STRUCTURAL DESIGN TO EC 2

3 DESIGN IN REINFORCED CONCRETE TO EN 1992 (EC 2) 1

3.1 Introduction 1

3.2 Objectives and scope 2

3.3 Symbols 3

3.4 Basis of design 4

3.5 Material properties 4

3.5.1 Characteristic compressive strength of concrete. 5

3.5.2 Design strengths 6

3.6 Loading 6

3.6.1 Characteristic loads. 7

3.6.2 Design loads. 7

3.7 Stress-Strain curves 8

3.8 Cover to bar reinforcement 10

3.8.1 Bond 11

3.8.2 Durability 11

3.8.3 Fire protection 13

3.9 Analysis of section. 14

3.9.1 Singly reinforced rectangular section in bending. 15

3.9.2 Distribution of strains and stresses across a section in bending. 21

3.9.3 Rectangular section in bending with compression reinforcement. 23

3.10 Moment redistribution and the design equations 27

3.11 Bending plus axial load at the ultimate limit state 30

3.11.1 Basic equations and design charts 32

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 3 DESIGN IN REINFORCED CONCRETE TO EN 1992 (EC 2)

3.1 Introduction
Reinforced concrete is one of the principal materials used in structural design. It is a composite material,

consisting of steel reinforcing bars embedded in concrete. These two materials have complementary

properties. Concrete, on the one hand, has high compressive strength but low tensile strength. Steel bars, on

the other, can resist high tensile stresses but will buckle when subjected to comparatively low compressive

stresses. Steel is much more expensive than concrete. By providing steel bars predominantly in those zones

within a concrete member which will be subjected to tensile stresses, an economical structural material can

be produced which is both strong in compression and strong in tension. In addition, the concrete provides

corrosion protection and fire resistance to the more vulnerable embedded steel reinforcing bars.

Reinforced concrete is used in many civil engineering applications such as the construction of structural

frames, foundations, retaining walls, water retaining structures and bridges. These structures are increasingly

being designed to EC 2 and prior to publication of EC 2, engineers used BS 8110 for design of concrete

buildings, BS 8007 for liquid-retaining structures and BS 5400 for concrete bridges. These Standards were

‘withdrawn’ in 2010, and they are no longer maintained by the British Standards Institute and will become

progressively less acceptable for use in design.

Eurocode 2 is published in four parts as shown below. Most of this topic is concerned with the contents of Part

1.1 of Eurocode 2, it should be assumed that all references to EC 2 refer to Part 1.1 exclusively. It is also worth

noting that Parts 2 and 3 provide provisions that supplement, modify or supersede the equivalent provisions

in Part 1.1 for specific structure types.

In other words, Parts 2 and 3 are dependent documents and in order to design bridges and liquid-retaining

structures, etc. the designer will have to refer to Part 1.1. Similarly, the design of concrete elements cannot be

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undertaken by reference to Part 1.1 alone. Thus, designers will have to refer to various other documents

including:

a. EN 1991: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures for recommended values of characteristic permanent and

imposed loads

b. EN 1990: Basis of structural design for advice on partial safety factors for loads and combination of loads

c. EN 206: Concrete – Specification, performance, production and conformity and BS 8500: Concrete –

Complementary British Standard to EN 206-1 for guidance on concrete quality and minimum thicknesses

to achieve a given design life.

There may also be occasions when the designers will have to turn to BS 8110 as it includes information not

available in EC 2, but which is still acceptable for design to EC 2.

3.2 Objectives and scope

All reinforced concrete building structures are composed of various categories of elements including slabs,

beams, columns, walls and foundations. Within each category is a range of element types. The aim of this

chapter is to describe the element types and, for selected elements, to give guidance on their design.

Emphasis will be placed to show the similarities in structural behaviour, and thus, design of the various

categories of elements. Therefore, certain slabs can be regarded for design purposes as a series of

transversely connected beams. Columns may support slabs and beams, but columns may also be supported

by foundation slabs and beams. Columns are different in that they are primarily compression members rather

than beams and slabs which predominantly resist bending.

Irrespective of the element being designed, the designer will need a basic understanding of the following

aspects:

a. symbols

b. basis of design

c. material properties

d. loading

e. stress–strain relationships

f. durability and fire resistance.

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3.3 Symbols
The following symbols have been used and these have largely been taken from EC 2.

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3.4 Basis of design
The design of reinforced concrete elements to EC 2 is based on the limit state method. The two principal

categories of limit states normally considered in design are the ultimate limit state and serviceability limit

state. The ultimate limit state models the behaviour of the element at failure due to a variety of mechanisms

including excessive bending, shear and compression or tension. The serviceability limit state models the

behaviour of the member at working or quasi-permanent loads and in the context of reinforced concrete design

is principally concerned with the limit states of deflection and cracking. Having identified the relevant limit

states, the design process simply involves basing the design on the most critical one and then checking for

the remainder. This requires an understanding of material properties and loadings.

3.5 Material properties

The two materials whose properties must be known are concrete and steel reinforcement. In the case of

concrete, the property with which the designer is primarily concerned is its compressive strength. For steel,

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however, it is its tensile strength capacity which is important.

3.5.1 Characteristic compressive strength of concrete.

Concrete is a mixture of water, coarse and fine aggregate and a cementitious binder, which hardens to a stone-

like mass. It is difficult to produce a homogeneous material from these components. Furthermore, its strength

and other properties may vary considerably due to operations such as transportation, compaction and curing.

The compressive strength of concrete is usually determined by carrying out compression tests on 28-day-old

cubes which have been prepared using a standard procedure laid down in BS EN 12390-1. An alternative

approach is to use 100-mm diameter by 200-mm long cylinders.

For design purposes it is necessary to assume a unique value for the strength of the mix. However, choosing

too high a value will result in a high probability that most of the structure will be constructed with concrete

having a strength below this value. Conversely, too low a value will result in inefficient use of the material. As

a compromise between economy and safety, EC 2 refers to the characteristic strength (𝑓𝑘) which is defined as

the value below which not more than 5% of the test results fall.

Concrete of a given strength can be identified by its ‘strength class (Table 3.1, EC2)’. The strength class

consists of the characteristic cylinder strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑘, followed by the characteristic cube strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑘, 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒, for the

mix. A class C25/30 concrete, for example, has a characteristic cylinder strength of 25 N mm -2 and a

characteristic cube strength of 30 N mm-2.

It should be noted that, unlike BS 8110, the design rules in EC 2 are based on characteristic cylinder strength

and not characteristic cube strengths. Moreover, unlike its predecessor, EC 2 includes design rules for

concrete strength classes up to C90/105. However, design rules relevant to concrete strength classes up to

C50/60 are the classes most often used.

There are two common approaches to the specification of concrete recommended in BS 8500, namely,

designed and designated (specified). In many applications the most straightforward approach is to use a

designated concrete which simply involves specifying the strength class, e.g., C20/25 and the maximum

aggregate size. However, this approach may not be suitable for foundations, for example, if ground

investigations indicate the concrete will be exposed to an aggressive chemical environment. Under these

circumstances a designed mix may be required, and the designer will need to specify not only the strength

class, i.e., C20/25 and the maximum aggregate size but also the maximum permissible water/cement ratio,

minimum cement content, permitted cement or combination types, among other aspects.

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Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. In fact, the tensile strength of concrete is about 10 %

of its compressive strength. Thus, it is normal practice to provide steel reinforcement in those zones where

tensile stresses in the concrete are most likely to develop. Consequently, it is the tensile strength of the

reinforcement that will concern the designer.

The tensile strength of steel reinforcement can be determined using the procedure laid down in BS EN 10002:

Part 1. The tensile strength will also vary ‘normally’ with specimens of the same composition. Thus, EC 2

recommends that design should be based on the characteristic yield strength of the reinforcement ( 𝑓𝑦𝑘 ).

According to Annex C, the design rules in EC 2 are applicable to steel reinforcement with characteristic yield

strengths in the range of 400–600 N mm-2. Details of the actual yield strength of steel available in the UK for

the reinforcement of concrete can be found in BS 4449: 2005. This document indicates that steel reinforcement

is manufactured in three grades, all with a characteristic yield strength of 500 N mm-2 and Young’s modulus of

200 kN mm-2, but three ductility classes. Ductility classes B and C are the most widely available and specified

steel in the UK.

3.5.2 Design strengths

Tests to determine the characteristic strengths of concrete and steel reinforcement are carried out on near

perfect specimens which have been prepared under laboratory conditions. Such conditions will seldom exist

in practice. Therefore, it is undesirable to use characteristic strengths to size members. To take account of

differences between actual and laboratory values, local weaknesses and inaccuracies in assessment of the

resistances of sections, the characteristic strengths are divided by an appropriate partial safety factor for

material (𝛾𝑀), obtained from the table shown below. The resulting values are termed design strengths and it is

the design strengths which are used to size members.

3.6 Loading
In addition to the material properties, the designer needs to know the type and magnitude of the loading to

which the structure may be subject during its design life. The loads acting on a structure are divided into three

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basic types: permanent, imposed and wind. Associated with each type of loading there are characteristic and

design values which must be assessed before the individual elements of the structure can be designed.

3.6.1 Characteristic loads.

It is not possible to apply statistical principles to determine characteristic permanent (𝐺𝑘), imposed (𝑄𝑘) and

wind (𝑊𝑘) loads simply because there are insufficient data. Therefore, the characteristic loads are taken to

be those given in the following documents:

a. EN 1991-1-1: Densities, self-weight and imposed loads

b. EN 1991-1-4: Wind loads.

3.6.2 Design loads.

Variations in the characteristic loads may arise due to a number of reasons such as errors in the analysis and

design of the structure, constructional inaccuracies and possible unusual load increases. In order to take

account of these effects, the characteristic loads (𝐹𝑘) are multiplied by the appropriate partial factor for loads

(𝛾𝐹), to give the design loads acting on the structure:

Design load = 𝛾𝐹 𝐹𝑘

Generally, the ‘adverse’ factors will be used to derive the design loads acting on the structure. For example,

for single-span beams subject to only permanent and imposed loads the appropriate values of 𝛾𝐹 are generally

1.35 and 1.5, respectively as shown in (a) below. However, for continuous beams, load cases must be

analysed which should include the maximum design load on all spans and the maximum design load and

minimum design loads 1.35𝑔𝑘 on alternate spans as shown in (b) below. The design loads are used to calculate

the distribution of bending moments and shear forces in the structure usually using elastic analysis methods.

At no point should they exceed the corresponding design strength of the member, otherwise failure of the

structure may arise.

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The design strength is a function of the distribution of stresses in the member. Thus, for the simple case of a

steel bar in direct tension the design strength is equal to the cross-sectional area of the bar multiplied by the

average stress at failure. The distribution of stresses in reinforced concrete members is usually more

complicated but can be estimated once the stress–strain behaviour of the concrete and steel reinforcement is

known.

3.7 Stress-Strain curves

A typical stress–strain curve for a concrete cylinder under uniaxial compression is shown below. The stress–

strain behaviour is never truly linear and that the maximum compressive stress at a strain of approximately

0.2% (0.002) is the characteristic cylinder strength (𝑓𝑐𝑘). The strain at failure is 0.35% (0.0035). The actual

stress-strain curve for concrete in compression is shown below.

However, the actual behaviour is rather complicated to model and, therefore, EC 2 uses the modified

(parabolic-rectangular) stress–strain curve shown below for design (𝑓𝑐𝑘 ≤ 50 N mm-2).

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This assumes that the design strength of concrete, 𝑓𝑐𝑑, is given by

𝛼𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑘
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = .
𝛾𝑐

The coefficient 𝛼𝑐𝑐 takes account of long-term effects on compressive strength and is taken as 0.85 for bending

and axial loading and 1.0 for shear.

A typical tensile stress–strain curve for steel reinforcement is shown below. It can be divided into two regions:

an elastic region and a plastic region. The change from elastic to plastic behaviour occurs at the yield strain

(𝜀𝑦) and is significant as it defines the characteristic tensile strength of reinforcement (𝑓𝑦).

The actual material behaviour is rather complicated to model and therefore EC 2 modifies it to the forms shown

below. The design equations which will developed are based on the stress–strain curve with the horizontal top
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branch. Thus, the maximum design stress for reinforcement in tension (and compression), 𝑓𝑦𝑑, is given by

𝑓𝑦𝑘
𝑓𝑦𝑑 =
𝛾𝑠

From the foregoing it is possible to determine the distribution of stresses at a section and hence, calculate the

design strength of the member.

Within the elastic range, the relationship between the stress-strain is:

Stress = Elastic Modulus x strain.

The design strain is:

𝑓
( 𝑦𝑘⁄𝛾𝑠 )⁄
𝜀𝑦 = 500⁄
𝐸𝑠 = (1.15𝑥200𝑥103 ) = 0.00217.

There are EC 2’s requirements in respect of the safe transmission of bond forces, durability and fire resistance.

These requirements principally all influence the cover to bar reinforcement and enable the critical value of

nominal cover specified on working drawings to be evaluated.

3.8 Cover to bar reinforcement

Apart from the need to ensure that the design is structurally sound, the designer must also verify the proper

performance of the structure in service. Mainly this involves considering:

1. bond
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 2. durability

3. fire resistance.

3.8.1 Bond
According to Clause 4.4.1.2 of EC 2, to transmit bond forces safely and to ensure adequate compaction of the

concrete, the minimum cover, 𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛, 𝑏 , should not be less than the bar diameter, 𝜙, assuming the nominal

maximum aggregate size 𝑑𝑔 ≤ 32 mm.

To allow for deviations in cover an allowance 𝛥𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑣, normally assumed to be 10 mm, is added to this minimum

value to obtain the nominal cover, 𝑐𝑛𝑜𝑚 :

𝐶𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛,𝑏 + ∆𝐶𝑑𝑒𝑣 .

This is the value of cover to be specified provided the values of cover required for durability and fire resistance

are not greater.

3.8.2 Durability
The main problem found in concrete structures is corrosion of steel reinforcing bars. The main causes of

corrosion are carbonation and chloride attack. The other main mechanisms of deterioration experienced by

concrete structures are freeze – thaw attack, sulphate attack and alkali–silica reaction.

Generally, the durability of concrete structures is largely achieved by imposing limits on:

1. the minimum strength class of concrete.

2. the minimum cover to reinforcement.

3. the minimum cement content.

4. the maximum water/cement ratio.

5. the cement type or combination.

6. the maximum allowable surface crack width.

Other measures may include the specification of particular types of admixtures, deep concrete covers in

conjunction with non-corrodible reinforcement, restrictions on the use of certain types of aggregates, the use

of details that ensure concrete surfaces are free draining, and good workmanship.

The risk of a freeze–thaw attack and reinforcement corrosion decreases with increasing compressive strength

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of concrete. The use of an air entraining agent also enhances the frost resistance of concrete. The reduction

in risk of reinforcement corrosion with increasing compressive strength of concrete is linked to the associated

reduction in the permeability of concrete. A low permeability mix enhances durability by reducing the rate of

carbonation and chloride ingress into concrete as well as restricting the movement of ions within the concrete

during corrosion. The permeability of concrete is also influenced by water/cement ratio, cement content as well

as type/composition of the cement.

Sulphate attack is normally countered by specifying sulphate-resisting Portland cement. The risk of alkali–

silica reaction can be reduced by specifying non-reactive aggregate and/or cementitious materials with a low

alkali content.

BS EN 206 and BS 8500-1 show the range of exposure classes relevant to concrete construction and concrete

quality and cover to reinforcement for durability (Table A4 BS 8500).

EC 2 further recommends that the maximum surface crack width should not exceed 0.3 mm in order to avoid

corrosion of the reinforcing bars. This requirement will generally be satisfied by observing the detailing rules

given in EC 2 with regard to:

1. minimum reinforcement areas

2. either limiting the maximum clear spacing between reinforcing bars or limiting the maximum bar

diameter.

These requirements will be discussed individually for beams, slabs and columns.

Exercise

Assuming a design life of 50 years, determine the minimum concrete strength classes of concrete and the associated

nominal covers to reinforcement at locations 1–4 for the structure shown in figure below. State any assumptions.

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3.8.3 Fire protection
Exposure of members to high temperatures in the event of a fire can result in reduction of strength of both the

concrete and embedded steel reinforcement, as well as spalling of the concrete cover.

EC 2-1-2 describes a number of methods for verifying the fire resistance of concrete members, the simplest

being based on tabulated data. This method assumes the fire resistance of concrete members is principally

related to the size and shape of elements as well as the cover to the centre of reinforcing bars (axis distance),

shown below. For columns, it is also a function of the load supported.

Below are minimum dimensions and axis distances to meet specified periods of fire resistance.

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The importance of providing an adequate thickness of concrete cover to steel reinforcing bars should be readily

apparent and it is important that specified values are achieved in practice. The design process simply involves

determining the values of concrete cover required individually for the safe transmission of bond, durability and

fire resistance and selecting the most severe.

3.9 Analysis of section.

Beams in reinforced concrete structures can be defined according to:

1. cross section

2. position of reinforcement

3. support conditions.

Some common beam sections:

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Beams reinforced with tension steel only are referred to as singly reinforced. Beams reinforced with tension

and compression steel are termed doubly reinforced. The inclusion of compression steel increases the moment

capacity of the beam, and allows more slender sections to be used. Thus, doubly reinforced beams are used

in preference to singly reinforced beams when there is some restriction on the construction depth of the section.

Under certain conditions, T and L beams are more economical than rectangular beams since some of the

concrete below the neutral axis, which serves only to contain the tension steel, is removed resulting in a

reduced unit weight of beam. Furthermore, beams may be simply supported at their ends or continuous. Some

of the notation used in beam design is also illustrated. Here 𝑏 is the width of the beam, ℎ the overall depth of

section, 𝑑 the effective depth of tension reinforcement, 𝑑2 the depth of compression reinforcement, 𝐴𝑠1 the area

of tension reinforcement and 𝐴𝑠2 the area of compression reinforcement.

3.9.1 Singly reinforced rectangular section in bending.

All beams may fail due to excessive bending or shear. Excessive deflection of beams must also be avoided

otherwise the efficiency or appearance of the structure may become impaired. Bending and shear are ultimate

limit states while deflection is a serviceability limit state. Typically, structural design of concrete beams primarily

involves consideration of the following aspects:

1. bending

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 2. shear

3. deflection.

3.9.1.1 Bending (Cl. 6.1).

Consider the case of a simply supported, singly reinforced, rectangular beam subject to a uniformly distributed

load 𝜔 as shown below. The load causes the beam to deflect downwards, putting the top portion of the beam

into compression and the bottom portion into tension. At some distance below the compression face, there is

the neutral axis. Assuming that plane sections remain plane, the strain distribution will be triangular. The stress

distribution in the concrete above the neutral axis is initially triangular, for low values of strain, because stress

and strain are directly proportional. The stress in the concrete below the neutral axis is zero, since it is assumed

that the concrete is cracked, being unable to resist any tensile stress. All the tensile stresses in the member

are assumed to be resisted by the steel reinforcement and this is reflected in a peak in the tensile stress at the

level of the reinforcement.

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As the intensity of loading on the beam increases, the mid-span moment increases and the distribution of

stresses changes as shown above. The stress in the reinforcement increases linearly with strain up to the yield

point. Thereafter it remains at a constant value. However, as the strain in the concrete increases, the stress

distribution is assumed to follow the parabolic-rectangular form of the stress–strain relationship for concrete

under compression. The actual stress distribution at a given section and the mode of failure of the beam will

depend upon whether the section is

1. under-reinforced or

2. over-reinforced.

If the section is over-reinforced, the steel does not yield and the failure mechanism will be a crushing of the

concrete due to its compressive capacity being exceeded. Steel is expensive and, therefore, over-reinforcing

will lead to uneconomical design. Also, with this type of failure there may be no external warning signs, just

sudden, catastrophic collapse. If the section is under-reinforced, the steel yields and failure will again occur

due to crushing of the concrete. However, the beam will show considerable deflection which will be

accompanied by severe cracking and spalling from the tension face, thus providing ample warning signs of

failure. Moreover, this form of design is more economical since a greater proportion of the steel strength is

utilised. Therefore, it is normal practice to design sections which are under-reinforced rather than over-

reinforced. In an under-reinforced section, since the reinforcement will have yielded, the tensile force in the

steel (𝐹𝑠𝑡) at the ultimate limit state can readily be calculated as follows:

𝐹𝑠𝑡 = design stress x area

𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠𝑡
= .
𝛾𝑠

where,

𝑓𝑦𝑘 = characteristic yield stress

𝐴𝑠1 = area of reinforcement

𝛾𝑆 = factor of safety for reinforcement (= 1.15)

It is not an easy matter to calculate the compressive force in the concrete because of the complicated pattern

of stresses in the concrete. To simplify the situation, EC 2 replaces the parabolic-rectangular stress distribution

with an equivalent rectangular stress distribution which is used to develop the formulae necessary for the

design of beams. Formulae for estimating values of the key design parameters are:

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 1. ultimate moment of resistance

2. area of tension reinforcement

3. lever arm.

Ultimate moment of resistance (𝑀𝑅𝑑 )

Consider the singly reinforced beam shown.

The loading on the beam gives rise to an ultimate design moment (𝑀𝐸𝑑) at mid-span. The resulting curvature

of the beam produces a compression force in the concrete (𝐹𝑐𝑐) and a tensile force in the reinforcement (𝐹𝑠𝑡).

Since there is no resultant axial force on the beam, the force in the concrete must equal the force in the

reinforcement.

𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 𝐹𝑠𝑡 .

These two forces are separated by a distance 𝑧, the moment of which forms a couple (𝑀𝑅𝑑) which opposes the

design moment. For structural stability 𝑀𝑅𝑑 ≥ 𝑀𝐸𝑑 .

𝑀𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹𝑐𝑐 𝑧 = 𝐹𝑠𝑡 𝑧.

𝛼𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑘
𝐹𝑐𝑐 = × 0.8𝑥𝑏.
𝛾𝑐

0.8𝑥
𝑧=𝑑− .
2

To ensure that the section is under-reinforced, EC 2 limits the depth of the neutral axis (𝑥) to a maximum of

0.45𝑑 (Clause 5.6.3), where 𝑑 is the effective depth. Thus,

𝑥 ≤ 0.45𝑑.

Combining the above equations gives the ultimate moment of resistance:

𝑀𝑅𝑑 = 0.167𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2 .

Note that 𝑀𝑅𝑑 depends only on the properties of the concrete and not the steel reinforcement. Provided that

the design moment does not exceed moment of resistance (i.e. 𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑅𝑑 ), a beam whose section is a singly

reinforced section will be sufficient to resist the design moment. Calculation of the area of reinforcement

needed is as follows:

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At the limiting condition 𝑀𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝐸𝑑 , thus,

𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠1
𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 𝐹𝑠𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑧.
𝛾𝑠

Rearranging
𝑀𝐸𝑑
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = .
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝑧

Solution of this equation requires a value for z which is obtained as follows:

At the limiting condition 𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 𝑀𝑅𝑑 .

𝛼𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝛼𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑑−𝑧 0.85𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑑−𝑧 3.4

𝑀𝐸𝑑 = 𝐹𝑐𝑐 𝑧 = 0.8𝑥𝑏𝑧 = 0.8𝑏 ( )𝑧 = 0.8𝑏 ( )𝑧 = 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏(𝑑 − 𝑧)𝑧.
𝛾𝑐 𝛾𝑐 0.4 1.5 0.4 3

Dividing both sides by 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2 .

𝑀𝐸𝑑 3.4
= (1 − 𝑧⁄𝑑 )(𝑧⁄𝑑).
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2 3

𝑀𝐸𝑑
Substituting 𝐾 = and 𝑧0 = 𝑧⁄𝑑 gives
𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2

0 = 𝑧02 − 𝑧0 − 3𝐾⁄3.4.

This is a quadratic and can be solved to give,

𝑧0 = 𝑧⁄𝑑 = 0.5 + √0.25 − 3𝐾⁄3.4.

This equation is used to draw the lever arm curve shown below, and is normally expressed in the following

form:

𝑧 = 𝑑 [0.5 + √0.25 − 3𝑘⁄3.4].

Once 𝑧 has been determined, the area of tension reinforcement, 𝐴𝑠1 can be calculated. 𝐵𝑆 8110 notes that

𝑧 should not exceed 0.95𝑑 in order to give a reasonable concrete area in compression. Although EC 2 does

not contain a similar rule it is most likely that it will continue to be observed by engineers.

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Note that the equation can only be used to determine 𝐴𝑠1 provided that 𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑅𝑑 or 𝐾 ≤ 𝐾′ where,

𝑀𝐸𝑑 𝑀
𝐾= ⁄𝑓 𝑏𝑑 2 and 𝐾 ′ = 𝑅𝑑⁄𝑓 𝑏𝑑 2 = 0.167
𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑘

Summary

Design for bending requires the calculation of the maximum design moment and corresponding ultimate

moment of resistance of the section. Provided 𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑅𝑑 only tension reinforcement is needed, and the area

of steel can be calculated from the above equation. Where 𝑀𝐸𝑑 > 𝑀𝑅𝑑 the designer has the option of either

increasing the section sizes (such that 𝑀𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝑀𝑅𝑑 ) or design as a doubly reinforced section.

Exercises

1. The ultimate design moment to be resisted by the section shown below is 185 kN m. Determine the area

of tension reinforcement (As) required given the characteristic material strengths are 𝑓𝑠𝑘 = 500 N/mm2 and

𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 25 N/mm2.

2. A simply supported rectangular beam, shown below, of 7 m span carries characteristic permanent

(including self-weight), 𝑔𝑘 , and imposed, 𝑞𝑘 , loads of 13 kN/m and 8 kN/m, respectively. The beam

dimensions are breadth, b, 275 mm and effective depth, d, 450 mm. Assuming 𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 30 𝑁𝑚𝑚−2 and 𝑓𝑦𝑘 =

500 𝑁𝑚𝑚−2 calculate the area of reinforcement required.

20
3.9.2 Distribution of strains and stresses across a section in bending.
The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the regions of tensile

strains and that, after cracking, all the tension is carried by the reinforcement. It is also assumed that plane

sections of a structural member remain plane after straining, so that across the section there must be a linear

distribution of strains.

The figure below shows the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and the resultant strain diagram,

together with three different types of stress distribution in the concrete.

The triangular stress distribution (a) applies when the stresses are proportional to the strains, which occurs at

the loading levels encountered under working conditions and is used at the serviceability limit state.

The rectangular–parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the compressive strains are

within the plastic range, and it is associated with the design for the ultimate limit state.

The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular–parabolic distribution. As

there is compatibility of strains between the reinforcement and the adjacent concrete, the steel strains 𝜀𝑠𝑡 in

tension and 𝜀𝑠𝑐 in compression can be determined from the strain diagram. The relationships between the

depth of neutral axis (𝑥) and the maximum concrete strain (𝜀𝑐𝑢2 ) and the steel strains are given by,

𝑑−𝑥
𝜀𝑠𝑡 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢2 ( ).
𝑥

𝑥−𝑑 ′
𝜀𝑠𝑐 = 𝜀𝑐𝑢2 ( ).
𝑥

where 𝑑 is the effective depth of the beam and 𝑑 ′ is the depth of the compression reinforcement.

21
Having determined the strains, we can evaluate the stresses in the reinforcement from the stress–strain curve

together with the equations developed above.

For analysis of a section with known steel strains, the depth of the neutral axis can be determined by

rearranging the equation above

𝑑
𝑥= 𝜀 .
1+ 𝑠𝑡
𝜀𝑐𝑢2

At the ultimate limit state, the maximum compressive strain in the concrete is taken as 𝜀𝑐𝑢2 = 0.0035 for

concrete class ≤ 𝐶50/60.

For steel with 𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 500 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 , the yield strain is 𝜀𝑦 = 0.00217. Inserting the values of strain in the above

equation:

𝑑
𝑥= 0.00217 = 0.617𝑑.
1+
0.0035

Thus, to ensure yielding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state:

𝑥 ≤ 0.617𝑑.

At the ultimate limit state, it is important that member sections in flexure should be ductile and that failure

should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by a sudden catastrophic compression

failure of the concrete. Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that

redistribution of maximum moments can occur, resulting in a safer and more economical structure. To ensure

rotation of the plastic hinges with sufficient yielding of the tension steel and also to allow for other factors such

as the strain hardening of the steel, EC2 limits the depth of neutral axis to:

𝑥 ≤ 0.45𝑑 for concrete class ≤ 𝐶 50⁄60.

This is the limiting maximum value for 𝑥 given by EC2 with no redistribution applied to the moments calculated

by an elastic analysis of the structure.

The UK Annex to EC2 can give different limiting values for x. The EC2 value of 𝑥 = 0.45𝑑 is within the Annex’s

required limits and it ensures that a gradual tension failure of the steel occurs at the ultimate limit state, and

not sudden brittle failure of the concrete in compression.

22
Exercise

Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown below given that the characteristic

strengths are 𝑓𝑠𝑘 =500 N/mm2 for the reinforcement and 𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 25 N/mm2 for the concrete.

3.9.3 Rectangular section in bending with compression reinforcement.

3.9.3.1 Derivation of basic equations.
It should be noted that the equations have been derived for the case of zero moment redistribution. A section

with compression reinforcement is shown below.

From the section dealing with the analysis of a singly reinforced section and for concrete class not greater than

C50/60 when,

𝑀 > 0.167𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2 .

the design ultimate moment exceeds the moment of resistance of the concrete ( 𝑀𝑅𝑑 ) and therefore

23
compression reinforcement is required. For this condition the depth of neutral axis, x = 0:45d, the maximum

value allowed by the code in order to ensure a tension failure with a ductile section. Thus,

𝑧 = 𝑑 − 𝑠⁄2 = 𝑑 − 0.8𝑥⁄2 = 𝑑 − 0.8 × 0.45𝑑⁄2 = 0.82𝑑.

For equilibrium of the section:

𝐹𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑐𝑐 + 𝐹𝑠𝑐 .

so that with the reinforcement at yield,

0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠1 = 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑠 + 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠2 .

or with

𝑠 = 0.8 × 0.45𝑑 = 0.36𝑑,

0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠1 = 0.204𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 + 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠2 . (*)

and taking moments about the centroid of the tension steel,

𝑀 = 𝐹𝑐𝑐 × 𝑧 + 𝐹𝑠𝑐 (𝑑 − 𝑑2 ) = 0.204𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 × 0.82𝑑 + 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠2 (𝑑 − 𝑑2 ),

= 0.167𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2 + 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠𝑐 (𝑑 − 𝑑2 ).

or

𝑀−0.167𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = .
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 (𝑑−𝑑𝑠2 )

Multiplying both sides of equation (*) above by z = 0:82d and rearranging gives,

0.167𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠1 = + 𝐴𝑠𝑐 with 𝑧 = 0.82𝑑.
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 ×𝑧

Substituting 𝐾 ′ = 0.167 and K = 𝑀⁄𝑓 𝑏𝑑 2 into these equations results in:

𝑐𝑘

(𝐾−𝐾 ′)𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = .
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 (𝑑−𝑑2 )

24
 𝐾 ′𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠1 = + 𝐴𝑠𝑐 .
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝑧

In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yielded so that the steel stress 𝑓𝑠𝑐 =

0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 . From the proportions of the strain distribution diagram:

𝜀𝑠𝑐 0.0035
= ,
𝑥=𝑑2 𝑥

or

𝑥−𝑑2 𝜀𝑠𝑐
= ,
𝑥 0.0035

Or

𝑑2 𝜀𝑠𝑐
=1− .
𝑥 0.0035

For 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 500 𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 , 𝜀𝑠𝑐 = 𝜀𝑦 = 0.00217,

𝑑2 0.00217
<1− < 0.38. (***)
𝑥 0.0035

𝑑2
Or with 𝑥 = 0.45𝑑, = 0.171.
𝑑

′
If 𝑑 ⁄𝑑 > 0.171, then it is necessary to calculate the strain 𝜀𝑠𝑐 from equation (***) and then determine 𝑓𝑠𝑐 :

𝑓𝑠𝑐 = 𝐸𝑠 × 𝜀𝑠𝑐 = 200000𝜀𝑠𝑐 .

This value of stress for the compressive steel must then be used in the denominator of equation for calculating

𝐴𝑠2 in place of 0.87𝑓𝑐𝑘 . The area of tension steel is calculated from a modified equation given below:

0.167𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑠𝑐
𝐴𝑠1 = + 𝐴𝑠2 × .
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝑧 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘

The above equations apply for the case where the concrete class is less than or equal to C50/60.

Example

1. The section shown below is to resist an ultimate design moment of 285kNm. The characteristic material

strengths are 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 500 N/mm2 and 𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 25 N/mm2. Determine the areas of reinforcement required.

25
2. Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown below given that the characteristic

strengths are 𝑓𝑦𝑘 =500 N/mm2 for the reinforcement and 𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 25 N/mm2 for the concrete.

3.9.3.2 Design charts

The equations for the design charts are obtained by taking moments about the neutral axis. Thus,

𝑀 = 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘 0.8𝑥𝑏(𝑥 − 0.8𝑥⁄2) + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 𝐴𝑠2 (𝑥 − 𝑑2 ) + 𝑓𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠1 (𝑑 − 𝑥). (****)

Equation (****) and equilibrium equation (i.e., 𝑓𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠 = 0.454𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 𝐴′𝑠 ) may be as,

𝑀 𝑥2 𝐴′ 𝑥 𝑑′ 𝐴 𝑥
𝑏𝑑 2
= 0.454𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑑2 (1 − 0.4) + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 𝑏𝑑𝑠 (𝑑 − 𝑑 ) + 𝑓𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑑𝑠 (1 − 𝑑), and

𝐴𝑠 𝑥 𝐴′𝑠
𝑓𝑠𝑡 = 0.454𝑓𝑐𝑢 + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 .
𝑏𝑑 𝑑 𝑏𝑑

𝐴′𝑠⁄ 𝑥 𝑑′
For specified ratios of 𝑏𝑑, ⁄𝑑 and ⁄𝑑 , the two non-dimensional equations can be solved to give values

26
 𝐴𝑠⁄ 𝑀
for 𝑏𝑑 and ⁄𝑏𝑑 2 , so that a set of design charts such as the one shown below, may be plotted. Before the

equations can be solved, the steel stresses must be calculated for each value of x/d. This is achieved by first

determining the relevant strains from the strain diagram and then by evaluating the stresses from the stress–

strain curve. Values of 𝑥/𝑑 below 0.45 will apply when moments are redistributed. It should be noted that EC2

does not give design charts for bending. A typical design chart for doubly reinforced beams is shown below.

3.10 Moment redistribution and the design equations

The plastic behaviour of reinforced concrete at the ultimate limit state affects the distribution of moments in a

structure. To allow for this, the moments derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the

assumption that plastic hinges have formed at the sections with the largest moments. The formation of plastic

hinges requires relatively large rotations with yielding of the tension reinforcement. To ensure large strains in

the tension steel, the code of practice restricts the depth of the neutral axis according to the magnitude of the

moment redistribution.

The equation for this, given by EC2 for concrete class less than or equal to C50/60, is:

𝑥𝑏𝑎𝑙
𝛿 ≥ 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 . (*****)
𝑑

or

27
𝑥𝑏𝑎𝑙 (𝛿 − 𝑘1 )
≤ ⁄𝑘 .
𝑑 2

where,

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝛿= ≤ 1.0.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are constants from EC2 and 𝑥𝑏𝑎𝑙 is the maximum value of the depth of the neutral axis which will

take the limiting value of the equality of equation (*****) but should be less than 0.45𝑑 for concrete class ≤

C50/60.

The depth of the stress block is

𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 0.8𝑥𝑏𝑎𝑙 .

and the lever arm is

𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑙
𝑧𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝑑 − ⁄2.

The moment of resistance of the concrete in compression is

𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑐𝑐 × 𝑧𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑙 × 𝑧𝑏𝑎𝑙 .

and

𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑧
𝐾𝑏𝑎𝑙 = ⁄𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓 = 0.567𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑙 × 𝑏𝑎𝑙⁄𝑑 2.
𝑐𝑘

This equation for 𝐾𝑏𝑎𝑙 and the previous equations can be arranged to give,

2
(𝛿 − 𝑘1 ) (𝛿 − 𝑘1 ) 𝑥 𝑧
𝐾𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾 ′ = 0.454 ⁄𝑘 − 0.182 [ ⁄𝑘 ] , alternatively, 𝐾𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 0.454 ( 𝑏𝑎𝑙 ) ( 𝑏𝑎𝑙)
2 2 𝑑 𝑑

From EC2 clause 5.5 the constants 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are given as: 𝑘1 = 0.44 and 𝑘2 = 1.25, but from the UK Annex

the values are 0.4 and 1.0 respectively based on the use of Grade 500 reinforcement rather than the maximum

Grade 600 permitted by EC2.

Thus, rearranging,

28
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾 ′ 𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑐𝑘 .

When the ultimate design moment is such that,

𝑀 > 𝐾 ′ 𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑐𝑢 or 𝐾 > 𝐾 ′,

then compression steel is required such that,

(𝐾−𝐾 ′)𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2
𝐴′𝑠 = ,
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 (𝑑−𝑑 ′ )

and,

𝐾 ′ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠 = + 𝐴′𝑠 .
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝑧

Where,

𝑀
𝐾= .
𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑐𝑢

These equations are identical in form to those derived previously for the design of a section with compression
′
reinforcement and no moment redistribution. If the value of 𝑑 ⁄𝑑 for the section exceeds that shown in the

table below, the compression steel will not have yielded and the compressive stress will be less than 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 .

In such cases, the compressive stress 𝑓𝑠𝑐 will be 𝐸𝑠 𝜀𝑠𝑐 where the strain 𝜀𝑠𝑐 is obtained from the proportions of

the strain diagram. This value should replace 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 as follows

𝐾𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓𝑠𝑐

𝐴𝑠1 = + 𝐴𝑠2 × .
0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝑧𝑏𝑎𝑙 0.87𝑓𝑦𝑘

It should be noted that for a singly reinforced section (𝐾 < 𝐾𝑏𝑎𝑙 ), the lever arm is calculated from the equation

for singly reinforced section.

For a section requiring compression steel, the lever arm can be calculated by using the equation,

𝐾𝑏𝑎𝑙⁄ 𝑠𝑏𝑎𝑙
𝑧 = 𝑑 [0.5 + √(0.25 − 1.134)], or 𝑧 = 𝑑 − ⁄2.

Moment redistribution design factors are shown below:.

29
Example

The section shown in the figure below is subject to an ultimate design moment of 230 kN m after a 20%

reduction due to moment redistribution. The characteristic material strengths are 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 500 N/mm2 and 𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 25

N/mm2. Determine the areas of reinforcement required using the constants 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 from (a) EC2 and (b)

the UK Annex to EC2.

3.11 Bending plus axial load at the ultimate limit state

The applied axial force may be tensile or compressive. In the analysis that follows, a compressive force is

considered. The area of concrete in compression has not been reduced to allow for the concrete displaced by

the compression steel. This could be taken into account by reducing the stress in the compression steel by an

amount equal to 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘 .

30
The figure below represents the cross-section of a member with typical strain and stress distributions for

varying positions of the neutral axis. The cross-section is subject to a moment 𝑀 and an axial compressive

force 𝑁, and in the figure the direction of the moment is such as to cause compression on the upper part of

the section and tension on the lower part. For cases where there is tension in the section (a) the limiting

concrete strain is taken as 0.0035 – the value used in the design and analysis of sections for bending. However,

for cases where there is no tension in the section (b) the limiting strain is taken as a value of 0.00175 at the

level of 1/2 of the depth of the section.

Let

𝐹𝑐𝑐 be the compressive force developed in the concrete and acting through the centroid of the stress block..

𝐹𝑠𝑐 be the compressive force in the reinforcement area A s and acting through its centroid.

𝐹𝑠 be the tensile or compressive force in the reinforcement area As and acting through its centroid.

31
3.11.1 Basic equations and design charts

The applied force (𝑁 ) must be balanced by the forces developed within the cross-section, therefore

𝑁 = 𝐹𝑐𝑐 + 𝐹𝑠𝑐 + 𝐹𝑠 .

In this equation, 𝐹𝑠 will be negative whenever the position of the neutral axis is such that the reinforcement 𝐴𝑠

is in tension, as in (a). Substituting into this equation the terms for the stresses and areas

𝑁 = 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 𝐴′𝑠 + 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠 .

where 𝑓𝑠𝑐 is the compressive stress in reinforcement 𝐴′𝑠 and fs is the tensile or compressive stress in

reinforcement 𝐴𝑠 .

The design moment 𝑀 must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the forces developed within the cross-

section. Taking moments about the mid-depth of the section:

ℎ 𝑠 ℎ ℎ
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑐𝑐 ( − ) + 𝐹𝑠𝑐 ( − 𝑑 ′ ) + 𝐹𝑠 ( − 𝑑).
2 2 2 2

or

ℎ 𝑠 ℎ ℎ
𝑀 = 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑠 ( − ) + 𝑓𝑠𝑐 𝐴𝐴′ ( − 𝑑 ′ ) − 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠 (𝑑 − ) (******)
2 2 2 2

When the depth of neutral axis is such that 0:8x ≥ h, as in part (b) above, then the whole concrete section is

subject to a uniform compressive stress of 0.567𝑓𝑐𝑘 . In this case, the concrete provides no contribution to the

moment of resistance and the first term on the right side of the equation (******) disappears.

𝐴𝑠𝑐⁄
For a symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement (𝐴′𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 = ′
2 and 𝑑 = ℎ − 𝑑), equations for 𝑁 and 𝑀 can

be written as

𝑁 0.567𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑐 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠
= + + .
𝑏ℎ𝑓𝑐𝑘 ℎ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏ℎ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏ℎ

𝑀 0.567 𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑐 𝐴𝑠 𝑑 𝑓𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑑
= (0.5 − )+ ( − 0.5) − ( − 0.5).
𝑏ℎ2 ℎ 2ℎ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏ℎ ℎ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏ℎ ℎ

In these equations the steel strains, and hence the stresses 𝑓𝑠𝑐 and 𝑓𝑠 , vary with the depth of the neutral axis

𝐴𝑠⁄ 𝑥
(𝑥). Thus 𝑁⁄𝑏ℎ𝑓 and 𝑀⁄𝑏ℎ2 𝑓 can be calculated for specified ratios of 𝑏ℎ and ⁄ℎ so that column design
𝑐𝑘 𝑐𝑘

charts for a symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement such as the one shown below can be plotted.
32
The direct solution of the above equations for the design of column reinforcement would be very tedious and,

therefore, a set of design charts for the usual case of symmetrical sections is available in several publications.

33