Linking words – learner problems

• Meaning of individual connectors. They don’t really have

meanings. They are usually classified into broad
discourse functions e.g:
– Additive: in addition, moreover, furthermore, besides, likewise
– Contrast (Adversative): however, nevertheless, in contrast, on
the other hand, despite this
– Causal: therefore, consequently, thus
– Sequential: then, next, first, to sum up
– Concessive: although, even though, while
• But this just confuses learners and then they mix them
up. They are not interchangeable:
– Jim wanted to fly to the moon. However/Nevertheless/Despite
this/ , he didn’t know how.
 Linking words – learner problems

• Students have most problems with contrast and

concession. (Not normally done in everyday spoken
language; students write like they speak until taught
otherwise; easy to avoid).
• Key battle grounds:
– However vs. Nevertheless
– On the other hand vs. In contrast
– Therefore (vs. Consequently)
 Meaning of linking words
• Nevertheless vs. However
– X implies Y. X is true but Y is not true.
– Nevertheless requires a situation in which one is led
to expect one thing but finds something different to be
true.

– John has always been a top language student. Nevertheless he

failed French this term.

– John has always been a top language student. Nevertheless he

failed Maths this term.

However, ‘however’ works for both. Use it generically wherever

attention drawn to difference.
 Meaning of linking words
• On the other hand vs. In contrast.
• On the other hand
– X (a) on the other hand X (b)
• In contrast
– X (a) in contrast Y (b)

• London is cold in the winter. ________ Melbourne is warm.

• London is cold in the winter. ________ it is not so full of tourists.

• ‘On the other hand’ is often used for good/bad and

advantages/disadvantages. Should be limited to these contexts and
not taught as a substitute for ‘however’.
 Meaning of linking words
• Therefore vs. Consequently.
- Overuse of ‘therefore’ is a problem.
- It only works when the listener/reader would naturally expect the
conclusion or when all info necessary to follow argument is
provided by speaker/writer
- We hadn’t eaten all day. Therefore, we decided to have dinner at
McDonald’s
- We hadn’t eaten all day. Therefore, we decided to have dinner
before going out.
- Consequently is used to signal causal relationship where
reader/listener can’t predict:
- Essien won the lottery; consequently he bought an island.
 Meaning of linking words
• Moreover vs. Furthermore.
- Has to be the right register. IELTS essay is fine,
narrative not.
- Similar use: arguments where several premises are
used to support a conclusion. Difference is
‘Furthermore’ tends to be used after the 3rd or 4th
premise (where more than 2)

For both of these there needs to be a conclusion. For a

list (e.g. of actions) use ‘and’ (plus ‘in addition, ‘also’
for variation)
 Meaning of linking words
• Although, even though, while
- Basically means ‘Yes, but…’
- Speaker/writer grants truth of X while pushing truth of Y to make
Y truth more important than X truth.
- So less important truth goes with although etc