The Vertebrate Skeleton

ZLY 106
By
Adelaja, Olukayode James
Introduction

• The two (2) main divisions of the skeleton are:

1. The axial skeleton: located on the central axis of the body i.e. the
skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.

2. The appendicular skeleton: consist of the bones of the limbs (arms

and legs), pectoral gridle (shoulder) and most of the pelvic gridle
(hip).
The Skull

• This is the bony frame work of the head.

• It consist of the;

1. Cranial bones: which is eight (8) in number

2. Facial bones: which is fourteen (14) in number

 The Vertebral Column
• This supports the body and bears its weight.

• In humans, it consists of 24 vertebrae and 2 bones composed of fused

vertebrae; the sacrum and coccyx.

• The vertebral column consists of the cervical (neck region with 7 vertebrae),
the thoracic (chest region with 12 vertebrae), the lumbar (back region with
5 vertebrae), the sacral (pelvic region with 5 fused vertebrae) and the
coccygeal (composed of fused vertebrae).
 The rib cage
• This is a bony basket formed by the sternum (breast bone).
• In mammals, there are 12 pairs of ribs.
• The rib cage protects the internal organs of the chest including the heart
and lungs.
• It supports the chest wall, preventing it from collapsing as the diaphragm
contracts with each breath.
• Each pair of ribs is attached dorsally to a separate vertebra.
• Of the 12, the first 7 known as the true ribs are attached ventrally to the
sternum, the next 3 are attached indirectly by cartilage and the last 2 (the
floating ribs) have no attachment to the sternum and the last 5 are known
as false ribs.
The Pectoral Gridle
• It is loosely and flexibly attached to the vertebral column by muscles.
• This consist of
1. Two collar bones or clavicles
2. Two shoulder blades or scapulas
The Pelvic Gridle
• It is securely fused to the vertebral column.
• This consists of a pair of large bones each composed of 3 fused
hipbones.
The Limbs
• Each human limb consists of 30
bones and terminates in five digits,
the fingers and toes.
• The more specialized appendages of
other tetrapods may be
characterized by four digits (as in the
pigs), three (the rhinoceros), two
(the camel) or one (the horse).
The Bone
• The radius, one of the two bones of the forearm is a typical long bone.
• Its numerous muscle attachment are arranged in such a way that the
bone rotates about its long axis and operates as a lever, amplifying the
motion generated by the muscles.
• By themselves muscles cannot shorten enough to produce large
movements of the body parts to which they are attached.
• Like other bones, the radius is covered by a connective tissue
membrane, the periosteum to which muscle tendons and ligaments
attach. The periosteum can produce new layers of bone thus increasing
the bones diameter.
 The Bone
• The main shaf of a long bone is its diaphysis; each expanded end is an
epiphysis. In children, a disc of cartilage, the metaphysis, lies between
the epiphysis and diaphysis.
• Metaphyses are growth centres that disappear at maturity, becoming
vague epiphyseal lines.
• Long bones have a central of cavity that contains bone marrow. Yellow
bone marrow consist mainly of fatty connective tissue; the red marrow
in certain bones produce blood cells.
• The radius has a thin outer shell of compact bone, which is very dense
and hard. Compact bones lies primarily near surfaces of a bone where it
provides great strenght.
The Bone
• Compact bone consists of interlocking spindles shaped units called
osteons. Within an osteon, osteocytes (bone cells) lie in small cavities
called lacunae.
• The lacunae are arranged in concentric circles around central Haversian
canals. Blood vessels that nourish the bone tissue pass through the
Haversian canal.
• Osteocytes are connected by threadlike extensions of their cytoplasm
that extend through narrow channels called canaliculi.
• Interior to the thin shell of compact bone is a filing of spongy bone,
which provides mechanical strength. Spongy bone consists of a network
of thin strands of bone. Its space are filled with bone marrow.
 Joints
• Joints or articulation are junctions between two or more bones (surface of
each bone consists of articular cartilage).
• One way to classify joints is according to the degree of movement they
allow.
• The sutures between bones of the human skull are immovable joints.
• In a suture, bones are held together by a thin layer of dense fibrous
connective tissue which may be replaced by bone in the adult.
• Slightly movable joints found between vertebrae are made of cartilage and
help absorb shock.
• Most joints are free movable joints. Each is enclosed by a joint capsule of
connective tissues and lined with a membrane that secretes a lubricant
called synovial fluid. This viscous fluid reduces friction during movement
and absorbs shock.
Joints
• The joint capsule is typically reinforced by ligaments ; bands of fibrous
connective tissues that connect bones and limit movement at the joints.
With time and use, joints wear down.
• In Osteoarthritis, a group of common joint disorders, cartilage does not
keep up with degeneration and the articular cartilage wears out.
Inflammation of the joint capsule may occur and bone outgrowths may
develop.
• In rheumatoid arthritis (an autoimmune disease): the synovial
membrane thickens and becomes inflamed. Synovial fluid accumulates
causing pressure, pain, stiffness and progressive deformity, leading to
loss of function.