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Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes
and By-Products
Recent Trends, Innovations, and Sustainability Challenges
Valorization of Agri-Food
Wastes and By-Products
Recent Trends, Innovations, and Sustainability
Challenges

Edited by

Rajeev Bhat
ERA-Chair for Food By-products Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH),
Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European Union
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Contents

List of contributors xix 2.2 Isolation and extraction methods of

Foreword xxv bioactive compounds from tropical
Preface xxvii fruit by-products and wastes 31
Introduction xxix 2.2.1 Influence of conventional
extraction techniques on bioactive
compounds 33
1 Sustainability challenges in the 2.2.2 Nonconventional extraction
valorization of agri-food wastes techniques 34
and by-products 1 2.3 Fermentation to obtain bioactive
compounds from tropical fruits 38
Rajeev Bhat 2.4 Possible uses of by-products and
1.1Introduction 1 wastes in the food industry 38
1.2Wastes and by-products—global scenario 2 2.4.1 As ingredients of functional food 38
1.3Food industrial wastes and by-products 4 2.4.2 As sources of unconventional oils 39
1.4Food industry wastes and renewable 2.4.3 As additives 39
energy production 7 2.4.4 Antimicrobial agents 39
1.5 Composting of agri-food wastes 8 2.4.5 Bio-absorbent agents 40
1.6 Bioactive compounds and bioactivity 9 2.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
1.7 Wastes and by-products as food and challenges 41
livestock feed 12 References 41
1.8 Bioplastics and green composites 13
1.9 Sustainable green processing
technologies 14 3 Bioactive compounds of fruit
1.10 Regulatory issues 14
1.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and future by-products as potential prebiotics 47
challenges 15 Marcela Albuquerque Cavalcanti de Albuquerque,
Acknowledgment 16 Igor Ucella Dantas de Medeiros, Bernadette Dora
References 17 Gombossy de Melo Franco, Susana Marta Isay Saad,
Further Reading 27 Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc and
Jean Guy LeBlanc
2 Valorization of industrial by-products 3.1 Introduction 47
and waste from tropical fruits for the 3.2 World crop production: focus on the fruit
recovery of bioactive compounds, scenario 48
3.3 Fruit by-products as functional compounds
recent advances, and future and their relationship with gut
perspectives 29 microbiota 48
Salma A. Enrı́quez-Valencia, J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala, 3.4 Dietary fibers and phenolics in fruit
Gustavo A. González-Aguilar and by-products as bioactive compounds 50
Leticia X. López-Martı́nez 3.5 Effect of fruit by-products on growth of
beneficial microorganisms and their folate
2.1 Introduction 29 production 50

v
vi Contents

3.6 Fruit by-products and gut microbiota: 5.4 Sustainability through preservation of
phenolic metabolites and short-chain vegetable waste and byproducts 96
fatty acids 51 5.5 Potential applications of vegetable
3.7 Potential biological effects of bioactive wastes and vegetable byproducts 97
compounds from fruit by-products: 5.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
antioxidant and antiinflammatory challenges 98
approaches 53 References 99
3.8 Conclusion, opportunities, and
future challenges 54
Acknowledgments 54 6 Fruit byproducts as alternative
References 54 ingredients for bakery products 111
Mafalda Alexandra Silva, Tânia Gonçalves
4 Valorization of fruit and vegetable Albuquerque, Rita Carneiro Alves,
waste for bioactive pigments: M. Beatriz P.P. Oliveira and Helena S. Costa
extraction and utilization 61 6.1 Introduction 111
6.2 Fruit industry 112
Wee Sim Choo and Amy Yi Hsan Saik
6.2.1 Apple 112
4.1 Introduction 61 6.2.2 Banana 112
4.2 Anthocyanins 62 6.2.3 Grape 116
4.2.1 Grapes 63 6.2.4 Mango and guava 116
4.3 Betalains 67 6.2.5 Melon and watermelon 116
4.3.1 Red beet 68 6.2.6 Orange 116
4.3.2 Extraction of betalains from red beet 6.2.7 Passion fruit 117
waste 69 6.2.8 Pomegranate 117
4.4 Carotenoids 69 6.3 Functional foods 117
4.4.1 Tomatoes 70 6.4 Bakery products 118
4.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 6.4.1 Bread 118
challenges 72 6.4.2 Biscuits 125
References 73 6.4.3 Cookies 126
6.4.4 Cakes 126
5 Valuable bioactives from 6.4.5 Muffins 126
6.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
vegetable wastes 83 challenges 127
Annegowda H.V. and Pulak Majumder Acknowledgments 127
References 127
5.1 Introduction 83
5.1.1 Ranking of vegetables 83
5.1.2 Top producers of vegetables 83 7 Fruit and vegetable by-products:
5.1.3 Benefits of consuming vegetables 83 novel ingredients for a sustainable
5.1.4 Production of vegetable wastes and society 133
byproducts 84
Pulak Majumder and H.V. Annegowda
5.1.5 Measures undertaken to minimize
vegetable wastes 86 7.1 Introduction 133
5.2 Valorization of vegetable wastes and 7.2 Bioactive molecules from fruit and
byproducts 87 vegetable by-products 134
5.2.1 Vitamins 87 7.2.1 Polyphenols 134
5.2.2 Carotenoids 90 7.2.2 The terpenes 135
5.2.3 Flavonoids 90 7.2.3 Biomedical impacts of carotenoids 135
5.2.4 Phenolic acids 94 7.2.4 Dietary fiber 136
5.3 Extraction of phytobioactives 95 7.2.5 Biomedical impacts of dietary fiber 136
5.3.1 Ultrasound-assisted extraction 95 7.2.6 Polysaccharides 136
5.3.2 Supercritical fluid extraction 95 7.2.7 Biomedical impacts of phytosterols 137
5.3.3 Accelerated solvent extraction 96 7.2.8 The organosulfurs 137
5.3.4 Microwave-assisted extraction 96 7.2.9 Biomedical impact of organosulfur
5.3.5 Enzyme-assisted extraction 96 compounds 137
 Contents vii

7.2.10 Organic acids and plant amines 137 8.4.4 Production of specialty chemicals and
7.2.11 Biomedical impact of organic acids fertilizers by solid-state fermentation 166
and amines 137 8.4.5 Production of industrial adsorbents 166
7.3 Sustained valorization of fruits and 8.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
vegetable by-products 137 challenges 167
7.3.1 Apple by-products 137 8.6 Conflict of interest 168
7.3.2 Citrus fruit by-products 138 References 168
7.3.3 Grape by-products 139
7.3.4 Tropical fruits by-products 140
7.3.5 Vegetable by-products 144 9 Coffee waste: a source of valuable
7.4 Innovative drying techniques and technologies for sustainable
extraction methods for fruit and development 173
vegetable by-products 146
7.4.1 Infrared-assisted convective drying 146 Vicente A. Mirón-Mérida, Blanca E. Barragán-Huerta
7.4.2 Microwave and combined and Paulina Gutiérrez-Macı́as
microwave drying 147 9.1 Introduction 173
7.4.3 Green technology: by-product 9.2 Coffee beans: chemical composition
extraction techniques 147 and structure 174
7.5 Innovations and sustainable food 9.3 Coffee production and generated waste 176
ingredients 149 9.4 Strategies used to valorize coffee waste 177
7.6 Strategic road map for sustainable 9.5 Bioproducts for food and pharmaceutical
utilization of by-products 149 industry applications from coffee waste 177
7.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 9.5.1 Antioxidant compounds 177
challenges 150 9.5.2 Antimicrobials 180
Acknowledgments 151 9.5.3 Organic acids 183
References 151
9.5.4 Enzymes 183
9.5.5 Colorants 184
8 Current trends on the valorization of 9.6 Bioenergy production from coffee
waste fractions for the recovery of waste 184
9.6.1 Biodiesel 184
alkaloids and polyphenols:
9.6.2 Bioethanol 186
case study of guarana 157 9.6.3 Biogas 186
Ádina L. Santana and Gabriela A. Macedo 9.7 Materials from coffee waste 187
9.7.1 Polymers for packaging materials 187
Abbreviations 157 9.7.2 Building materials 188
8.1 Introduction 157 9.8 Agricultural applications 188
8.2 Guarana (Paullinia cupana) 158 9.8.1 Composting and fertilizers 188
8.2.1 Botanical description and traditional 9.8.2 Mushroom cultivation 189
use 158 9.9 Miscellaneous 190
8.2.2 Chemical composition 158 9.9.1 Biosorbents 190
8.2.3 Health aspects on the administration 9.10 Conclusion and future perspectives 191
of guarana 159 Acknowledgments 191
8.2.4 Processing of guarana and products: References 192
current scenario 160
8.3 Emerging processing strategies to recover
alkaloids and polyphenols 160 10 Valorization of coffee wastes for
8.3.1 Extraction 160
effective recovery of value-added
8.3.2 Encapsulation 162
8.4 Current trends and perspectives: bio-based products: an aim to
biorefinery approach applied for enhance the sustainability and
the integral use of guarana 165 productivity of the coffee industry 199
8.4.1 Production of extracts and
Arunima Nayak and Brij Bhushan
microparticles: process intensification 165
8.4.2 Application in food products 165 10.1 Introduction 199
8.4.3 Production of energy 166 10.2 Valorization of coffee wastes 200
viii Contents

10.2.1 Production of biofuels 200 12 Various conversion techniques for

10.2.2 Recovery of value-added the recovery of value-added
bioactives 207
products from tea waste 237
10.2.3 Production of biomaterials 208
10.2.4 Development of bioadsorbents 211 Nabajit Dev Choudhury, Nilutpal Bhuyan,
10.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future Rumi Narzari, Ruprekha Saikia, Dibyakanta Seth,
challenges 212 Niharendu Saha and Rupam Kataki
References 212
12.1 Introduction 237
12.2 Process integration for setting up
a waste biorefinery 241
12.2.1 Biorefinery platforms 242
11 Valorization of tea waste for 12.2.2 Technological processes 243
multifaceted applications: 12.2.3 Feedstock groups 244
a step toward green and sustainable 12.2.4 Product groups 245
development 219 12.3 Tea waste and its worldwide availability 245
12.4 Physicochemical properties of tea
Omkar S. Nille, Akshay S. Patil, waste 247
Ravindra D. Waghmare, Vaibhav M. Naik, 12.5 Biofuel and bioenergy production 249
Datta B. Gunjal, Govind B. Kolekar and
12.5.1 Products from thermochemical
Anil H. Gore
conversion 249
11.1 Introduction 219 12.5.2 Biodiesel 250
11.2 Biomass sources 220 12.5.3 Bioethanol 251
11.3 Biomass valorization 220 12.6 Solid fuel 253
11.3.1 Carbonization 221 12.7 Tea waste-based biorefinery and
11.3.2 Pyrolysis 222 production of value-added product 253
11.3.3 Hydrothermal treatment 222 12.7.1 Electrochemical 253
11.3.4 Microwave treatment 224 12.7.2 Chemical derivatives from tea
11.3.5 Chemical activation 224 waste 253
11.4 Tea waste biomass: source, properties, 12.7.3 Animal feed and composting 256
and constituents 225 12.7.4 Manufacturing of instant tea 256
11.4.1 Field to tea industry 225 12.7.5 Tobacco substitutes and foaming
11.4.2 Tea waste residue/biomass from agents 256
kitchens, cafeterias, canteens, 12.8 Rules/regulations concerning the
and tea shops 225 safety of valorization of tea wastes 257
11.4.3 Properties and constituents 225 12.9 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
11.5 Value-added products from tea challenges 258
waste 226 References 259
11.5.1 Adsorbents 226
11.5.2 Activated carbon 226 13 Cocoa: Beyond chocolate,
11.5.3 Magnetic adsorbents 227 a promising material for potential
11.5.4 Carbon nanodots 227 value-added products 267
11.5.5 Graphene oxide dots 228
11.6 Multifaceted applications of valorized Paulina Gutiérrez-Macı́as,
waste tea products 229 Vicente A. Mirón-Mérida, C. Odı́n Rodrı́guez-Nava
11.6.1 Sensing and detection 229 and Blanca E. Barragán-Huerta
11.6.2 Pollutant removal, water 13.1 Introduction 267
treatment, and environmental 13.2 Chemical composition of the cocoa
remediation 230 pod 268
11.6.3 Agriculture and food industry 230 13.3 Cocoa process and its by-products and
11.6.4 Energy and catalysis 230 waste 269
11.6.5 Biomedical applications 232 13.4 Valorization of cocoa by-products and
11.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and waste 269
future challenges 233 13.4.1 Applications for the food industry, agri-
References 233 culture, and livestock 271
 Contents ix

13.4.2 Applications for the pharmaceutical 16.3 Extraction of phenolic compounds 333
and cosmetic industries 276 16.3.1 Phenolic compounds of grape
13.4.3 Environmental developments seeds 333
from cocoa waste 277 16.3.2 Methods of extraction 335
13.4.4 Composite materials 280 16.4 Extraction of oil 336
13.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 16.4.1 Chemical composition of
challenges 281 grape seed oil 336
Acknowledgments 282 16.4.2 Methods of extraction 338
References 282 16.4.3 Uses of grape seed oil 339
16.5 Use as a biosorbent 340
16.6 Application of seed extracts in foods 340
14 Nuts by-products: the Latin
16.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and
American contribution 289 future challenges 342
Elisa Dufoo-Hurtado, Ivan Luzardo-Ocampo, References 342
S.M. Ceballos-Duque, B. Dave Oomah,
Ma. Elena Maldonado-Celis and
Rocio Campos-Vega 17 Seed wastes and byproducts:
reformulation of meat products 347
14.1 Introduction 289
14.2 Impact of nut by-products 290 Carlos Pasqualin Cavalheiro, Maurı́cio Costa
14.2.1 Economic and environmental Alves da Silva, Claudia Ruiz-Capillas and
impact 290 Ana M. Herrero
14.3 Nutritional and functional nut 17.1 Introduction 347
by-products 290 17.2 Seeds and byproducts as fat replacers
14.3.1 Pistachios 290 in meat products 348
14.3.2 Hazelnuts 296 17.3 Bioactive compounds from seeds for
14.3.3 Almonds 300 use in meat products 356
14.3.4 Walnuts 302 17.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
14.3.5 Brazil nuts 304 challenges 363
14.3.6 Pecans 305 References 364
14.3.7 Cashew nuts 306
14.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and
future challenges 308
18 Recent advances and emerging
References 309 trends in the utilization of dairy
by-products/wastes 371
15 Valorization of seeds of the genera Boon Fung Leong, Wei Chean Chuah and
Cucumis, Citrullus, and Cucurbita 317 Fook Yee Chye

Patrı́cia Nunes and Rajeev Bhat 18.1 Introduction 371

18.2 Dairy industrial wastes 371
15.1 Introduction 317 18.2.1 Dairy wastewater 372
15.2 Cucurbitaceae family 318 18.2.2 Whey 373
15.3 Seed composition 319 18.3 Environmental impacts 374
15.4 Bioactive compounds 320 18.4 Advanced biotechnological approaches
15.5 Valorization of seeds 321 in utilizing dairy wastes 375
15.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and 18.4.1 Bioplastics 375
future challenges 323 18.4.2 Exopolysaccharides 377
Acknowledgment 324
18.4.3 Galacto-oligosaccharides 377
References 324
18.4.4 Biofuels 378
18.4.5 Organic acids 380
16 Valorization of grape seeds 331 18.4.6 Bioactive peptides 380
18.4.7 Single-cell protein 381
Maria Tsiviki and Athanasia M. Goula
18.4.8 Biosurfactants 381
16.1 Introduction 331 18.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
16.2 Characterization and content of grape challenges 382
seeds 332 References 383
x Contents

19 Whey: generation, recovery, and 20.4.1 Technofunctional properties of

use of a relevant by-product 391 buttermilk 419
20.4.2 Health benefits of buttermilk
Gustavo Luis de Paiva Anciens Ramos, components, including MFGM 420
Jonas Toledo Guimarães, Tatiana Colombo 20.4.3 Opportunities to produce
Pimentel, Adriano Gomes da Cruz, food-grade ingredients enriched in
Simone Lorena Quitério de Souza and
polar lipids and MFGM from
Simone Maria Ribas Vendramel
buttermilk 420
19.1 Introduction 391 20.4.4 Diversity of MFGM-enriched
19.2 Cheese manufacture 392 ingredients 421
19.3 Characteristics of whey 394 20.5 Wastewaters from processing,
19.4 Main destinations of whey 395 cleaning, and sanitary processes 422
19.4.1 Food applications 396 20.6 Conclusions and future outlook 422
19.4.2 Food supplements 398 Acknowledgments 422
19.4.3 Animal feed 399 References 422
19.4.4 Microencapsulation of
probiotics 399 21 Sustainable utilization of gelatin
19.4.5 Fertilizers 399
19.4.6 Packaging 399
from animal-based agri food
19.4.7 Flavor 401 waste for the food industry and
19.4.8 Whey bioconversion 401 pharmacology 425
19.4.9 Organic chemicals 402 Elif Tuğçe Aksun Tümerkan
19.4.10 Therapeutic agents 402
19.5 Whey recovery and purification 403 21.1 Introduction 425
19.5.1 Membrane separation 21.1.1 Categories and scale of
technology 403 agri food waste 425
19.5.2 Electrodialysis 405 21.2 Socioeconomic and environmental
19.5.3 Isoelectric precipitation 406 impact of agri food waste 427
21.3 Valorization of agri food waste 427
19.5.4 Adsorption 407
21.4 Gelatin: a value-added product from
19.5.5 Chromatographic separation 407
animal-derived waste 429
19.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
21.4.1 Gelatin derived from mammalian
challenges 408
References 409 species 429
21.4.2 An alternative to mammalian
gelatin: poultry gelatin 431
20 Valorization of dairy by-products for 21.4.3 A promising approach: fish
gelatin 432
functional and nutritional applications: 21.5 Usage of animal-originated gelatin in
recent trends toward the milk fat the food industry 433
globule membrane 415 21.5.1 Gelatin as a paramount food
Christelle Lopez additive 433
21.5.2 Gelatin as a coating and
20.1 Introduction 415 packaging material 434
20.2 Milk composition 416 21.6 Usage of animal-originated gelatin in
20.3 Main by-products of the dairy industry: pharmacology 434
whey, skimmed milk, and buttermilk 417 21.6.1 Gelatin—an inactive ingredient in
20.3.1 Production of whey and main pharmaceutical products 435
valorization 417 21.6.2 Gelatin in tissue engineering 435
20.3.2 Production of skimmed milk and 21.6.3 Other usages of gelatin in
main valorization 419 pharmacology 436
20.3.3 Production of buttermilk and 21.7 Challenges to animal-derived gelatin in
butter serum 419 the food and pharmacology industries 436
20.4 New trends toward the valorization of 21.8 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
buttermilk: specific interests in the milk challenges 437
fat globule membrane 419 References 437
 Contents xi

22 New food strategies to generate 23.2.17 Rules, regulations, and safety

sustainable beef 443 aspects 470
23.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
Almudena González González and challenges 470
Maria Patricia Guerrero Garcia-Ortega References 471
Further reading 474
22.1 Introduction 443
22.1.1 Reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
cattle by changing the feed 24 Biowaste eggshells as efficient
composition 444 electrodes for energy storage 475
22.2 Influence of the feed composition on
the quality of beef 448 Manickam Minakshi, Philip A. Schneider and
22.3 Case study 450 Maximilian Fichtner
22.3.1 In vitro test 450 24.1 Introduction 475
22.3.2 In vivo test 451 24.2 Valorization of biowaste chicken
22.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future eggshells 477
challenges 453 24.2.1 Phenomenological description of
Acknowledgments 453 chicken eggshells 477
References 454
24.2.2 Eggshell and eggshell membrane 478
24.2.3 Repurposing the eggshell
product 478
23 Valorization of wastes and 24.3 Applications 478
by-products from the meat 24.3.1 Use of eggshells for
industry 457 UV-protective applications 478
24.3.2 Use of eggshells for biomedical
Anand Mohan and Jade M. Long
applications 479
23.1 Introduction 457 24.3.3 Use of eggshells for industrial
23.1.1 Animal waste and by-product wastewater applications 480
categorization 457 24.3.4 Use of eggshells for biodiesel
23.1.2 Global impact 458 production 481
23.1.3 Meat by-product utilization 459 24.3.5 Use of eggshells for construction
23.1.4 Economic value 460 and building 482
23.1.5 Commercial impact 460 24.3.6 Eggshell-derived nanomaterials 482
23.1.6 Nutritional composition of 24.4 Eggshells as efficient electrodes for
meat by-products 460 energy storage 483
23.1.7 Chemical composition 461 24.4.1 General overview of hybrid
23.2 Value-added food ingredients 462 supercapacitors 483
23.2.1 Spray-dried animal muscle 462 24.4.2 Nanostructured cathode
23.2.2 Biologically active compounds 462 materials
23.2.3 Protein content 463 for hybrid supercapacitors and
23.2.4 Fat content 463 the effects of the materials 484
23.2.5 Other uses 463 24.4.3 Anode materials for hybrid
23.2.6 Regulation and classification 464 supercapacitors 485
23.2.7 Tongue 464 24.4.4 Micro-algae-derived carbon
23.2.8 Heart 465 electrode for hybrid
23.2.9 Liver 465 supercapacitors 485
23.2.10 Kidney 466 24.4.5 Wheat-straw-derived carbon
23.2.11 Brain 466 electrode for hybrid
23.2.12 Meat quality attributes 466 supercapacitors 486
23.2.13 Protein functionality and 24.4.6 Electrochemical device: battery
water-holding capacity 468 versus capacitor 487
23.2.14 Muscle composition 468 24.4.7 Eggshell-derived carbon electrode
23.2.15 Muscle structure 468 for hybrid supercapacitors in
23.2.16 Muscle fiber types 469 nonaqueous Li electrolyte 488
xii Contents

24.4.8 Eggshell-derived carbon electrode f 26.2.3 By-products from the

or hybrid supercapacitors in fish-processing industry 517
aqueous Na electrolyte 489 26.2.4 By-products from aquaculture 518
24.4.9 Biodegradable chitosan composite 26.3 Recovery of seafood by-products 518
electrode for hybrid 26.4 Valorization of seafood by-products 520
supercapacitors 490 26.4.1 New food products 520
24.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 26.4.2 Fishmeal and fish oil 520
challenges 491 26.4.3 Fish protein recovery 526
References 492 26.4.4 Bioproducts 527
26.4.5 Marine enzymes 528
26.4.6 Natural pigments 529
25 Recovery and application of bioactive 26.4.7 Energy and agronomic uses of
proteins from poultry by-products 497 by-products 529
26.5 Improvements in the management of
Íris Braz da Silva Araújo, Fábio Anderson Pereira Da seafood by-products 530
Silva, Miriane Moreira Fernandes Santos and 26.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
Rerisson do Nascimento Alves challenges 530
25.1 Introduction 497 References 531
25.2 Generation and disposal of chicken
industry waste 497
25.3 Nutritional value of poultry
27 Utilization of seafood-processing
by-products 499 by-products for the development of
25.4 Bioactive proteins from poultry value-added food products 537
by-products: potential applications 500
Samuel Chetachukwu Adegoke and
25.4.1 Skin 500
Reza Tahergorabi
25.4.2 Feet 501
25.4.3 Keel 502 27.1 Introduction 537
25.4.4 Feathers 502 27.2 Seafood-processing by-products
25.4.5 Blood 503 definition and statistics 538
25.4.6 Bones 504 27.3 Fundamental components of
25.4.7 Head: comb, wattle, earlobe, seafood-processing by-products 540
beak 504 27.3.1 Lipids 540
25.4.8 Mechanically deboned chicken 27.3.2 Proteins 541
meat 505 27.3.3 Chemical and enzymatic recovery
25.4.9 Abdominal fat 505 methods of seafood-processing
25.4.10 Offal 505 by-products 542
25.5 Techniques for obtaining bioactive 27.3.4 Isoelectric solubilization and
proteins from by-products of the precipitation 544
chicken industry: recent trends 506 27.3.5 Protein hydrolysis 545
25.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 27.3.6 Surimi manufacturing 546
challenges 509 27.3.7 Development of value-added
References 509 food products from the proteins
recovered from fish-processing
by-products 547
26 Valorization of seafood processing 27.3.8 Development of value-added
by-products 515 products from oil recovered from
seafood-processing by-products 551
Vida Šimat
27.3.9 Development of value-added
26.1 Introduction 515 products from other materials
26.1.1 Terminology issues 515 recovered from seafood-processing by-
26.2 The position of by-products in global products 551
fisheries and seafood industry 516 27.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and
26.2.1 Fish supply chain 516 future trends 553
26.2.2 Discards from fisheries 517 References 555
 Contents xiii

28 Valorization of seafood industry 30 Sustainability of agri-food supply

waste for gelatin production: chains through innovative waste
facts and gaps 561 management models 591
Elif Tuğçe Aksun Tümerkan Muneer Ahmad Magry and Sapna A. Narula
28.1 Introduction 561 30.1 Introduction 591
28.2 Amounts of seafood waste 563 30.2 Food wastage as a hurdle for
28.2.1 Wastes after fish processing 564 global security 591
28.2.2 Waste generated from other 30.3 Global food loss scenario 593
seafood 564 30.3.1 Causes of food losses 595
28.3 Valorization strategies for seafood 30.4 Food waste management through
waste 565 valorization: global efforts 595
28.4 The importance of aquatic gelatin for 30.4.1 Food waste valorization
academia and industry 566 techniques 596
28.4.1 A versatile industrial product: 30.5 The case of an emerging economy:
gelatin 566 food loss and reduction strategies in
28.4.2 Aquatic gelatin and its benefits 567 India 597
28.4.3 Fish gelatin derived from waste 568 30.5.1 Recent policy push as an enabler
28.5 Mind the gaps: fish gelatin from waste 569 for food loss reduction 599
28.5.1 Sustainability and sanitary issues 30.5.2 Constraints, actors, and enablers
for the raw material 569 for reductions in food loss 600
28.5.2 Health-related issues 570 30.6 Possible interventions and the way
28.5.3 Sensorial attributes of aquatic forward for food waste valorization 600
30.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
gelatin 570
challenges 601
28.6 Possible solutions 571
References 603
28.6.1 Well-organized process for raw
material through legislation 571
28.6.2 Solutions to health-related issues 572 31 Food waste generation and
28.6.3 Overcoming the sensorial management: household sector 607
problems of aquatic gelatin 572
Chanathip Pharino
28.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
challenges 573 31.1 Introduction 607
References 573 31.2 Food waste overview 607
31.2.1 Definition 607
31.2.2 Waste composition overview 608
29 Effective valorization of aquaculture 31.2.3 Causes and sources of food
by-products: bioactive peptides and waste 608
31.3 Food waste policy 610
their application in aquafeed 579 31.3.1 European Union 611
Mehdi Nikoo 31.3.2 Australia 611
31.3.3 United States 611
29.1 Introduction 579
31.3.4 The Netherlands 611
29.2 Fish protein hydrolysates and
peptides 579 31.3.5 Canada 611
29.3 Sources of aquaculture by-products 580 31.3.6 Singapore 612
29.4 Handling and processing of seafood 31.3.7 Thailand 612
by-products for production of protein 31.4 Food waste management 612
hydrolysates and peptides 581 31.4.1 The food waste management
29.4.1 Utilization of fish protein hierarchy 612
hydrolysates and peptides 31.4.2 Food waste management
as fish feed 584 approaches 613
29.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 31.5 Food waste management incentives 614
challenges 587 31.5.1 Cobenefits from food waste
Acknowledgment 588 reduction 614
References 588
xiv Contents

31.5.2 Lessons learned on food waste 33.2 Sources of wastewater 646

management 615 33.3 Techniques for treatment of wastewater 646
31.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 33.4 Physiochemical treatments 647
challenges 616 33.4.1 Coagulation flocculation 647
Acknowledgments 617 33.4.2 Adsorption 649
References 617 33.4.3 Membrane treatment 650
33.4.4 Biological treatment 651
32 Sustainable valorization of food- 33.4.5 Electrochemical treatment 653
processing industry by-products: 33.4.6 Advanced oxidation process treatment 654
33.5 Potential end products from wastewater
challenges and opportunities to treatments 655
obtain bioactive compounds 619 33.5.1 Development of bioenergy resources 655
S. Simões, A. Costa, A.C. Faria-Silva, A. Ascenso, 33.5.2 Production of volatile fatty acids 656
J. Marto, M. Carvalheiro, L.M. Gonçalves, 33.5.3 Development of biopolymers 656
M. Marques, A. Paiva, M. Bento, P. Simões and 33.5.4 Development of bio-agricultural
H.M. Ribeiro products 657
33.5.5 Valorized bio-active compounds 657
32.1 Introduction 619
32.2 Food processing and waste production 620 33.5.6 Miscellaneous valorized products 658
33.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
32.2.1 Socioeconomic considerations
challenges 658
and environmental concerns 620 Acknowledgment 659
32.2.2 What can be used as raw References 659
material for bioactive
compounds recovery? 620
32.3 Bioactives in food waste: chemical 34 Valorization of cotton wastes for
classes and activities 621 agricultural and industrial applications:
32.4 Challenges in extraction: searching for present status and future
green and sustainable separation
of natural products from waste 623
prospects 665
32.4.1 Conventional methods 624 K. Velmourougane, D. Blaise, S. Savitha and
32.4.2 Nonconventional methods 625 V.N. Waghmare
32.5 Are green extraction techniques
cost-effective processes? 627 34.1 Introduction 665
32.6 Opportunities for new valuable 34.2 Cotton wastes and the need for their
compounds 629 valorization 666
34.3 Composition of cotton plants 668
32.6.1 Applications of recovered
34.4 Classification of cotton wastes 668
molecules in nutraceuticals and
34.4.1 On-farm cotton wastes and their
reinvented foods 629
utilization 668
32.6.2 Garbage to glamour: incorporating
34.4.2 Off-farm cotton wastes and their
recovered bioactives in skin care
utilization 674
products 630
34.5 A conceptual model to utilize on-farm
32.7 New business and marketing concepts
cotton wastes 678
for recovered bioactives 632
34.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
32.8 Nanocellulose for packaging—
challenges 678
biomaterials production 634
References 681
32.9 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
challenges 636
References 636 35 Advanced techniques for recovery
of active compounds from food
33 Revitalization of wastewater from by-products 693
the edible oil industry 645
Irina Fierascu, Radu Claudiu Fierascu and
Muhammad Asim Shabbir, Waqar Ahmed, Elwira Sieniawska
Moazzam Rafiq Khan, Talha Ahmad and
Rana Muhammad Aadil 35.1 Introduction 693
35.2 Conventional extraction techniques
Abbreviations 645 for food waste valorization 694
33.1 Introduction 645 35.2.1 Pressurized liquid extraction 694
 Contents xv

35.2.2 Microwave-assisted extraction 698 37.4.1 Optimization of processing

35.2.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction 699 parameters 733
35.3 Nonconventional extraction techniques 37.4.2 Influence of pH 734
for food waste valorization 700 37.4.3 Influence of salt addition 735
35.3.1 Ohmic technologies 700 37.4.4 Protein functionalization 736
35.3.2 Natural deep eutectic solvents for 37.4.5 Dehydrothermal treatment 736
extraction of bioactive 37.4.6 Addition of clays 737
compounds 701 37.4.7 Addition of hydrocolloids 738
35.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 37.5 Benefits of natural-based
challenges 703 superabsorbent materials 738
Acknowledgments 704 37.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
References 705 challenges 739
Acknowledgments 739
References 739
36 Application of combined extraction
and microextraction techniques for
food waste 711 38 Natural deep eutectic solvents for
sustainable extraction of pigments and
B.K.K.K. Jinadasa, Antonio Moreda-Piñeiro and
Scott W. Fowler
antioxidants from agri-processing
waste 747
36.1 Introduction 711
36.2 Microextraction techniques 712 Sonia Kumar and Marianne Su-Ling Brooks
36.2.1 Solid sorbent-based Abbreviations 747
microextraction 712 38.1 Introduction 747
36.2.2 Solid-phase microextraction 712 38.2 Natural deep eutectic solvents 749
36.2.3 Stir bar sorptive extraction 713 38.3 Natural pigments from agri-processing
36.2.4 Liquid-phase microextraction waste 751
techniques 715 38.3.1 Anthocyanins 753
36.2.5 Dispersive liquid liquid 38.3.2 Carotenoids 759
microextraction 715 38.3.3 Carthamine 759
36.2.6 Microextraction with deep eutectic 38.3.4 Curcumin 760
solvents and ionic liquids 718 38.4 Other antioxidant compounds from
36.2.7 Dispersive liquid liquid agri-processing waste 760
microextraction-solidified floating 38.4.1 Olive processing 761
organic droplets 718 38.4.2 Onion processing 767
36.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 38.4.3 Citrus processing 768
challenges 718 38.4.4 Coffee processing 768
References 719 38.4.5 Winemaking 769
38.4.6 Pomegranate processing 769
38.4.7 Miscellaneous 770
37 Superabsorbent materials from 38.5 Toxicity of NADES 771
industrial food and agricultural 38.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and
wastes and by-products 723 future challenges 772
Acknowledgments 774
Estefanı́a Álvarez-Castillo, Carlos Bengoechea, References 774
Manuel Felix and Antonio Guerrero
37.1 Introduction 723 39 Thermochemical and biochemical
37.2 Natural superabsorbent materials 724
37.2.1 Carbohydrates 724
treatment strategies for resource
37.2.2 Proteins 728 recovery from agri-food industry
37.2.3 Copolymers 729 wastes 787
37.3 Biodegradability of superabsorbent
Tharaka Rama Krishna C. Doddapaneni and
materials 732
Timo Kikas
37.4 Strategies to improve superabsorbent
properties in protein-based SAB 733 39.1 Introduction 787
xvi Contents

39.2 An overview on agri-food industry 40.4.2 Other applications 819

waste 788 40.5 Legal barriers to insects as biotools in
39.2.1 Crop residues 788 circular economy in European
39.2.2 Agricultural products processing Union 821
industry waste 788 40.6 Conclusion and future perspectives 823
39.2.3 Food waste 789 References 823
39.2.4 Composition of agri-food industry
waste 789 41 Sustainability of food industry
39.2.5 Handling of agri-food industry
wastes: a microbial approach 829
waste 789
39.3 Thermochemical conversion of Sergi Maicas and José Juan Mateo
agri-food industry waste 791
39.3.1 Combustion 791 41.1 Introduction 829
39.3.2 Pyrolysis of agri-food waste 793 41.1.1 Wineries 830
39.3.3 Gasification 795 41.1.2 Olive oil mills 830
39.4 Biochemical conversion of agri-food 41.2 Types of residual biomass generated 831
industry wastes 796 41.2.1 Winery industry 831
39.4.1 Anaerobic digestion 796 41.2.2 Olive oil industry 834
39.4.2 Fermentation of agri-food waste 798 41.3 Microbial valorization of wastes 836
39.5 Challenges and opportunities 800 41.3.1 Biorefinery 836
39.5.1 Thermochemical conversion 41.3.2 Composting 841
processes 800 41.3.3 Industrial additives and
39.5.2 Biochemical conversion ingredients 842
processes 801 41.3.4 Microbial biomass 844
39.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 41.3.5 Other uses 845
challenges 802 41.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
Acknowledgments 803 challenges 845
References 803 References 846

40 Bioconversion of agri-food waste 42 Polyphenols from food processing

and by-products through insects: byproducts and their
a new valorization opportunity 809 microbiota gut brain axis-based
Giulia Leni, Augusta Caligiani and Stefano Sforza
health benefits 855
Santad Wichienchot and Saravanan Chakkaravarthi
40.1 Introduction: the “Circular Economy”
concept for agro-food waste reduction 42.1 Introduction 855
and how insects fit in it 809 42.2 Sources of byproduct polyphenols
40.2 Insect species and rearing substrates 811 from food industries 856
40.2.1 Rearing substrates for Hermetia 42.2.1 Food industries byproduct
illucens 812 polyphenols 856
40.2.2 Rearing substrates for other insect 42.2.2 Fruit byproducts 856
species 813 42.2.3 Vegetable byproducts 857
40.2.3 Lignocellulosic substrates 813 42.2.4 Cereals and pulses byproduct 858
40.2.4 Exploring the possibilities of 42.3 Structure and class of byproduct
insect rearing on unauthorized polyphenols 859
substrates 814 42.4 Extraction of polyphenols from food
40.3 Insect processing 814 processing and agricultural byproducts 859
40.3.1 Killing 814 42.4.1 Conventional solvent extraction 859
40.3.2 Drying 815 42.4.2 Microwave-assisted extraction 859
40.3.3 Grinding 815 42.4.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction 859
40.3.4 Extraction of valuable compounds from 42.4.4 Deep eutectic solvent extraction 862
insect biomass 815 42.4.5 Supercritical fluid extraction 862
40.4 Insect applications 817 42.4.6 Pressurized fluid extraction 862
40.4.1 Feed and food 817 42.4.7 Enzyme-assisted extraction 863
 Contents xvii

42.5 Applications of byproducts’ 44.4 Entrepreneurial ecosystems in rural

polyphenols 863 areas 905
42.6 Gut fermentation of polyphenols and 44.5 A case study: promoting low-carbon
their health benefits 864 business ecosystem in a rural district 906
42.6.1 Era of gut brain axis 865 44.5.1 The current stage of circular
42.6.2 Biotransformation of dietary economy in Nivala district 906
polyphenols by gut microbiome 868 44.5.2 The future vision of carbon-free
42.6.3 Health benefits of dietary ecosystem in Nivala 908
polyphenols and its metabolites 870 44.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
42.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges 910
challenges 873 References 910
References 873
45 Agricultural waste valorization for
43 Agro-waste-derived silica sustainable biofuel production 913
nanoparticles (Si-NPs) as Tibor Pasinszki and Melinda Krebsz
biofertilizer 881
45.1 Introduction 913
Ng Lee Chuen, Mohd Sabri Mohd Ghazali, 45.2 Production of biofuels from
Muhamad Fairus Noor Hassim, Rajeev Bhat and lignocellulosic waste 914
Aziz Ahmad 45.2.1 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic
43.1 Introduction 881 waste 915
43.1.1 Agri-food wastes 881 45.2.2 Biological processes to produce
43.1.2 Silicon in plants 881 fuel 917
43.1.3 The current trend of silicon in 45.2.3 Thermal processes to produce
agriculture 882 fuel 920
43.2 Natural sources, extraction methods, 45.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
and physicochemical properties 882 challenges 923
43.3 Rice husk-derived SiO2 nanoparticles 885 References 924
43.4 Characterizations of silica
nanoparticles 885 46 Valorization of fruit processing
43.5 Advantages and applications of silica
nanoparticles in agriculture 886 by-product streams into integrated
43.6 Fertilizers 886 biorefinery concepts: extraction of
43.7 Delivery vectors 889 value-added compounds and
43.8 Soil water retention capacity 889 bioconversion to chemicals 927
43.9 Remediation of heavy metals and
hazardous chemicals 889 Maria Alexandri, Sofia Maina, Erminta Tsouko,
43.10 Weeds, pests, and pathogens Harris Papapostolou, Apostolis Koutinas and
management 889 Konstantina Kourmentza
43.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
challenges 891 46.1 Introduction 927
Acknowledgments 892 46.2 Organic acids production 928
References 892 46.2.1 Citric acid 928
46.2.2 Lactic acid 928
46.2.3 Succinic acid 931
44 Supply of biomass and agricultural 46.2.4 Acetic acid 931
waste for promoting low-carbon 46.2.5 Fumaric acid 931
business-ecosystem 899 46.2.6 Other organic acids 932
46.3 Enzymes 932
Ulla Lehtinen and Katariina Ala-Rämi
46.4 Biopolymers 935
44.1 Introduction 899 46.4.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates production
44.2 The concept of circular economy 900 utilizing fruit waste streams 936
44.3 Sustainable supply chain and reverse 46.4.2 Bioconversion of fruit waste to
logistics 902 bacterial cellulose 937
44.3.1 Biomass as a source of energy 46.5 Recovery of antioxidants and essential
and fuel 904 oils from fruits 938
xviii Contents

46.5.1 Recovery of antioxidants 47.4.2 Biological fixation 956

compounds 938 47.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
46.5.2 Recovery of essential oils 940 challenges 959
46.6 Conclusion and future outlook 940 References 959
References 940
48 Valorization of agrifood wastes and
47 Recovery and valorization of CO2 byproducts through
from the organic wastes nanobiotechnology 963
fermentation 947 Luna Goswami, Gargi Dey and
Barbara Ruivo Valio Barretti, Marcela Kloth, Sandeep K. Panda
Alessandra Cristine Novak Sydney, Luiz Gustavo
48.1 Introduction 963
Lacerda, Julio Cesar de Carvalho, Adenise Lorenci
48.2 Agrifood wastes: international status 964
Woiciechowski, Carlos Ricardo Soccol and
48.2.1 Types of agrifood wastes and
Eduardo Bittencourt Sydney
compositions 964
47.1 Introduction 947 48.2.2 Conventional valorization
47.2 Overview of organic wastes production 948 processes 964
47.2.1 Agriculture wastes 948 48.3 Bottleneck in conventional processes
47.2.2 Animal wastes 949 of agrifood waste valorization 966
47.2.3 Food processing wastes 949 48.4 Valorization process by
47.2.4 Food wastes 950 nanobiotechnology 967
47.2.5 Paper and cellulose production 48.4.1 Carbon-based nanomaterials 967
wastes 950 48.4.2 Noncarbon-based nanomaterials 970
47.2.6 Urban sewage sludge 950 48.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
47.3 Organic wastes reuse technologies: challenges 973
ethanol and biogas production 951 Acknowledgment 974
47.3.1 Ethanol 952 References 974
47.3.2 Biogas and biohydrogen 953 Index 979
47.4 CO2 valorization technologies 954
47.4.1 Chemical fixation 954
Foreword
Climate protection and the efficient use of natural
resources are among the challenges of this century, partic-
ularly in the context of increasing global economic devel-
opment and a growing world population. The sustainable
development goals of the United Nations and the
European Green Deal of the European Union take up
these challenges and set a framework and goals for sus-
tainable development. Bioeconomy, which is now highly
valued in many countries, can make a significant contri-
bution to this. This includes in particular the transforma-
tion of an oil-based economy to an economy in which
fossil resources are replaced by renewable raw materials
and the recycling of organic residues and waste. It should
be emphasized that the production of nonfossil-based pro-
ducts through the recycling and valorization of organic
by-products and waste does not create competition with
food production.
This book “Valorization of Agri-food Wastes and By-
products: Recent Trends, Innovations, and Sustainability
Challenges” takes up this important topic in this context
regarding waste and by-products occurring during food
production and processing. It covers a broad spectrum of
valorization of waste and by-products in the production
and processing of fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, in
the beverage industry, and in the dairy, meat, poultry, and
seafood industries. It also highlights opportunities and
challenges related to waste management along the agri-
food supply chains including those of households, innova-
tive food waste treatment and recovery technologies, in
the production of novel materials, biofuel production, new
bioeconomic business systems, and climate change miti-
gation measures. It demonstrates current trends in
research and development and gives an overview of the
state-of-the art in food waste management and in the pro-
duction of innovative products from organic residues and
provides theoretical, experimental, and practical
experience.
The topics are presented meticulously by global
experts and scientists from all around the world. The pub-
lication of this book is well timed and will be an excellent
source of information for all the scientists, technologists,
and decision-makers working in the agri-food sector. In
addition, this book is expected to be an important contri-
bution for further development and understanding of the
bioeconomy concepts. It will also be an excellent refer-
ence material for teaching undergraduate and postgraduate
level students. All this makes this book a valuable source
for science and practice.
This book has been excellently edited by Prof. Dr.
Rajeev Bhat, an established expert in the field of agri-
food technology. This book is timely published by
Elsevier and I wish it a wide distribution and recognition.
Martin Kranert
Solid Waste Management and Emissions, Institute for
Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste
Management, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
xxv
Introduction
Derek Stewart
Advanced Plant Growth Centre, The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, United Kingdom
The world is reaching a crisis point in terms of climate
change and the impacts this is having on our ability to
produce food, products, and goods, and to live an
acceptable quality of live. The FAO identifies that the
predicted population increase to 8.3 billion by 2030 will
create a 50% increase in demand for food and energy and
with this a 30% increased demand for freshwater and an
associated need for 120 Mha in developing countries to
allow much of this food to be produced. However, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change research and
modeling has identified that if climate change is left
unaddressed it may reduce agricultural production by 2%
each decade (while demand increases 14%) and that over
the period from now until 2050 up to 40% of the world
will develop unfamiliar climates. As if this wasn’t
enough, a further 3 billion middle-class consumers will
enter the market by 2030 to give a total of 5.3 billion, and
of these China and India will comprise 66% of the global
middle-class population and 59% of middle-class
consumption. This elevated affluence group will acceler-
ate demand for products and hence resources (https://
knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/growing-consumerism_en;
accessed 01.03.21).
This means we have to change how we produce pro-
ducts, including food, reduce waste, and maximize the
reuse and valorization of any wastes, or more appropri-
ately, coproducts. This approach to resource use maximi-
zation has been an activity that we have all tended to do
at the small scale but the need to truly make an impact on
and reverse climate change impacts requires larger-scale
activities and the adoption of the circular economy into
our everyday life. This is happening at national levels
with many countries developing circular economy strate-
gies, policies, and, in some cases, passing these into legis-
lation (Salvatori et al., 2019).
If we are to fully utilize resources and adopt a sustain-
able approach then we need to look where and how these
resources are produced, the nature of the coproducts, and
the existing and emerging processes that can effectively
and efficiently convert these to higher value products and
feedstocks.
The very nature of sustainability and renewable
resources focuses us toward natural and biologically
generated products and their associated coproducts and
is at the heart of this book. Here we have the latest
research findings dealing with the primary and second-
ary production industries’ coproducts encompassing sec-
tors such as crops, marine, livestock, poultry, and dairy.
This span embraces a wide ranges of chemistries, pro-
cesses, and opportunities for conversion to higher value
products and feedstocks. Allied to these is a section deal-
ing with opportunities and challenges in the circular
bioeconomy sector and it is heartening to see that this
encompasses important issues such as waste manage-
ment models, extraction technologies including emerg-
ing absorbents, eutectic solvents, passage through
biological systems such as insects and microbes, and the
combination of multiple technologies to create integrated
biorefinery approaches.
The many articles highlight how vibrant the research
area is, the many demands for new sustainable feed-
stocks, and the multiple routes that can be undertaken to
get to those end points. Prof. Rajeev Bhat has assembled
an impressive selection of authors and papers that not
only identify the scale of opportunities and challenges in
the circular bioeconomy but also deliver ground-
breaking solutions to see this science adopted and
exploited.
The book is timely. We are emerging from isolation
imposed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which
xxix
xxx Introduction

has allowed a period of reflection and planning, and this Reference

should facilitate the creation and development of a new
Salvatori, G., et al. (2019). Circular economy strategies and roadmaps in
future based on green recovery principles. This recovery
Europe: Identifying synergies and the potential for cooperation and
requires new approaches, modes of thought and applica-
alliance building. European Economic and Social Committee.
tion, and models of application and the science described Available from https://doi.org/10.2864/554946.
here forms a solid basis for this.
Preface
Globally, the entire agri-food system is witnessing deci-
sive challenges pertinent to food security and sustainable
food production. Of late, unwarranted pressure on our
food system and the supply chain is being shown in
countless ways. Global populations have been seriously
affected by the increased impact of climate change,
unsustainable food production, poverty and hunger issues,
changing lifestyle and diet patterns, the upsurge in non-
communicable diseases, the increase in food loss and
waste, the pandemic situation, that is, COVID-19, and
much more. These circumstances have altered the basic
socioeconomic cultural interactions, thus radically
affecting the normal day-to-day life. In this sense, a
defined understanding of various resource nexuses and
the interlinkages amongst the diversified natural resources
(food energy water) within the food delivery/supply
chains necessitate careful monitoring. Nevertheless,
modern-day technological innovations are envisaged to
undeniably penetrate all the related arenas of our food
system. However, the future lays in redesigning present-
day food systems with an accurately designed set of goals
that can open up new horizons such as the use of digitali-
zation technologies, along with new policies set for envi-
ronmental protection. In the coming years, the top focus
will rest on understanding agri-food waste (carbon) foot-
prints, life cycle assessments, adopting circular bioecon-
omy concepts, minimal waste generation, and maximal
utilization of food industrial by-products, all of which can
gain infinite deliberations.
Today, the world over, food industries are facing a
wide array of challenges, some of which include the prac-
tical application of novel innovations on a pilot scale, the
optimization and design of processing technologies, the
development of low-cost nutritious and healthy foods,
ensuring high quality and safer foods, and food processing
waste management. Among these, the valorization of food
industrial wastes and by-products has been a hot topic of
deliberation and a much acclaimed concept that has cre-
ated a renewed interest of producers, consumers, research-
ers, academicians, policy makers and environmentalists.
Globally, enormous amounts of wastes and/or by-products
are generated along the entire agri-food supply chain, a
major portion occurring mainly at the postprocessing
levels in the industries. These wastes/by-products
generated are of high concern, mainly owing to their safe
disposal issues and the unwarranted stress created on the
environment. In this regard, adopting appropriate manage-
ment strategies and the use of technological innovations
focusing on the generation of minimal wastes coupled
with maximal utilization of raw materials can guarantee
productive economical gain, besides ensuring the regional
food security. Nevertheless, valorization of agri-food
industrial wastes and by-products can be considered as
superlative to produce certain value-added compounds.
This concept of valorization revolves around reuse, recy-
cle, recovery, and resource mobilization, all applied with
a sustainable functional approach. Besides, this notion
also meets the much acclaimed concepts of the circular
economy (bioeconomy) of the EU.
Designed with an innovative approach, this book high-
lights most of the recent trends in the ongoing research
activities in this stimulating field, aiming to fill some of
the existing gaps of knowledge. A wide arena of interest-
ing topics related to valorization of agri-food wastes and
by-products, innovations, and various sustainability chal-
lenges encountered in the supply chain have been covered
in this book. The book focuses its coverage on bioactives
recovery, innovative green processing technologies, the
functionality of bioactive compounds, biofuel production,
environmental issues, as well as recent technological
developments covering the state-of-the-art of agri-food
wastes/by-products management and innovations thereof.
The book also presents tools for value chain analysis and
explores future sustainability challenges that can benefit
the dependent industries. In addition, theoretical and
experimental information that is useful to investigate dif-
ferent aspects of the valorization of agri-food wastes and
by-products is also covered.
The content of the book is presented in subsections
with a total of 48 chapters. The first section deals with
the introductory note that exclusively introduces the sub-
ject and is the foundation for the entire book. The second
section includes chapters covering the valorization of fruit
and vegetable wastes and by-products, while section three
has chapters that focus on beverage industries (coffee, tea,
and cocoa). The fourth section covers information on the
valorization of nuts and seeds. This is followed by section
five and six which deal with the valorization of wastes
xxvii
xxviii Preface
and the by-products of dairy, animals, poultry, and the
marine industry sectors, respectively. In the seventh and
the last section of the book, various opportunities and
challenges incurred with regard to the valorization of
wastes and by-products of the agri-food industries are dis-
cussed extensively.
All of the contributing authors in this book are highly
recognized experts in their respective fields, who have
provided their valuable inputs on the currently witnessed
ground reality issues and have proposed novel concepts to
address various sustainability challenges that can signifi-
cantly affect or have an impact on the future. Of late, no
competitor books are available in the market wherein
leading experts from different countries have positioned
their view in a single volume. This book will be a prodi-
gious reference material for agri-food scientists and tech-
nologists, agricultural engineers, environmental scientists,
policy makers, and for industrial professionals working on
sustainable food production, management of food loss,
wastes, and by-products. Besides, this book will benefit
teachers and undergraduate and postgraduate students as a
readily accessible reference material.
As the editor, I sincerely thank all of my collaborating
researchers/experts for their vital contribution to this
book. I have been working in this interesting field for a
long time, however, the concept of developing this as a
book came to my mind after I recently took the position
of ERA-Chair Professor in Food (By-) Products
Valorisation Technologies (Valortech) at the Estonian
University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia.
Further, I am highly grateful to Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin
Kranert (University of Stuttgart, Germany) and to Prof.
Dr. Derek Stewart (The James Hutton Institute, United
Kingdom) who have penned their thoughts as the book’s
foreword and introductory notes, respectively. In addition,
sincere appreciation goes to Prof. Ülle Jaakma (Vice-
Rector for Research) and Prof. Toomas Tiirats (Director
of Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences),
Estonian University of Life Sciences, who have been very
supportive in all of my initiatives.
I am thankful to Elsevier and to the entire team who
have played a significant role in making this book a real-
ity. Special gratitude goes to Megan Ball (Senior
Acquisitions Editor), Kelsey Connors and Samantha
Allard (Editorial Project Managers) for their involvement
and commitment to this venture.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my wife
Ranjana and children (Vidhathri, Tapas and Tanvi) for their
incessant patience and coping with my workaholic nature,
which was key to making this book a reality. I dedicate this
book to both of them with much love and affection.
Rajeev Bhat
ERA-Chair for Food (By-) Products Valorisation Technologies
(VALORTECH), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia,
European Union
List of contributors
Rana Muhammad Aadil, National Institute of Food
Science and Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Samuel Chetachukwu Adegoke, Food and Nutritional
Sciences Program, North Carolina Agricultural and
Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United
States
Aziz Ahmad, Biological Security and Sustainability
Research Group, Faculty of Science and Marine
Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala
Nerus, Malaysia; Centre for Fundamental and
Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia
Talha Ahmad, College of Biosystems Engineering and
Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Muneer Ahmad Magry, Faculty of Science Engineering
and Built Environment, Deakin University, Melbourne,
VIC, Australia; Universal Business School, Kushivili,
Karjat, Maharashtra
Waqar Ahmed, National Institute of Food Science and
Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
Elif Tuğçe Aksun Tümerkan, Department of Food
Processing, Vocational High School, University of
Ankara Yildirim Beyazit, Ankara, Turkey
Katariina Ala-Rämi, Kerttu Saalasti Institute, University
of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
Marcela Albuquerque Cavalcanti de
Albuquerque, Department of Food and Experimental
Nutrition, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; FoRC,
Food Research Center, University of São Paulo, São
Paulo, Brazil
Tânia Gonçalves Albuquerque, Department of Food
and Nutrition, National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo
Jorge, I.P., Lisbon, Portugal; REQUIMTE-LAQV/
Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto,
Porto, Portugal; Instituto Universitário Egas Moniz,
Almada, Portugal
Maria Alexandri, Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
Estefanı́a Álvarez-Castillo, Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica
Superior, Seville, Spain
Rita Carneiro Alves, REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de
Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
H.V. Annegowda, Department of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of
Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University, Mandya,
India
A. Ascenso, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala, Research Center for Food
and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Blanca E. Barragán-Huerta, Department of
Environmental Systems Engineering, National School
of Biological Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional,
Mexico City, Mexico
Barbara Ruivo Valio Barretti, Federal University of
Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil
Carlos Bengoechea, Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica
Superior, Seville, Spain
M. Bento, Italagro SA, Lezı́ria das Cortes, Castanheira
do Ribatejo, Portugal
Rajeev Bhat, ERA-Chair for Food By-products
Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH), Estonian
University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European
Union
Brij Bhushan, Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era
University, Dehradun, India
Nilutpal Bhuyan, Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, India; D.C.B. Girls’ College,
Jorhat, India
D. Blaise, Division of Crop Production, ICAR (Central
Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur, India
Marianne Su-Ling Brooks, Department of Process
Engineering and Applied Science, Dalhousie
University, Halifax, Canada
Augusta Caligiani, Department of Food and Drug,
University of Parma, Parma, Italy
xix
xx List of contributors
Rocio Campos-Vega, Postgraduate Program in Food of
the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research and
Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of
Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico
M. Carvalheiro, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Carlos Pasqualin Cavalheiro, Laboratory of Meat and
Meat Products Inspection and Technology (LabCarne),
Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Brazil
S.M. Ceballos-Duque, Instituto de Biologı́a, Facultad de
Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de
Antioquia, Medellı́n, Colombia
Saravanan Chakkaravarthi, Department of Basic and
Applied Sciences, National Institute of Food Technology
Entrepreneurship and Management, Sonipat, India
Wee Sim Choo, School of Science, Monash University
Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
Nabajit Dev Choudhury, Department of Energy
Engineering, Assam Science and Technology
University, Guwahati, India
Wei Chean Chuah, Faculty of Food Science and
Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah, Malaysia
Ng Lee Chuen, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus,
Malaysia
Fook Yee Chye, Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,
Malaysia
A. Costa, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Helena S. Costa, Department of Food and Nutrition,
National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, I.P.,
Lisbon, Portugal; REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de
Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
Adriano Gomes da Cruz, Federal Institute of Education,
Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ),
Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Maurı́cio Costa Alves da Silva, Laboratory of Meat and
Meat Products Inspection and Technology
(LabCarne), Federal University of Bahia (UFBA),
Salvador, Brazil
Íris Braz da Silva Araújo, Management and
Agroindustrial Technology Department, Federal
University of Paraı́ba, Bananeiras, Brazil
Julio Cesar de Carvalho, Federal University of Paraná,
Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil
Igor Ucella Dantas de Medeiros, Department of
Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo,
São Paulo, Brazil
Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc, CERELA-
CONICET, Centro de Referência para Lactobacilos,
San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
Simone Lorena Quitério de Souza, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Rio de
Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil
Gargi Dey, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute
of Industrial Technology (KIIT University),
Bhubaneswar, India
Rerisson do Nascimento Alves, Agri-food Technology
Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Paraiba,
Bananeiras, Brazil
Elisa Dufoo-Hurtado, Postgraduate Program in Food of
the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research and
Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of
Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico
Salma A. Enrı́quez-Valencia, Research Center for Food
and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
A.C. Faria-Silva, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Manuel Felix, Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica Superior,
Seville, Spain
Maximilian Fichtner, Helmholtz Institute Ulm for
Electrochemical Energy Storage (HIU), Ulm, Germany
Irina Fierascu, National Institute for Research &
Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry—
ICECHIM Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania; University
of Agronomic Science and Veterinary Medicine,
Bucharest, Romania
Radu Claudiu Fierascu, National Institute for Research
& Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry—
ICECHIM Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania;
Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide
Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied
Chemistry and Materials Science, University
Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Scott W. Fowler, School of Marine and Atmospheric
Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY,
United States; Institute Bobby, 8 Allée des Orangers,
Cap d’Ail, France
Bernadette Dora Gombossy de Melo
Franco, Department of Food and Experimental Nutrition,
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São
Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; FoRC, Food Research
Center, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Maria Patricia Guerrero Garcia-Ortega, CTAEX,
Badajoz, Spain

Mohd Sabri Mohd Ghazali, Faculty of Science and
Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
Kuala Nerus, Malaysia
L.M. Gonçalves, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Almudena González González, Metanogenia S.L.
Edificio Guadiana, Biodiversidad, Badajoz, Spain
Gustavo A. González-Aguilar, Research Center for
Food and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora,
Mexico
Anil H. Gore, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India; Tarsadia
Institute of Chemical Science, Uka Tarsadia
University, Bardoli, Gujarat, India
Luna Goswami, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga
Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT University),
Bhubaneswar, India
Athanasia M. Goula, Department of Food Science and
Technology, School of Agriculture, Forestry and
Natural Environment, Aristotle University,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Antonio Guerrero, Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica
Superior, Seville, Spain
Jonas Toledo Guimarães, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro
(IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
Datta B. Gunjal, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Paulina Gutiérrez-Macı́as, Department of
Environmental Systems Engineering, National School
of Biological Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional,
Mexico City, Mexico
Muhamad Fairus Noor Hassim, Biological Security
and Sustainability Research Group, Faculty of Science
and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia
Ana M. Herrero, Department of Products, ICTAN -
CSIC, Madrid, Spain
B.K.K.K. Jinadasa, Analytical Chemistry Laboratory
(ACL), National Aquatic Resources Research &
Development Agency (NARA), Colombo, Sri Lanka;
Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty
of Livestock, Fisheries & Nutrition, Wayamba
University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila
(NWP), Sri Lanka
Rupam Kataki, Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, India
List of contributors xxi
Moazzam Rafiq Khan, National Institute of Food
Science and Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Timo Kikas, Chair of Biosystems Engineering, Institute
of Technology, Estonian University of Life Sciences,
Tartu, Estonia
Marcela Kloth, Federal Technological University of
Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Govind B. Kolekar, Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,
Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Konstantina Kourmentza, Department of Chemical &
Environmental Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nottingham, University
Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom; Green
Chemicals Beacon of Excellence, University of
Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United
Kingdom
Apostolis Koutinas, Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
Melinda Krebsz, School of Chemistry, Monash
University, Victoria, Australia
Tharaka Rama Krishna C. Doddapaneni, Chair of
Biosystems Engineering, Institute of Technology,
Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu,
Estonia
Sonia Kumar, Department of Process Engineering and
Applied Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
Canada
Luiz Gustavo Lacerda, State University of Ponta
Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Jean Guy LeBlanc, CERELA-CONICET, Centro de
Referência para Lactobacilos, San Miguel de
Tucumán, Argentina
Ulla Lehtinen, Kerttu Saalasti Institute, University of
Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Oulu Business School, University
of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
Giulia Leni, Department of Food and Drug, University
of Parma, Parma, Italy
Boon Fung Leong, Faculty of Food Science and
Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah, Malaysia
Jade M. Long, Department of Food Science and
Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA,
United States
Christelle Lopez, INRAE, BIA, Nantes, France
Leticia X. López-Martı́nez, CONACYT-Research
Center for Food and Development A.C.,
Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
xxii List of contributors
Ivan Luzardo-Ocampo, Postgraduate Program in Food
of the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research
and Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of
Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico
Gabriela A. Macedo, Bioprocesses Laboratory, School
of Food Engineering, University of Campinas,
Campinas, SP, Brazil
Sergi Maicas, Department of Microbiology and Ecology,
University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Sofia Maina, Department of Food Science and Human
Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens,
Greece
Pulak Majumder, Department of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of
Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University, Mandya,
India; Department of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of
Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University B. G Nagara,
Mandya, India
Ma. Elena Maldonado-Celis, Escuela de Nutrición y
Dietética, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellı́n,
Colombia
M. Marques, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry
Department, FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
Caparica, Portugal
J. Marto, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
José Juan Mateo, Department of Microbiology and
Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Manickam Minakshi, Engineering and Energy,
Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
Vicente A. Mirón-Mérida, School of Food Science &
Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, United
Kingdom; School of Food Science and Nutrition,
University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Anand Mohan, Department of Food Science and
Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA,
United States
Antonio Moreda-Piñeiro, Trace Element, Spectroscopy
and Speciation Group (GETEE), Strategic Grouping in
Materials (AEMAT), Department of Analytical
Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of
Chemistry, University of Santiago de Compostela,
Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Miriane Moreira Fernandes Santos, Food Science and
Technology Postgraduate Program, Federal University
of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Brazil
Vaibhav M. Naik, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Sapna A. Narula, School of Management Studies,
Nalanda University, Bihar, India
Rumi Narzari, Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, India
Arunima Nayak, Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era
University, Dehradun, India
Mehdi Nikoo, Department of Pathobiology and Quality
Control, Artemia and Aquaculture Research Institute,
Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
Omkar S. Nille, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Patrı́cia Nunes, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
M. Beatriz P.P. Oliveira, REQUIMTE-LAQV/
Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto,
Porto, Portugal
B. Dave Oomah, Summerland Research and
Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, Summerland Canada
A. Paiva, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department,
FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica,
Portugal
Sandeep K. Panda, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga
Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT University),
Bhubaneswar, India
Harris Papapostolou, Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
Tibor Pasinszki, Department of Chemistry, School of
Pure Sciences, College of Engineering, Science &
Technology, Fiji National University, Suva, Fiji
Akshay S. Patil, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Fábio Anderson Pereira Da Silva, Management and
Agroindustrial Technology Department, Federal
University of Paraı́ba, Bananeiras, Brazil; Food
Science and Technology Postgraduate Program,
Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Brazil
Chanathip Pharino, Department of Environmental
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok, Thailand
Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Paraná (IFPR),
Campus Paranavaı́, Brazil

Gustavo Luis de Paiva Anciens Ramos, Federal
Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio
de Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil; Fluminense Federal University (UFF),
Rio de Janeiro-Brasil, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
H.M. Ribeiro, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
C. Odı́n Rodrı́guez-Nava, Department of Environmental
Systems Engineering, National School of Biological
Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City,
Mexico
Claudia Ruiz-Capillas, Department of Products, ICTAN
- CSIC, Madrid, Spain
Susana Marta Isay Saad, FoRC, Food Research Center,
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil;
Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical
Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Niharendu Saha, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, India
Amy Yi Hsan Saik, Department of Pre-clinical Sciences,
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti
Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang, Malaysia
Ruprekha Saikia, Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, India
Ádina L. Santana, Food Science Institute, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, KS, United States;
Bioprocesses Laboratory, School of Food Engineering,
University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
S. Savitha, Division of Crop Production, ICAR (Central
Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur, India
Philip A. Schneider, Engineering and Energy, Murdoch
University, Perth, WA, Australia
Dibyakanta Seth, Department of Food Process
Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, Rourkela, India
Stefano Sforza, Department of Food and Drug,
University of Parma, Parma, Italy
Muhammad Asim Shabbir, National Institute of Food
Science and Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Elwira Sieniawska, Department of Pharmacognosy,
Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
Mafalda Alexandra Silva, Department of Food and
Nutrition, National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo
Jorge, I.P., Lisbon, Portugal; REQUIMTE-LAQV/
Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto,
Porto, Portugal
List of contributors xxiii
Vida Šimat, University Department of Marine Studies,
University of Split, Split, Croatia
P. Simões, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department,
FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
S. Simões, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Carlos Ricardo Soccol, Federal University of Paraná,
Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil
Alessandra Cristine Novak Sydney, Federal
Technological University of Paraná, Department of
Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Ponta
Grossa, Brazil
Eduardo Bittencourt Sydney, Federal Technological
University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess
Engineering and Biotechnology, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Reza Tahergorabi, Food and Nutritional Sciences
Program, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical
State University, Greensboro, NC, United States
Maria Tsiviki, Department of Food Science and
Technology, School of Agriculture, Forestry and
Natural Environment, Aristotle University,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Erminta Tsouko, Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
K. Velmourougane, Division of Crop Production,
ICAR (Central Institute for Cotton Research),
Nagpur, India
Simone Maria Ribas Vendramel, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro
(IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
Ravindra D. Waghmare, Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,
Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
V.N. Waghmare, Division of Crop Production, ICAR
(Central Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur,
India
Santad Wichienchot, Center of Excellence in
Functional Foods and Gastronomy, Faculty of Agro-
Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai,
Songkhla, Thailand
Adenise Lorenci Woiciechowski, Federal University of
Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil
Chapter 1
Sustainability challenges in the
valorization of agri-food wastes and
by-products
Rajeev Bhat
ERA-Chair for Food By-products Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European Union
1.1 Introduction
A major contribution to the global economy emanates
from the agri-food industrial sector, which provides wide
market opportunities, supports the local economy, and
provides employment. Overcoming some of the regional
food security and sustainability challenges such as rapid
population growth, overcoming poverty and hunger
issues, and production of healthy foods for consumers
remains one of the major issues that needs to be resolved,
especially in the middle- and low-income countries.
Nevertheless, sustainability challenges faced by devel-
oped countries are distinctive in another way. On a global
scale, a wide range of sustainability challenges are persis-
tent throughout the agri-food supply chain. In general,
changing climate, unsustainable exploitation of natural
resources, inconsistencies in annual food production, and
increases in food wastes and/or food loss (at the “on and
off” farm levels) are some of the key challenges that need
to be addressed immediately. Meeting the demands of
various interrelated components of the agri-food industry,
addressing the societal needs, and understanding new
business models and paradigms remains a high priority to
all of those involved (e.g., researchers, academicians, pol-
icy makers, economists, government, NGOs, and others).
In this regard, a sustained action framework is recom-
mended by experts which needs to be adopted for positive
transformation of the entire agri-food system keeping in
mind a region’s socioeconomic situation.
Globalization and free trade policies have had their
own impacts and influences on the agri-food sector. The
global food supply chain has tremendously expanded, with
novel and practical innovations being introduced regularly.
Today, a wide range of novel and healthy (unhealthy?)
Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824044-1.00022-2
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
food products are entering the international market due to
globalization. Globally, various stages of agri-food supply
chain (including processing) generate enormous amounts
of wastes and/or by-products. Ineffective and unsustainable
management of these wastes and/or by-products can be
seen as a representative reflection of the socioeconomic,
geo-political, and environmental scenario of a region.
Effective valorization of agri-food wastes/by-products can
contribute significantly to regional food security and ensure
sustainability along the entire food production and supply
chain. In the current global circumstances (e.g. food inse-
curity, economic instability, recession, pandemics such as
COVID-19, etc.), it is highly imperative that food industrial
wastes are minimized and that by-products are efficiently
used for producing value-added products. In this sense, an
ecologically conscious system revolving around “zero
waste generation” and “circular economy” concepts for
effective valorization of food industrial wastes/by-products
is envisaged to contribute toward improved economies as
well as minimizing the negative impacts on the environ-
ment. “waste to wealth” and “taste the waste” have been
popular phrases which signify the importance of waste and
by-product valorization. Several innovative approaches and
practical modeling have been proposed to minimize wastes
and to enable maximum utilization of by-products along
the entire agri-food production and supply chain.
The recently introduced circular economy concept is a
promising framework aimed towards improving the
resource efficiency. Reducing waste generation, coupled
with ensuring their maximal utilization can be of benefit
to the economy, and can also open up new business
opportunities. The circular economy concept primarily
aims to accomplish sustainable production and consump-
tion (of food) with minimal greenhouse gas emission
1
2 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
and with sustainable food waste management. In addition,
the action plan of a circular economy aims to lower food
waste generation with a novel methodical approach. Apart
from enhancing the resource efficiency, this plan mainly
relies on reduce, reuse, recover, and recycle of materials
in order to support the regional economy.
A zero-waste economy coupled with a sustainable bio-
based circular society is urgently needed to address the
current global situation. However, keeping in mind cost
effectiveness, it is imperative that an environmental-
friendly sustainable technology is adopted for competent
valorization of industrial wastes and/or by-products. In
this chapter, some of the imperative sustainability chal-
lenges that are expected to have an impact on the valori-
zation of agri-food wastes and by-products are identified
and discussed. In addition, various opportunities and
scope for future research are discussed.
1.2 Wastes and by-products—global
scenario
A wealth of literature has been engendered with substan-
tial views from experts to develop novel processes and
strategies for effective valorization of agri-food industrial
wastes and/or by-products. In Fig. 1.1, an overview of the
valorization of wastes and by-products is provided.
Food loss and food wastes are two separate entities
that need to be clearly understood. As per the Food and
FIGURE 1.1 An overview of the valorization of agri-food industrial wastes and by-products.
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO
Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
2013), a decrease in mass (dry matter) and nutritional
value of a food which was originally intended for human
consumption is referred to as food loss. Poor infrastruc-
ture, postharvest handling practices, transportation facili-
ties, incompetent supply chains, lack of appropriate
technologies, and lack of appropriate storage facilities are
some of the factors that can contribute to food losses. In
contrast, food wastes signify those foods which need to
be discarded and are not fit for human consumption
(spoiled food due to deterioration). This can occur
because of consumer shopping and eating habits, oversup-
ply of a product in the market, and much more. In addi-
tion, when only agricultural wastes are considered, this
usually encompasses crop residues/biomass (nonedible
portions), which are generated in the farm after harvest.
These include the leftover leaves, stems, stalks, straw,
stovers, etc.
On another note, there are experts who have defined
food loss and wastes in a different approach. According
to Hartikainen, Mogensen, Svanes, and Franke (2018),
food wastes include only the edible portions or animals
that die before reaching the maturity or at any maturity
stage (inedible portions are excluded). According to
Baron, Patterson, Maull, and Warnaby (2018), food
wastes are defined as those foods which are lost through-
out food production and consumption stages, and those
still remaining edible. Närvänen, Mesiranta, Mattila, and
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enabled him to win the magic mead (cf. stanzas 104–110).
Concerning Othrörir, here used as the name of the vessel containing
the mead, cf. stanza 107 and note.

143. This and the following stanza belong together, and in many
editions appear as a single stanza. They presumably come from
some lost poem on the authorship of the runes. Lines 2 and 3 follow
line 4 in the manuscript; the transposition was suggested by Bugge.
The king of singers: Othin. The magic signs (runes) were commonly
carved in wood, then colored red. [62]

144. Dain and Dvalin: dwarfs; cf. Voluspo, 14, and note. Dain,
however, may here be one of the elves rather than the dwarf of that
name. The two names also appear together in Grimnismol, 33,
where they are applied to two of the four harts that nibble at the
topmost twigs of Yggdrasil. Alsvith (“the All-Wise”) appears nowhere
else as a giant’s name. Myself: Othin. We have no further
information concerning the list of those who wrote the runes for the
various races, and these four lines seem like a confusion of names
in the rather hazy mind of some reciter.

145. This Malahattr stanza appears to be a regular religious formula,

concerned less with the runes which one “writes” and “tints” (cf.
stanza 79) than with the prayers which one “asks” and the sacrifices
which one “offers” and “sends.” Its origin is wholly uncertain, but it is
clearly an interpolation here. In the manuscript the phrase
“knowest?” is abbreviated after the first line. [63]

146. This stanza as translated here follows the manuscript reading,

except in assuming a gap between lines 3 and 5. In Vigfusson and
Powell’s Corpus Poeticum Boreale the first three lines have
somehow been expanded into eight. The last two lines are almost
certainly misplaced; Bugge suggests that they belong at the end of
stanza 144. Thund: another name for Othin. When home he came:
presumably after obtaining the runes as described in stanzas 139
and 140.
147. With this stanza begins the Ljothatal, or list of charms. The
magic songs themselves are not given, but in each case the peculiar
application of the charm is explained. The passage, which is
certainly approximately complete as far as it goes, runs to the end of
the poem. In the manuscript and in most editions line 4 falls into two
half-lines, running:

“In sickness and pain | and every sorrow.”

[64]

148. Second, etc., appear in the manuscript as Roman numerals.

The manuscript indicates no gap after line 2.

152. The sending of a root with runes written thereon was an

excellent way of causing death. So died the Icelandic hero Grettir the
Strong. [65]

156. House-riders: witches, who ride by night on the roofs of houses,

generally in the form of wild beasts. Possibly one of the last two lines
is spurious.

157. The last line looks like an unwarranted addition, and line 4 may
likewise be spurious.

158. Lines 4–5 are probably expanded from a single line. [66]

159. The sprinkling of a child with water was an established custom

long before Christianity brought its conception of baptism.

161. This stanza, according to Müllenhoff, was the original

conclusion of the poem, the phrase “a fifteenth” being inserted only
after stanzas 162–165 had crept in. Delling: a seldom mentioned god
who married Not (Night). Their son was Dag (Day). Thjothrörir: not
mentioned elsewhere. Hroptatyr: Othin. [67]
163. Some editors have combined these two lines with stanza 164.
Others have assumed that the gap follows the first half-line, making
“so that—from me” the end of the stanza.

164. This stanza is almost certainly an interpolation, and seems to

have been introduced after the list of charms and the Loddfafnismol
(stanzas 111–138) were combined in a single poem, for there is no
other apparent excuse for the reference to Loddfafnir at this point.
The words “if thou mightest get them” are a conjectural emendation.

165. This stanza is almost totally obscure. The third and fourth lines
look like interpolations. [68]
[Contents]
VAFTHRUTHNISMOL
 The Ballad of Vafthruthnir
[Contents]

Introductory Note
The Vafthruthnismol follows the Hovamol in the Codex Regius. From
stanza 20 on it is also included in the Arnamagnæan Codex, the first
part evidently having appeared on a leaf now lost. Snorri quotes
eight stanzas of it in the Prose Edda, and in his prose text closely
paraphrases many others.

The poem is wholly in dialogue form except for a single narrative

stanza (stanza 5). After a brief introductory discussion between Othin
and his wife, Frigg, concerning the reputed wisdom of the giant
Vafthruthnir, Othin, always in quest of wisdom, seeks out the giant,
calling himself Gagnrath. The giant immediately insists that they
shall demonstrate which is the wiser of the two, and propounds four
questions (stanzas 11, 13, 15, and 17), each of which Othin
answers. It is then the god’s turn to ask, and he begins with a series
of twelve numbered questions regarding the origins and past history
of life. These Vafthruthnir answers, and Othin asks five more
questions, this time referring to what is to follow the destruction of
the gods, the last one asking the name of his own slayer. Again
Vafthruthnir answers, and Othin finally propounds the unanswerable
question: “What spake Othin himself in the ears of his son, ere in the
bale-fire he burned?” Vafthruthnir, recognizing his questioner as
Othin himself, admits his inferiority in wisdom, and so the contest
ends.

The whole poem is essentially encyclopædic in character, and thus

was particularly useful to Snorri in his preparation of the Prose Edda.
The encyclopædic poem with a slight narrative outline seems to
have been exceedingly popular; the Grimnismol and the much later
Alvissmol represent different phases of the same type. The
Vafthruthnismol and Grimnismol together, indeed, constitute a fairly
complete dictionary of Norse mythology. There has been much
discussion as to the probable date of the Vafthruthnismol, but it
appears to belong to about the same period as the Voluspo: in other
words, the middle of the tenth century. While there may be a few
interpolated passages in the poem as we now have it, it is clearly a
united whole, and evidently in relatively good condition.

[Contents]

[69]

Othin spake:

1. “Counsel me, Frigg, | for I long to fare,

And Vafthruthnir fain would find;
In wisdom old | with the giant wise
Myself would I seek to match.”

Frigg spake:

2. “Heerfather here | at home would I keep,

Where the gods together dwell;
Amid all the giants | an equal in might
 To Vafthruthnir know I none.”

Othin spake:

3. “Much have I fared, | much have I found,

Much have I got from the gods;
And fain would I know | how Vafthruthnir now
Lives in his lofty hall.”

Frigg spake:

4. “Safe mayst thou go, | safe come again,

And safe be the way thou wendest!
Father of men, | let thy mind be keen
When speech with the giant thou seekest.”

5. The wisdom then | of the giant wise [70]

Forth did he fare to try;
He found the hall | of the father of Im,
And in forthwith went Ygg.

Othin spake:

6. “Vafthruthnir, hail! | to thy hall am I come,

For thyself I fain would see;
And first would I ask | if wise thou art,
Or, giant, all wisdom hast won.”

Vafthruthnir spake:
7. “Who is the man | that speaks to me,
Here in my lofty hall?
Forth from our dwelling | thou never shalt fare,
Unless wiser than I thou art.”

Othin spake:

8. “Gagnrath they call me, | and thirsty I come

From a journey hard to thy hall;
Welcome I look for, | for long have I fared,
And gentle greeting, giant.”

Vafthruthnir spake:

9. “Why standest thou there | on the floor whilst

thou speakest?
A seat shalt thou have in my hall; [71]
Then soon shall we know | whose knowledge is
more,
The guest’s or the sage’s gray.”

Othin spake:

10. “If a poor man reaches | the home of the rich,

Let him wisely speak or be still;
For to him who speaks | with the hard of heart
Will chattering ever work ill.”

Vafthruthnir spake:
11. “Speak forth now, Gagnrath, | if there from the
floor
Thou wouldst thy wisdom make known:
What name has the steed | that each morn anew
The day for mankind doth draw?”

Othin spake:

12. “Skinfaxi is he, | the steed who for men

The glittering day doth draw;
The best of horses | to heroes he seems,
And brightly his mane doth burn.”

Vafthruthnir spake:

13. “Speak forth now, Gagnrath, | if there from the

floor [72]
Thou wouldst thy wisdom make known:
What name has the steed | that from East anew
Brings night for the noble gods?”

Othin spake:

14. “Hrimfaxi name they | the steed that anew

Brings night for the noble gods;
Each morning foam | from his bit there falls,
And thence come the dews in the dales.”

Vafthruthnir spake:
15. “Speak forth now, Gagnrath, | if there from the
floor
Thou wouldst thy wisdom make known:
What name has the river | that ’twixt the realms
Of the gods and the giants goes?”

Othin spake:

16. “Ifing is the river | that ’twixt the realms

Of the gods and the giants goes;
For all time ever | open it flows,
No ice on the river there is.”

Vafthruthnir spake:

17. “Speak forth now, Gagnrath, | if there from the

floor [73]
Thou wouldst thy wisdom make known:
What name has the field | where in fight shall meet
Surt and the gracious gods?”

Othin spake:

18. “Vigrith is the field | where in fight shall meet

Surt and the gracious gods;
A hundred miles | each way does it measure,
And so are its boundaries set.”

Vafthruthnir spake:
19. “Wise art thou, guest! | To my bench shalt thou
go,
In our seats let us speak together;
Here in the hall | our heads, O guest,
hall we wager our wisdom upon.”

Othin spake:

20. “First answer me well, | if thy wisdom avails,

And thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
In earliest time | whence came the earth,
Or the sky, thou giant sage?”

[74]

Vafthruthnir spake:

21. “Out of Ymir’s flesh | was fashioned the earth,

And the mountains were made of his bones;
The sky from the frost-cold | giant’s skull,
And the ocean out of his blood.”

Othin spake:

22. “Next answer me well, | if thy wisdom avails,

And thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
Whence came the moon, | o’er the world of men
That fares, and the flaming sun?”
Vafthruthnir spake:

23. “Mundilferi is he | who begat the moon,

And fathered the flaming sun;
The round of heaven | each day they run,
To tell the time for men.”

Othin spake:

24. “Third answer me well, | if wise thou art called,

If thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
Whence came the day, | o’er mankind that fares,
Or night with the narrowing moon?”

[75]

Vafthruthnir spake:

25. “The father of day | is Delling called,

And the night was begotten by Nor;
Full moon and old | by the gods were fashioned,
To tell the time for men.”

Othin spake:

26. “Fourth answer me well, | if wise thou art

called,
If thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
Whence did winter come, | or the summer warm,
 First with the gracious gods?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

27. “Vindsval he was | who was winter’s father,

And Svosuth summer begat;”
. . . . . . . . | . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[76]

Othin spake:

28. “Fifth answer me well, | if wise thou art called,

If thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
What giant first | was fashioned of old,
And the eldest of Ymir’s kin?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

29. “Winters unmeasured | ere earth was made

Was the birth of Bergelmir;
Thruthgelmir’s son | was the giant strong,
And Aurgelmir’s grandson of old.”

Othin spake:

30. “Sixth answer me well, | if wise thou art called,

If thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
Whence did Aurgelmir come | with the giants’ kin,
Long since, thou giant sage?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

31. “Down from Elivagar | did venom drop,

And waxed till a giant it was; [77]
And thence arose | our giants’ race,
And thus so fierce are we found.”

Othin spake:

32. “Seventh answer me well, | if wise thou art

called,
If thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
How begat he children, | the giant grim,
Who never a giantess knew?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

33. “They say ’neath the arms | of the giant of ice

Grew man-child and maid together;
And foot with foot | did the wise one fashion
A son that six heads bore.”

Othin spake:

34. “Eighth answer me well, | if wise thou art

called,
 If thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
What farthest back | dost thou bear in mind?
For wide is thy wisdom, giant!”

[78]

Vafthruthnir spake:

35. “Winters unmeasured | ere earth was made

Was the birth of Bergelmir;
This first knew I well, | when the giant wise
In a boat of old was borne.”

Othin spake:

36. “Ninth answer me well, | if wise thou art called,

If thou knowest it, Vafthruthnir, now:
Whence comes the wind | that fares o’er the
waves
Yet never itself is seen?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

37. “In an eagle’s guise | at the end of heaven

Hræsvelg sits, they say;
And from his wings | does the wind come forth
To move o’er the world of men.”

Othin spake:
38. “Tenth answer me now, | if thou knowest all
The fate that is fixed for the gods: [79]
Whence came up Njorth | to the kin of the gods,—
(Rich in temples | and shrines he rules,—)
Though of gods he was never begot?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

39. “In the home of the Wanes | did the wise ones
create him,
And gave him as pledge to the gods;
At the fall of the world | shall he fare once more
Home to the Wanes so wise.”

Othin spake:

40. “Eleventh answer me well, | . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .
What men . . . . . . | in . . . . . . home
Each day to fight go forth?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

41. “The heroes all | in Othin’s hall

Each day to fight go forth; [80]
They fell each other, | and fare from the fight
All healed full soon to sit.”

Othin spake:
42. “Twelfth answer me now | how all thou
knowest
Of the fate that is fixed for the gods;
Of the runes of the gods | and the giants’ race
The truth indeed dost thou tell,
(And wide is thy wisdom, giant!)”

Vafthruthnir spake:

43. “Of the runes of the gods | and the giants’ race
The truth indeed can I tell,
(For to every world have I won;)
To nine worlds came I, | to Niflhel beneath,
The home where dead men dwell.”

Othin spake:

44. “Much have I fared, | much have I found,

Much have I got of the gods:
What shall live of mankind | when at last there
comes
The mighty winter to men?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

45. “In Hoddmimir’s wood | shall hide themselves

Lif and Lifthrasir then; [81]
The morning dews | for meat shall they have,
 Such food shall men then find.”

Othin spake:

46. “Much have I fared, | much have I found,

Much have I got of the gods:
Whence comes the sun | to the smooth sky back,
When Fenrir has snatched it forth?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

47. “A daughter bright | Alfrothul bears

Ere Fenrir snatches her forth;
Her mother’s paths | shall the maiden tread
When the gods to death have gone.”

Othin spake:

48. “Much have I fared, | much have I found,

Much have I got of the gods:
What maidens are they, | so wise of mind,
That forth o’er the sea shall fare?”

[82]

Vafthruthnir spake:

49. “O’er Mogthrasir’s hill | shall the maidens pass,

And three are their throngs that come;
They all shall protect | the dwellers on earth,
Though they come of the giants’ kin.”

Othin spake:

50. “Much have I fared, | much have I found,

Much have I got of the gods:
Who then shall rule | the realm of the gods,
When the fires of Surt have sunk?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

51. “In the gods’ home Vithar | and Vali shall dwell,
When the fires of Surt have sunk;
Mothi and Magni | shall Mjollnir have
When Vingnir falls in fight.”

Othin spake:

52. “Much have I fared, | much have I found,

Much have I got of the gods: [83]
What shall bring the doom | of death to Othin,
When the gods to destruction go?”

Vafthruthnir spake:

53. “The wolf shall fell | the father of men,

And this shall Vithar avenge;
The terrible jaws | shall he tear apart,