconium corundum (ca. 75%
Al2O3 and ca. 25% ZrO2), (C) White fused corundum, (D) Pink fused corundum, (E) Ruby or
red fused corundum, (F) Mono- or single-crystalline corundum [Azar21].
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giving to the stranger within our gates a high conception of American
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ask you here to-night and those like you to take a foremost part in
the movement—a young men’s movement—for a greater and better
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ONE AMERICA.
All of us, no matter from what land our parents came, no matter in
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Transcriber’s Notes:
Punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently
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