!!TIGNAN ANG NOTES FOR EXPLANATION!! o the opposite process of encoding.

CODING THEORY AND MODULAR Data compression or source encoding

ARITHMETIC
• defined as converting the message from the
CODING THEORY sender into bits suitable to the communication
channel.
Coding theory
Bit (short for "binary digit")
• the study of the properties of codes and their
respective fitness for specific applications. Codes • the smallest unit of measurement used to quantify
are used for compression, cryptography, error computer data. It contains a single binary value of
detection and correction, and data storage. 0 or 1.
• An example of this is the ASCII (AMERICAN
Codes
STANDARD CODE) that converts each
• studied by various scientific disciplines, such character in the message to a byte of 8 bits
as information theory, electrical engineering,
mathematics, linguistics, and computer science—
for the purpose of designing efficient and
reliable data transmission methods.
This typically involves the removal of redundancy and the
correction or detection of errors in the transmitted data.

EXAMPLE Consider the source encoding of four

Communication system
• composed of sender (or message source),
communication channel, and the receiver.
Communication channel
• the physical medium through which information
is transmitted.
• Ex: telephone lines, internet cables, fiber-optic
lines, and air. Some storage data can be
considered channels (CD-ROMS, hard drives).
Noises
• It alters the message in the channel that will cause
disruption and error in the messages
Source Coding and Channel Coding
• In transmitting messages, coding is defined as
source coding and channel coding.
Two Processes in Coding
directions as follows:
NORTH - 00
SOUTH - 01
EAST - 10
WEST - 11
Suppose the message “NORTH”, which is encoded as 00,
is transmitted over a noisy channel. The message may
encounter errors and may be received as 01. The receiver
will get the message 01 and decode it as “SOUTH”
without realizing that the message is corrupted
Why/How did the decoder decode the message without
realizing that the message is corrupted? Because the
encode 01 or “SOUTH” exist.
With this problem at hand, additional process of encoding
is required known as Channel Coding.

• Encoding
o transforming messaged into bits of
message that is suitable in
communication.
• Decoding
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Channel Coding
• defined as adding some form of redundancy to the
source encoded message so that the errors can be
detected or even corrected
Parity Check
• Parity check is also called as “Vertical
Redundancy Check (VRC)”
• Where in single bit is added to the message as
redundancy bit.
• A bit string is said to have an odd parity if there
is an odd number of 1s.
• Even parity if there is an even number of 1s. We
add redundancy bit to message such that it will
become an even parity.
Two types of parity bits in error detection
Assume that the message transmitted through a
noisy channel and distorted. The received
message is 111001101110010. The channel
encoding uses repetition code where k= 3.
Decode the received message.
Solution
111 001 101 110 010
First Bit - Consider the most frequent bit in
positions 1,4,7,10, and 13
Second Bit – Consider the most frequent bit in
positions 2,5,8,11, and 14
Third Bit – Consider the most frequents bit in
positions 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15
111/001/101/110/010
1 2 3 / 4 5 6/ 7 8 9 / 10 11 12 / 13 14 15
Decoded Message: 111

• Odd Parity Practice: Decode where k = 3

o If the data has even number of 1’s, the a. 101 101 011 100 110
parity bit is 0. Decoded Message: 101
o Odd number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1. b. 010 010 001 010 011
o Ex: data is 10010001 -> parity bit 1 Decoded Message: 010
• Even Parity c. 111 110 110 010 100
o If the data has odd number of 1’s, the Decoded Message: 110
parity bit is 0. d. 100 100 001 010 010
o Even number of 1’s, the parity bit is 1 Decoded Message: 000
o Ex: data is 10010101 -> parity bit 1 e. 101 111 101 111 110
Repetition Code: ENCODING Decoded Message: 111

• In coding theory, the repetition code is one of MODULAR ARITHMETIC

the most basic error-correcting codes.
• In order to transmit a message over a noisy
channel that may corrupt the transmission in a
few places, the idea of the repetition code is to
just repeat the message several times.
• Suppose that the source encoding is already
done and that the encoded message is of fix
length k. The channel encoding by repetition is
performed by taking the k bits then repeating it
2r + 1, where r is greater than or equal to 1 is a
fixed integer.
Example:
a. Suppose that the source encoded message is 110
where k=3. If you choose r= 2, the message must
be repeated 2r +1 = 2(2) + 1 or 5 times.
This will result to 110110110110110
• a system of arithmetic for integers, which
considers the remainder
• In modular arithmetic, numbers "wrap around"
upon reaching a given fixed quantity (this given
quantity is known as the modulus) to leave a
remainder
Congruence
• Let a and b are integers and m is a natural
counting number
• “A is congruent to B modulo m”
a ≡ b (mod m), IF m DIVIDES a - b OR b – a
• Example: Verify if the congruence is true
4 ≡ 9 (mod 2)
False, since 9 – 4 = 5 is not divisible by 2
More examples: Verify if the following congruence are
true
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 a. 34 ≡ 15(mod 3) • Modulo multiplication is defined as (a*b) mod m
False, since 34 – 15 = 19 is not divisible by 3 • Modulo division is defined as (a/b) mod m
b. 54 ≡ 19(mod 5)
True, since 54 – 15 = 35 is divisible by 5 Solving expressions involving Modular Arithmetic
c. 7 ≡ 55(mod 4) i. (18 – 4) (mod 5)
True, since 55 – 7 = 48 is divisible by 4 14 (mod 5)
Least Residue r=4

• To determine the least residue is to simply get the ii. (31 + 7) (mod 3)
remainder when b is divided by m. 38 (mod 3)
• b(mod m) means b divided by m. m is referred to r=2
as the modulus (divisor)
• Find the least residue, r iii. 12 – 5 (mod 3)
r = 54(mod 7) 12 – 2
r = 10
Three solutions: Choose what’s easier for you
a. iv. 15 – (11+12) (mod 13)
15 – 23 (mod 13)
15 – 10
r=5
Note: Mauuna lahat ng parenthesis. Kapag walang
parenthesis, subtract the second given number sa mod,
then continue.
CRPTOGRAPHY
r=5
• It is a science of protecting information by
b. Sa calculator: encoding it into unreadable format.
54 ÷ 7 = 7. 71 • Originated from two Greek words such as
(.71) (7) = 5 “KRYPTO” which means hidden and
r=5 “GRAPHENE” which means writing.
• It is a method of making and breaking of secret
c. Hahanapin ang pinaka malapit na number sa 54 codes.
na divisible by 7, then subtract. • a science of encrypting and decrypting written
54 – 49 = 5 communication
r=5
Encryption
More examples:
• the process of transforming plain text into codes
a. Determine the least residue of 89 (mod 9) form using a certain algorithm.
r=8
Decryption
b. Determine the least residue of 120 (mod 10)
r = 0 (no reminder/least residue) • the process of returning/converting back the
c. Determine the least residue of 18 (mod 20) coded message into plain text.
r = 18 (kasi mas mataas yung mod and when
you divide it, the answer will be decimal and
no whole number, so automatically, 18 will be
the reminder/least residue.)
OPERATIONS IN MODULAR ARITHMETIC

• Modulo addition is defined as (a+b) mod m

• Modulo subtraction is defined as (a-b) mod m
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Plain text

• refers to the original text

Cipher text

• refers to the coded text

Key C = number of the certain letter
K = given
• refers to the strings of information that is used to
C + K = sum of C and K
reveal the encryted message into readable form
Y = lower than 26; remain the number. Higher
Shift cipher (Ceasar Cipher) than 26; subtract the number to 26.

• it is the simple type of substitution cipher. • Decrypt Steps

• it uses shift in forming the key of cryptography I. express the letters of the
• Example: alphabet from 0-25
o Shift 4 to the left II. calculate C = (Y-K) mod 26
A B C D E F G H I J K L M III. convert the number C into a letter
E F G H I J K L M N O P Q following the order of the letter of the
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z alphabet
R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D
Example:
o Shift 4 to the right
Decrypt the cipher text. “RRBNXKZSYTQJFWS” let k
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
=5
W X Y Z A B C D E F G H I
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
J K L M N O P Q R S T U V

Note: Kapag to the left, just count the number given from
the last letter (Z) backwards. Kapag to the right, add 1 sa
given number (ex. Given number is 4, sa 5th letter ang start
ng A) or just simply start counting at the second letter (B) C = number of the certain letter
K = given
Modulo Operator
C - K = difference of C and K
• the sender of the uses the key K to encrypt and to Y = lower than 26; remain the number. Higher
decrypt the secret message. than 26; subtract the number to 26
• Encrypt Steps
CHECK CODES AND CHECK DIGIT
I. express the letters of the alphabet from 0
to 25 • There are several methods in producing
II. calculate Y = (C+K) mod 26 identification numbers which are unique.
III. convert the number Y into a letter • In the following methods, modular arithmetic is
following the order of the letter of the used to produce and verify identification
alphabet numbers.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M • The examples are;
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 o Universal Product Code (UPC)
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
- mainly used in products sold in
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
department stores and groceries. The
UPC consists of barcodes with 12
Example: digits where the last one is the check
digit.
Encrypt the message. “MMW is fun to learn” let k = 5

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 International Standard Book Number (ISBN - 10)

• CHECK DIGIT: d10

• d10 = 11- (10d1 + 9d2 + 8d3 + 7d4 + 6d5 + 5d6 + 4d7
+3d8 +2d9) (mod 11)
International Standard Book Number (ISBN - 13)

o United States Postal Services (USPS) • CHECK DIGIT: d13

- consist of 11 digits • d13= 10 – (d1 + 3d2 + d3 + 3d4 + d5 + 3d6 + d7 +3d8
+ d9 + 3d10 + d11 + 3d12) (mod10)
United States Postal Services (USPS)

• CHECK DIGIT: d11

Credit Card
o Credit Card
- uses 16 digits where both of them
uses their last digits as the check
digits.
Examples:
o International Standard Book Number
(ISBN).
- used on books where usually found
at the last page of the book. ISBN
can be ISBN-10 or ISBN-13 where
they used 10 digits or 13 digits
string of number respectively with
the last digit as the check digit.
• d11 = 9 – (d1 +d2 + d3 + d4 + d5 + d6 + d7 + d8 + d9 +
d10) (mod 9)
• CHECK DIGIT: d16
• d16 = 10 – (2d1 +d2 +2d3 +d4 +2d5 +d6 +2d7 +d8 +2d9
+d10 +2d11 +d12 +2d13 +d14 +2d15) (mod10)
• Note: Sa credit card, kapag two-digit number
yung sagot sa formula/final answer, ipag add.
Example 16, magiging 1+6, so 7 siya non.
1. Determine the check digit for a new product if the
first 11 digits are 8-21345-67132.
• SOLUTION: Let d1 =8, d2 =2, d3 =1, d4
= 3, d5 =4, d6 = 5, d7 = 6, d8 =7, d9 = 1,
d10 =3, d11 = 2
• Formula: d12= 10 – (3d1 +d2 + 3d3 + d4
+3d5 +d6 + 3d7 + d8 + 3d9 + d10 + 3d11)
(mod10)

• Each example uses their last digit as the check

digits to verify the identification number.
FORMULA 2. Determine the check digit for USPS if the first 10
Universal Product Code (UPC) digits are 12-2133-1321.
• SOLUTION: Let d1 =1, d2 =2, d3 =2, d4
• CHECK DIGIT: d12 = 1, d5 =3, d6 = 3, d7 = 1, d8 =3, d9 = 2,
• d12= 10 – (3d1 +d2 + 3d3 + d4 +3d5 +d6 + 3d7 + d8 + d10 =1
3d9 + d10 + 3d11) (mod10)
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 • Formula: d11 = 9 – (d1 +d2 + d3 + d4 + d5 APPOINTMENT
+ d6 + d7 + d8 + d9 + d10) (mod 9)
• “the equal proportion”
• Is a method of dividing a whole into various parts.
• It means that the numbers of representative (the
seat) is proportion to the population size being
represented
METHODS
THE HAMILTON PLAN
Standard divisor (D)

• the number of voters represented by each

3. Verify if the given Credit Card identification representative.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁
number 4301-1234-8888-3751 is valid. • 𝐷 = 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑅
• Solution: Let d1 = 4, d2 = 3, d3 = 0, d4 = 1, d5
= 1, d6 = 2, d7 = 3, d8 = 4, d9 = 8, d10 = 8, d11 Standard quota (Q)
= 8, d12 = 8, d13 = 3, d14 = 7, and d15 = 5.
• the whole part of the quotient when the
• Formula: d16 = 10 – (2d1 +d2 +2d3 +d4 +2d5
population of the sub – group is divided by the
+d6 +2d7 +d8 +2d9 +d10 +2d11 +d12 +2d13 +d14
standard divisor.
+2d15) (mod10) 𝑠𝑢𝑏−𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛
• 𝑄= =𝐷
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟

Note:

• Standard quota, Q must be an integer. In case of

decimals, just drop the decimal values
• When the total standard quota is not equal to
given total apportioned or the number of
representative, place an additional representative
to the next the sub – group representative with the
highest decimal value until the representatives are
complete.
Example
Note: Hindi isasama yung last number sa credit
1. A new school offering the complete six grades in
card (16th number). Kapag same yung last number
high school has the following enrollment in the
and yung final answer mo, means tama ang sagot
different grades below. The administration is to
mo/valid. Pero pag hindi sila same, mali ang
apportioned the 20 teachers for each grade.
sagot/invalid.
Calculate
A. The standard divisor
𝑁
𝐷= 𝑅
199
𝐷= 20
𝑫 = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟓

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 B. The standard quota 𝐷 = 9.95
𝒏 B. The standard quota
# of 𝑸= Corrected
Grade students 𝑫 Q Q
Q (Try and error. Lower/smaller than the
40
original D)
Grade 12 40 4.02 4 4 Let’s start with 9.00 or 9 (instead of 9.95)
9.95
35
Grade 11 35 3.52 3 4 𝒏
9.95 𝑸=
22 Grade # of students 𝑫 Q Q
Grade 10 22 2.21 2 2
9.95
38 40
Grade 9 38 3.81 3 4 Grade 12 40 4.44 4
9.95 9
25 35
Grade 8 25 2.51 2 2 Grade 11 35 3.88 3
9.95 9
39 22
Grade 7 39 3.91 3 4 Grade 10 22 2.44 2
9.95 9
38
Total 199 17 20 Grade 9 38 4.22 4
9
25
Grade 8 25 2.77 2
9
Note: 39
Grade 7 39 4.33 4
9
• Yung pangalawang Q, yun yung tatanggalin mo Total 199 19
yung decimal (drop the decimal)
• Dahil 17 lang yung total nung Q, and 20 yung
supposed-to-be answer (based sa given sa Note:
sentence), need mag add • Since 19 yung total, which is kulang pa ng 1 para
• Kung ano yung malaki ang decimal, yun yung makuha ang sagot na 20, hindi tayo mag aadd.
dadagdagan. Disregard the whole number, look • Instead, we’ll try another D again. And since
ONLY sa decimal (Example: 3.51, and 2.72, mas we’re looking for higher Q, we need lower D.
mataas ang 72, kaysa sa 51, kahit mas mataas ang
3 sa 2) C. The standard quota
• Kung ilan ang need para mabuo yung supposed- (Second try and error. Let’s use 8.5 as our D
to-be answer, yun ang bilang ng hahanapin mong now)
mas mataas ang decimal, then add 1 sa Q (kung
𝒏
saan nadrop na yung decimal) 𝑸=
Grade # of students 𝑫 Q Q
THE JEFFERSON PLAN
40
Grade 12 40 4.71 4
• This method uses a modified standard divisor the 8.5
35
arrives at the correct or exact numbers of Grade 11 35 4.11 4
8.5
representative using trial and error Grade 10 22
22
2.59 2
• The modified uses an assume value always 8.5
38
smaller than the standard divisor. Grade 9 38 4.47 4
8.5
25
Example Grade 8 25 2.94 2
8.5
39
1. A new school offering the complete six grades in Grade 7 39 4.59 4
8.5
high school has the following enrollment in the Total 199 20
different grades below. The administration is to
apportioned the 20 teachers for each grade.
Note:
Calculate
• Until you get the answer, you won’t stop the
A. The standard divisor trying and error, no adding, unlike the Hamilton
𝑁 Plan.
𝐷= 𝑅
199
𝐷= 20

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 THE APPORTIONMENT PRINCIPLE
• A new representative is added to a sub – group
due to an increase in population.
• The representative is assigned to the group in
such a way it gives the smallest relative
unfairness of apportionment.
Example:
1. RBSN company wants to add a new call center
agent in one of its office. Report indicate an
increase in the daily calls of the offices in the past
month. Determine which office should get the
additional agent. Use the apportionment principle
to justify your answer.
Answer:
• R = 0.30 (the lowest) means the new agent or
representative will goes to Ortigas office.
Note:
• We assumed that C1 is Makati and C2 is Ortigas.
Kaya sa Makati, nag add tayo ng 1 dun sa number
of agents sa C1, then we added 1 number of
agents sa Ortigas sa C2.
• The 1 represents the one whose receiving
(something, ewan kay ma’am, basta
representative that is on receiving.)
HUNTINGTON – HILL APPORTIONED METHOD
• The method that make use of equal proportion.
• The new additional representative to a sub
o group must have the highest Huntington
number.
Example:
1. RBSN company wants to add a new call center
agent in one of its office. Report indicate an
increase in the daily calls of the offices in the past
month. Determine which office should get the
additional agent. Use the Huntington –Hill
apportionment to justify your answer.
Solution:
(𝑃 )2
𝐴
H = 𝑎(𝑎+1)
A. Makati
(𝑃 )2
𝐴 (882)2
H = 𝑎(𝑎+1) = 62 (62+1) = 199.16
B. Ortigas
(𝑃 )2
𝐴 (996)2
H = 𝑎(𝑎+1) = 48 (48+1) = 421.78
Since H = 421.77 has the highest Huntington – Hill
number, so that the Ortigas office will get the new agent.
VOTING
• Voting is a powerful tool in decision making.
• It is a method that uses votes to determine the
winner.
METHODS
MAJORITY VOTING AND PLURAITY METHOD
Majority Voting
• Majority Vote: over 50 % of the people voting
must vote for the candidate
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Plurality ➢ Each third-place vote is worth N –2points
➢ Each Nth-place (i.e., last place) vote is
• Each voter votes for one candidate, and the worth 1 point.
candidate with the most votes wins.
• In-case of ties, voting should be done using the Example:
run-off election
1. Who is the winner under the Borda Count?
Example
1. Which among the four candidates won
(a) By Majority (b) by Plurality

Candidate A:
(3 x 10) + (2 x 20) + (1 x 40) = 110 points

Candidate B:
(3 x 20) + (2 x 40) + (1 x 10) = 150 points
• Only look for the 1st choice
• A has 5 votes. B has 6+3 votes, C has 2 votes and Candidate C:
D has 4 votes. (3 x 40) + (2 x 10) + (1 x 20) = 160 points

(a) By Majority Therefore, candidate C wins with 160 points

• 5+6+3+2+4 = 20
• So, at least 11 should be the number of 2. A corporation would like to invite a new investor.
votes to win by majority The possibilities are Ayala (A), Bonifacio (B),
• Therefore, none is the answer, since no Calixto (C), and Dancel (D). Who is the winner
one got 11 votes under the Borda Count?

(b) By Plurality
• B is the winner/answer, since B got the
highest number of votes which is 9.
BORDA COUNT METHOD

• Award points to candidates based on preference

schedule, then declare the winner to be the
candidate with the most points.
Ayala (A):
(2 x 35) + (3 x 30) + (3 x 20) + (2 x 15) = 250
points

Bonifacio (B):
(4 x 35) + (2 x 30) + (2 x 20) + (1 x 15) = 255
points
• In general, if Nis the number of candidates...
➢ Each first-place vote is worth N points. Calixto (C):
➢ Each second-place vote is worth N – (3 x 35) + (1 x 30) + (4 x 20) + (3 x 15) = 260
1points. points
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 Dancel (D):
(1 x 35) + (4 x 30) + (1 x 20) + (4 x 15) = 235
points
CALIXTO wins.
Note:
• First place, second place etc. is based on the
given. IT IS GIVEN.
• Kung ilan yung given, yun ang bilang ng points,
basta yung pinaka last, lagging 1 point. If 10 yung
candidates, then 10 points yung sa first place. If 6
yung candidates, then 6 points yung sa first place.
PLURALITY BY ELIMINATION
• The plurality with elimination voting method is
also known as an instant run-off voting and
sequential run-off voting.
• It is a preferential voting method and candidates
that have the least first place votes get eliminated
until one candidate has majority of first place
votes.
Example:
1. Refer to the following preference schedule:
Step 1: Eliminate candidate with the fewest 1st
place
Note:
• Tatanggalin yung candidate sa 1st choice
na may pinaka konting vote number, then
yung candidate na yon, aalisin siya sa
lahat ng part (1st, 2nd, 3rd choice etc)
• Example: dito, yung candidate C ang
may pinaka konting number of votes sa
1st choice with 2 votes, so aalisin si C sa
lahat.
Step 2: Adjust the ranking of the remaining
candidates
Note:
• Then, ayusin lang ang ranking by moving
them upwards.
• Candidate A with 2 votes na nasa 2nd
choice, mapupunta sa 1st choice (still
same) 2 votes. Then D up from 3rd choice
to 2nd choice, then B up from 4th choice
to 3rd choice.
• Candidate B with 5 votes from 4th choice
to 3rd choice, etc. BASTA UPWARD
LAHAT
• If hindi niyo gets kung pano yung
upwards eme eme, pm niyo nalang po
ako, I’ll send a video how.
Step 3: Eliminate again candidate with the
fewest 1st place.
Note:
• Tulad lang ng sa step 1, and step 2.
Tanggalin yung fewest vote (naging
fewest yung D, since it only has 4 votes,
while B has 6+3=9, and A has 5+2=7.
• Then move ulit UPWARDS.
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 Solution:
A = 5+2+4 = 11
B=6+3=9

Answer: The winner is candidate A

PAINWISE COMPARISON VOTING Note:

• Compare each two candidates head-to-head Same lang dun sa step 1. FIRST
• Award each candidate one point for each head-to- A AND C LANG.
head victory.
Step 3: Compare A to D.
• The candidate with the most points wins.
• 5+ 2 =7 voters prefer A.
Example: • 6+ 3+4= 13 voters prefer to D.
• D wins the pairwise comparison and gets
1. Refer to the following preference schedule
1 point.

Step 4: Compare B to C.
• 6+3 =9 voters prefer B.
• 5+ 2+ 4 = 11 voters prefer to C.
• C wins the pairwise comparison and gets
1 point.

Step 5: Compare B to D.
• 6+3 =9 voters prefer B.
Step 1: Compare A to B. • 5 + 2+ 4 = 11 voters prefer to D.
• 5+ 2+4 = 11 voters prefer A. • D wins the pairwise comparison and gets
• 6+ 3= 9 voters prefer to B. 1 point.
• A win the pairwise comparison and gets
1 point. Step 6: Compare C to D
• 6+2 =8 voters prefer C.
• 5 + 3+ 4 = 12 voters prefer to D.
• D wins the pairwise comparison and gets
1 point.
Note:

• I-compare lahat ng candidates, LAHAT.

Note: Compare each of them to one another.
• Yung mga first A and B per column • Then whoever candidate wins every comparison
lang ang titignan. GETS 1 POINT. So, if nanalo yung candidate yun
• Then add yung A, then add B, then 2 times, then that candidate has 2 points.
compare. Easy, right? Answer:
• BASTA FIRST A OR B PER
COLUMN LANG. • A = 1 point
• B = 0 point
Step 2: Compare A to C. • C= 2 points
• 5+3 =8 voters prefer A. • D = 3 points
• 6 + 2+ 4 = 12 voters prefer to C.
• C wins the pairwise comparison and gets Winner is D with 3 points
1 point
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