Turbine Design and Construction

A simple turbine consists of a shaft on which is mounted one or more disks. On the
circumference of the disks are located blades or buckets to receive the steam and convert
it into useful work. The efficiency and reliable performance of the turbine depend to a great
extent on the design and construction of the blading. The blades therefore must be made to
withstand the action of the steam and the centrifugal force caused by the high speed at
which the turbine must operate.
1. On the circumference of the disks blades or buckets are located,
2. So, the design and construction of the blades are important efficiency and reliable
performance of the turbine depends on it.
3. Therefore, the blades are made to withstand the action of the steam and the
centrifugal force caused by the high speed at which the turbine must operate.

Typical general purpose turbine for mechanical drive

Major components of this turbine

a) Steam chest -Bolted to the base and is made of iron or steel. It contains a governor
valve, a strainer, and an operating hand valve that is used for manual adjustment to
obtain maximum efficiency.

 The steam chest serves as a distribution point for the high-pressure steam
coming from the boiler. It ensures that the steam is evenly distributed to the
turbine blades for efficient power generation)

1. Steam chest is where the high pressure steam from the boiler, enters
first. serves as a distribution point.

b) Speed regulating governor- Speed regulation is maintained by means of the

governor. This governor is of the centrifugal-weight type and is connected to the
admission valve by the arm and linkage Speed regulating.

c) Governor valve- Located in the right end of the steam chest is a double-seated
balanced valve operating in a renewable cage. The valve and cage are made of
noncorrosive material.
 d) Over speed trip- This trip is eccentrically mounted and restrained by a spring to trip
simultaneously the governor valve and the butterfly valve
1. If the speed of the turbine exceeds a safe limit (10 percent above normal
speed), an over speed trip device.

e) Nozzle- Made of corrosion- and erosion-resistant materials, located in the casing are
the steam-admission nozzles, which are cut into a solid block of bronze or alloy
steel.
1. The entire assembly of nozzles for one stage is called a diaphragm.
The casing assembly with the stationary blading or nozzles is referred
to as the turbine cylinder.
2. The casing assembly with the stationary blading or nozzles is referred
to as the turbine cylinder.

f) Rotors and blades- Forgings made of steel or alloys, specially designed to prevent
warping and deterioration. The blading, shrouding, and rotor rim are contoured to
approximate the steam-expansion characteristics.

Thrust Bearing

The thrust bearing consists of a collar rigidly attached to the turbine shaft rotating between
two babbitt-lined shoes.
(Bearings support the rotor. They are horizontally split and are often lined with high-
grade tin Babbitt. Babbitt is a soft, silvery antifriction alloy composed of tin with small
amounts of copper and antimony).
The piston is attached to the spindle, and steam pressure is exerted on one side and
atmospheric pressure is exerted on the other side. The difference in pressure produces a
force that balances the thrust exerted on the rotating blades. If the shaft starts to move in
either direction, the collar comes into contact with the shoes, and the shaft is held in proper
position.
The Kingsbury thrust bearing is used when a large thrust load must be carried to maintain
the proper axial position in the turbine cylinder. The openings between the segments permit
the oil to enter the bearing surfaces. Almost 10 times as much pressure per square inch can
be carried on the Kingsbury-type bearing as on the ordinary thrust bearing. Axial position of
the bearing and turbine rotor may be adjusted by liners, located at the retainer rings, on
each end of the bearing. The bearing is lubricated by circulating oil to all its moving parts.

Packing

The shaft at the high-pressure end of the turbine and the low-pressure end of a condensing
turbine must be packed to prevent the leakage.
Labyrinth packing is used widely in steam turbine practice. It gets its name from the fact
that it is so constructed that steam in leaking must follow a winding path and change its
direction many times. (This device consists of a drum that turns with the shaft and is
grooved on the outside. The drum turns inside a stationary cylinder that is grooved on
the inside)
A water-packed gland consists of a centrifugal-pump runner attached to the turbine shaft.
The runner rotates in a chamber in the gland casing. Water seals are used in connection
with labyrinth packing to prevent the steam that passes the packing from leaking into the
turbine room. Such a seal is also used on the low-pressure end of condensing turbines.

Water-sealed glands and labyrinth are used singly or in combination, depending on the
service required. The illustrated designs are typical of those found on operating turbines.
Each labyrinth consists of a multiplicity of seals to minimize steam leakage. The glands are
usually supplied with condensate water for sealing to prevent contamination of the
condensate water.
Carbon packing is composed of rings of carbon held against the shaft by means of springs.
Each ring fits into a separate groove in the gland casing. carbon packing should have from
0.001 to 0.002 in of clearance per inch of shaft diameter. The width of the groove in the
packing casing should exceed the axial thickness of the packing ring by about 0.005 in. (In
operating a turbine equipped with carbon packing, a slight leak is desirable because a small
amount of steam keeps the packing lubricated.)

Flexible metallic packing is used to pack small single-stage turbines operating at low
backpressure. In most cases the pressure in the casing of these turbines is only slightly
above atmospheric pressure. The application is the same as when this packing is used for
other purposes, (except that care must be exercised in adjusting. Due to the high speed at
which the shaft operates, even a small amount of friction will cause overheating).

Governors

A close control of turbine speed is essential from the standpoint of safety and satisfactory
service. If the turbine runs at a speed far above that for which it was designed, the blading
will be thrown out of the rotor, resulting damage may be as great as, or even greater than,
that caused by a boiler explosion.
(There are two ways of changing the turbine supply of steam to meet the load demand)
 1. One consists of throttling the steam, by means of a valve, in such a manner that the
pressure on the first-stage elements is changed with the load demand.
2. The other method uses several valves, governor-operated, that are opened
separately to supply steam to secondary nozzles as the load increases. This
arrangement is shown in Figure 9.29; it is used only on large turbines.

The multivalve steam chest (Figure 9.29) is cast integrally with the cylinder cover with a
cored passage from each valve to a nozzle group. Single-seated valves are used, arranged
in parallel within the steam chest and surrounded by steam at throttle pressure. The
governor mechanism raises and lowers the valve-lift bar in a horizontal plane, opening the
valves in sequence, with an unbalanced force tending to close the valves. Oil is supplied to
the governor system by the same pump that supplies oil to the turbine bearings. If this oil
supply should fail, the governor valve would close and stop the turbine.

The hydraulically operated throttle valve (Figure 9.30) is used to control the flow of steam
when starting a turbine and in addition functions as an automatic stop valve in case of over
speed. It cannot be opened nor can the turbine be started until after normal operating
pressures for the turbine oiling system have been established. If oil pressure falls to an
unsafe point, the valve automatically closes, and the flow of steam to the turbine is
interrupted.

1. (It cannot be opened nor can the turbine be started until after normal operating
pressures for the turbine oiling system have been established.)
2. (because oil is important in the operation of steam turbine, oil is responsible for
lubrication)

The emergency over speed governor (Figure 9.30) is separate and independent of the
speed governor. It functions to protect the unit from excessive speed by disengaging a trip
at a predetermined speed, permitting the throttle valve to close.
 Grid-type extraction valve (Figure 9.31)
This valve consists of a stationary port
ring and a rotating grid. The rotating
grid turns against the stationary ring
and opens the ports in sequence. Thus
simple hydraulic interconnections are
obtained between the several
components of the control system,
such as the accurate and positive
control of speed or the load carried by
the unit, and of the extraction steam
pressures.
Turbine governors require very little
attention on the part of the operator. They must, however, be kept oiled and the joints kept
working freely. With the oil-relay system, oil leaks must be stopped as soon as possible.
The overspeed trip must be checked at regular intervals. It is good practice to operate the
overspeed every time that the turbine is placed in service.
Lubrication

There are two methods of lubricating turbine bearings. One utilizes oil rings in supplying oil
to the bearings; the other consists of a pressure system that circulates the oil to the
bearings.
There are two methods of lubricating turbine bearings. One utilizes oil rings in supplying oil
to the bearings; the other consists of a pressure system that circulates the oil to the
bearings.
1. The oil-ring system is used on small turbines. There is an oil well under each
bearing. The oil rings have a larger diameter than that of the shaft. When the shaft
rotates, the rings also turn and the oil that adheres to them is carried to the bearing.
The bearings are grooved in such a manner that the oil is properly distributed to the
bearing surfaces.
-oil that adheres

2. typical self-contained oil-pumping system for a large turbine generator. This system
is designed to supply bearing oil at 25 psig and hydraulic oil at 200 psig,
approximately.
Turbine Control

Figure 9.35a shows a modern turbine control and monitoring system that performs two main
functions: control of turbine speed and control of turbine load. A feature of this system is a
high degree of system reliability through redundancy and self-diagnostic capabilities. The
modularity of the design allows the addition of functions in increments, as shown in Figure
9.35a. The base-control system shown as level 1 provides speed and load control and
includes the manual backup and calibration unit. Redundant distributed-processing units
(DPU) are provided for overspeed protection and operator auto controller functions.
A schematic of a modern digital electrohydraulic (DEH) control system is shown in Figure
9.35b. The operator controls the turbine and receives information from the manual panel or
the operator’s console, such as a cathode-ray tube (CRT), as well as an alarm and
message printer.
Erection of the Steam Turbine

Steam turbines of less than 1 MW are usually shipped completely assembled. These units
are assembled on their baseplates or bedplates and may be placed in position by means of
rollers or a crane. Many medium-sized and large turbines are shipped completely
disassembled because of equipment size limitations. Their erection should be supervised
by a trained manufacturer’s representative. Turbines require careful adjustment, and each
different type presents different problems.
 In the case of medium-sized units the turbine is separate from the machine that it is to
drive. When the machines are separate, they must be aligned. The shafts must be
central and parallel. The central relation of the two shafts may be checked by placing a
straightedge parallel to the shafts and across the rims of the coupling flanges. The
newer method employs the application of laser beams; manufacturer’s alignment
instructions should be still followed explicitly.
 The turbine changes in temperature more than the generator does, and if the shafts are
lined up cold, they must be set to allow for expansion. Even if they are properly aligned
when cold, this does not necessarily mean that they will be in proper alignment when in
operation.

 The foundation bolts can now be tightened up and the level rechecked. If the level is
found to be correct, the machine is ready to be grouted.

 The piping to a steam turbine must be large enough to handle the steam flow at full load
without excessive pressure drop.

 The piping to a steam turbine must be large enough to handle the steam flow at full
load without excessive pressure drop. The piping must be arranged so that it will not
produce strains on the turbine. This precaution is especially important for medium-
sized and large turbines.

Relief Valves and Rupture Disks for Turbines

Relief valves and rupture disks safety devices found in the steam engine.
 In a noncondensing turbine the exhausts line also must have an expansion joint to
prevent strains on the turbine or exhaust header. There must be a relief valve
between the turbine and the shutoff valve. This reduces the possibility of a turbine
explosion.
 When a turbine is operated condensing, an atmospheric relief valve must be placed
in the exhaust line between the turbine and the condenser. If the vacuum should fail,
this valve would open and the turbine would exhaust to the atmosphere.

A rupture disk (Figure 9.36a) is a pre bulged membrane made of various metals depending
on the condition. It is located in the exhaust hood of the turbine to prevent excessive
pressure buildup if the condenser loses its vacuum.
The rapture disk may be used in lieu of an atmospheric relief valve or installed ahead of the
atmospheric relief valve provided:

 the valve has ample capacity

 the maximum pressure range of the disk designed to rupture does not exceed the maximum
allowable pressure of the vessel
 the area is at least equal to the area of the relief valve
 the disk unit has a specified bursting pressure at a specific temperature and is guaranteed to
burst within 5 percent (plus or minus) of its specific bursting pressure.

The rupture disk is fail-safe and ensures a seal-tight system with no moving parts and therefore
nothing to malfunction, stick, or corrode shut. Therefore, it is a true safety fuse.

Turbine Piping

The piping of the steam turbine must be/capable of:

 large enough to handle the steam flow at full load without excessive pressure drop.
 It must be supplied with drains at all places where water can accumulate.
 piping must have a drain located between the main steam line and the throttle. This drain is
used to remove moisture from the line before placing the turbine in service.
  When saturated steam is used, a steam separator is placed in this line to remove the
condensation.
 The turbine casing must be drained, since an accumulation of water while the turbine is out
of service would cause the blades to rust.
 A drain must be connected to the exhaust line of a noncondensing turbine between the
turbine and the shutoff valve.
 Drains must be supplied and can carry the water away from the gland seals.
 The piping and drain must be inspected carefully to see that the valves are properly arranged.
It is good practice to blow out the steam lines with compressed air or auxiliary steam to
remove mill scale and any foreign deposits that may be in the line.

The utilization of steam turbines represents a fundamental and versatile approach in

harnessing thermal energy for mechanical work. steam turbine harnesses the energy of
the steam, provided by a boiler, and converts it into mechanical work by means of the
steam expanding as it flows through the turbine. With adaptability at their core, steam
turbines come in various sizes and configurations. From 1-horsepower (0.75-kilowatt)
units use as driver for process equipment’s to large 1300-megawatt capacity units in
large-scale electric plants.

Figure 9.6 shows a large turbine rotor for an electric

utility with its casing removed.