Suu Thazin

University of the People

BIOL-1122 : Biology 2 for Health Studies Major

Instructor – Usha Palaniswamy

1
To effectively address the questions regarding viruses, prokaryotes, and their characteristics, impacts, and

classifications, we'll delve into each aspect systematically.

1. How do viruses differ from cellular life forms in terms of their fundamental characteristics, and why

are they considered obligate intracellular parasites?

Fundamental Characteristics of Viruses and Obligate Intracellular Parasitism:

Viruses differ fundamentally from cellular life forms in several key aspects. Unlike cells, viruses lack

the machinery for independent metabolism, growth, or reproduction. They are much smaller in size, typically

ranging from 20 nanometers to 300 nanometers, and consist primarily of genetic material (DNA or RNA)

encased in a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses may also have an outer lipid envelope derived from the

host cell membrane.

The obligatory intracellular parasitism of viruses is one of their distinguishing traits. Accordingly,

viruses can only multiply inside their host cells, using the metabolic processes of the host cell to create new

viral particles. They are devoid of the cellular apparatus required for energy synthesis, transcription, and

translation. Through certain receptor contacts, viruses infiltrate host cells and transfer their genetic material,

which controls the production of new viral components, into the host cell. Because viruses cannot live or

reproduce outside of a host cell, they are obligatory intracellular parasites because of their dependency on host

cells for replication.

2
 2. Describe the beneficial and harmful impacts of viruses and prokaryotes. Give two examples of each.

Beneficial and Harmful Impacts of Viruses and Prokaryotes:

Beneficial Impacts:

a. Viruses:

Genetic Diversity: Evolution and genetic diversity are made possible by viruses, which are able to

transfer genetic material between various host organisms. Bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect bacteria,

have the ability to transmit genes between strains of bacteria, hence facilitating bacterial adaptability and

increasing resistance to antibiotics.

Biotechnology: Viral vectors are employed in gene therapy to introduce therapeutic genes into host cells

in order to treat genetic diseases. Because Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) may rapidly transfer genetic

information without inducing strong immune reactions, they are frequently employed in gene therapy (Smith et

al., 2020).

b. Prokaryotes:

Prokaryotes break down organic matter and recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem, which is a critical

part of nutrient cycling. For instance, soil bacteria that fix nitrogen, like Rhizobium, increase soil fertility and

make it available to plants.

Bioremediation: Oil-degrading bacteria like Alcanivorax borkumensis, which aid in cleaning up oil spills in

marine habitats, are examples of prokaryotes that can degrade environmental contaminants (Head et al., 2006).

3
Harmful Impacts:

a. Viruses:

Illness: A vast array of illnesses in people, animals, and plants are caused by viruses. As an illustration,

the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) affects the immune system and results in opportunistic infections,

which in turn produces acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) (Barre-Sinoussi et al., 1983).

Economic Losses: By lowering crop yields and compromising crop quality, plant viruses can result in large

economic losses in agriculture. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), for example, infects tobacco plants, resulting in

mosaic patterns on the leaves and lowering the crop's market value (Palukaitis et al., 1992).

b. Prokaryotes:

Pathogens: A few types of prokaryotes can infect people, animals, and plants and cause illnesses. For

instance, millions of people worldwide suffer from tuberculosis, a pulmonary illness that is caused by

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Zumla et al., 2013).

Antibiotic Resistance: The increasing issue in the world is prokaryotic resistance to antibiotics, which makes

treating bacterial infections more challenging. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one

example of an antibiotic-resistant bacterial strain that presents serious problems in healthcare environments

(Chambers and DeLeo, 2009).

3. Classify prokaryotic cells based on the major morphologies, and viruses based on how the mRNA is

produced during its replicative cycle.

Classification Based on Morphologies and mRNA Production:

Prokaryotic Cells Based on Major Morphologies:

Prokaryotic cells are classified based on their shape and structure:

 Cocci: Spherical bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus.

 Bacilli: Rod-shaped bacteria, like Escherichia coli.

4
  Spirilla: Spiral-shaped bacteria, such as Spirillum.

 Filamentous: Long, thin bacteria forming filaments, for example, Streptomyces.

Viruses Based on mRNA Production During Replicative Cycle:

Viruses are classified based on their method of mRNA production during replication:

 Positive-sense RNA viruses: Viruses with RNA genomes that can directly act as mRNA once inside the

host cell. Example: SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing COVID-19.

 Negative-sense RNA viruses: Viruses with RNA genomes that need to be transcribed into mRNA by an

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Example: Influenza virus.

 Double-stranded RNA viruses: Viruses with RNA genomes consisting of double-stranded RNA

molecules. Example: Rotavirus.

 Retroviruses: Viruses with RNA genomes that use reverse transcriptase to convert RNA into DNA upon

entering the host cell. Example: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

In summary, prokaryotes and viruses have different properties and effects on biological systems.

Prokaryotes have a variety of morphologies and metabolic capacities that help with bioremediation and nutrient

cycling, but they can also act as pathogens and develop antibiotic resistance. Understanding the differences

between the two groups based on mRNA production and morphology can aid in the study of their evolutionary

relationships as well as the development of targeted treatments and control strategies. Viruses, on the other

hand, are obligate intracellular parasites that rely on host cells for replication.

5
Words Count – 1014

References:

Barre-Sinoussi, F., Chermann, J. C., Rey, F., Nugeyre, M. T., Chamaret, S., Gruest, J., ... & Montagnier, L.
(1983). Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS). Science, 220(4599), 868-871.

Chambers, H. F., & DeLeo, F. R. (2009). Waves of resistance: Staphylococcus aureus in the antibiotic era.
Nature Reviews Microbiology, 7(9), 629-641.

Head, I. M., Jones, D. M., & Röling, W. F. (2006). Marine microorganisms make a meal of oil. Nature Reviews
Microbiology, 4(3), 173-182.

Palukaitis, P., García-Arenal, F., & Canto, T. (Eds.). (1992). Cucumber Mosaic Virus. Springer Science &
Business Media.

Smith, T. J., Son, S. B., Nanda, V., & Stadler, L. K. (2020). Adeno-associated virus serotypes and vectors. Gene
Therapy, 27(12), 597-604.

Zumla, A., Raviglione, M., Hafner, R., & von Reyn, C. F. (2013). Tuberculosis. New England Journal of
Medicine, 368(8), 745-755.