END OF AUGUST 2020/FEBRUARY 2021 SEMESTERS

EXAMINATIONS

PAPER : GOVERNANCE POLICY AND FINANCING

LEVEL : UNDERGRADUATE

STUDY SESSION : ALL

TIME : 12 hours

Name: Kisakye Anthony

Student’s Number: 2000101081

Index Number: 2021/FEB/DAE/D227754/DIST

1. a. Management is an art of getting things done through and with the people in
formally organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people
can perform and individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals.
In Uganda government aided school’s management is done through power centres.
Power centres are the managerial sub-systems that play the central roles of all
setting, designing organizations, allocating resources, controlling activities and
monitoring the progress. Power centres for the particular organizations are often
defined by organizational bi-laws. In Uganda power centres are as follows;
Permanent secretory, Commission for education, District Education Officers, Head
teachers, Teachers among others.

At school level, all government aided schools have committees and these are;
Board of governors committee, Parent-teachers association committee.
After the committees, there are school administrators.
Each committee plays its own function all aiming at achieving the goals of
education.

The board plays the following roles;

Laying down objectives and broad policies of the school. For any school to
prosper, there should a well stated objective of how the it will be of great impact
to parents and also to the community. The board directly works closely with the
school administration in ensuring these objectives are clear and that they
directly impact the community in which the school is located.
Issues necessary instructions for the departmental budgets, procedures among
others. Together with the school administrators, the board looks and advises
the school top leadership on the necessary financial implications and draws
alternative budgets to help in the efficiency of the school.
Provides guidance and direction. As one of the most significant reasons why
schools are set up in a particular community and that in most cases the
community needs leads to the idea of the school being setup, the Board helps in
providing guidance and direction to the school administrators for effectiveness
in serving the community.
The Parent-teachers association committee plays the following roles;
It coordinates parents and teachers. This committee has the role of making sure
the vision and mission of the school are well communicated by linking the
teachers and the parents.
They facilitate teachers and students well fare. At some schools or even in
certain situations, this committee seeks to help the school with welfare of both
the staff and learners.
They also administer discipline together with other stakeholders which include
the school board and other clients or communities of the school.

The school administrators play the following roles;

They carryout day-to-day activities of school which include register taking,
lesson preparation monitoring and many more.
They implement all policies made by all various stakeholders, the final action
executor of all policies that reflect the mission and vision of the school.
They prepare plan and budget for the school.
They carryout and supervise the teaching in the school.
They also play role in making public relations with the community.
They also play the role of guidance and cancelling to parents, students,
teachers and any other group of people.

b. Ministry of education

Permanent Secretary

Commission for

District Education

Head teachers

Board of Teachers None-Teaching

2.a Policies are general statements or understandings which guide mangers thinking in decision
making”. They ensure that decisions fall within certain boundaries. They usually don’t require
action but are intended to guide managers in their commitment to the decision they ultimately.
Policy is a statement and a predetermined guidelines that provides direction for decision making
and taking action. Policies may be divided into different types of policies from different
approaches, some these include

Originated Policy:

By originated policy they refer to policy which originates from the top management itself. These
policies are aimed at guiding the managers and their subordinates in their operations. They flow
basically from the organization’s objectives as defined by top management. From the broad
policy at the top, other derived policies may be developed at subsequent levels depending upon
the extent of decentralization. However, all such policies, whether originated by top management
or subordinate managers, are described as “originated policy”. Take an example of the different
policies crafted by Ministry of Education which include the Universities and Other Tertiary
Institutions Act, 2001 April, 2001 and the Education (Pre-primary, primary and Post primary)
Act, 2008 August, 2008

Appealed Policy:

It is meant decisions given in case of appeals in exceptional cases up to management hierarchy.

In case of doubts, an executive refers to higher authority on how he should handle the matter.
The direction that he gets is described as appealed policy and constitutes a precedent for future
managerial action. A good example here is when at the school level, when the head teacher seeks
reference from Ministry of Education regards how the PLE will run and when and how it will
run, say for example the policy on national examinations.

Implied Policy:

Implied policy is meant policies which emanate from conduct. It also originates where existing
policies are not enforced. Again, guidelines may be provided by the decision makers
unconsciously and become implied policies.
b. Task allocation and accountability mechanisms
A policy needs some clarity and visibility regarding who is supposed to implement
what, and who is responsible in case a given step of the implementation goes wrong.
The distribution of tasks and responsibility is determined first by the institutional
structure in place in a given education system. Each educational policy may
nevertheless require some details on who implements what. The implementation
strategy usually identifies key stakeholders and their corresponding responsibilities.
The policy statute can assign roles to implementing agencies based on their
disposition regarding the policy e.g. whether their decision rules are favourable to
the policy goals. In most technical views of the policy process, the policy statute
determines how much discretion key implementers may have –i.e. how much
change they can bring to core elements of the policy.
Objectives
The overarching goals and logic (or vision) of a policy need to be refined in
operational terms. Theorising “deliverology”, Barber insists on the importance of
defining and prioritising among targets)for effective implementation (2008[46]).
Because a strategy usually involves several goals and Unclassified initiatives to
reach them, attention must be paid to its overall coherence and to its priorities. The
successful implementers have in common to have established “a small number of
clear, high-priority, measurable, ambitious but feasible goals focused on student
outcomes, which do not distort practices within the school system for example
teaching to the test.
Policy tools
Multiple policy tools have emerged way back in time, creating more options for
policy designers or implementers to put education policy into effect. As the
education sector became more complex, so did the instruments: top-down
mechanisms of command and control (e.g. a mandate given by the Ministry of
Education to an implementing agency) were complemented by more elaborate tools
such as capacity-building or school-community partnerships to achieve the policy
objectives. Choosing one policy instrument over another affects the dynamics of
implementation. It may require hiring consultants; training staff, providing financial
 or other incentives; or testing several tools in case actors are highly uncertain about
the way to go.

Communication and engagement strategy with stakeholders

The language of a policy may not necessarily be understood by the actors who are
expected to implement it. A policy must gather political support among actors and
across implementation levels if it is to be implemented. With a large number of
vocal stakeholders in the education sector, policy designers are encouraged to plan
for engaging stakeholders as early as possible in the process of policy making and
also to communicate clearly on the goals, objectives and processes required for the
policy. Engaging stakeholders in the design process may serve several purposes:
making sure the key message and logic of the policy are transmitted correctly to
actors, build consensus around the objectives, tools and other means to achieve the
policy goals. By doing so, it can build support for the policy, thus limiting the
number of actors that may oppose the policy throughout the implementation
process. Engaging with stakeholders is also a way to heed the reality of
practitioners’ daily activities throughout the process, which allows for avoiding
obstacles or changing courses if some measures do not align with local needs.
implementation.

3. a. When understanding the head teacher’s role as an accounting officer, it is worth being
reminded of the accountability structure in the Education sector. As the head of the institution,
one of his major mandate is to manage the finances of the institutions for sustainability and much
more.

The head teacher of any therefore carries out this mandate as an Accounting officer in a school
supported by other staff such as the school bursar, the management committee and the board of
governors in the following ways;

Safeguarding budgets
The accounting officer has a key role in ensuring that public money is safeguarded and only
spent on the purposes for which it was intended and in this case the Head teacher holds the
overall position in this responsibility. This means that they must ensure that trust board and
governing body members receive the information that they need to perform their roles
effectively. They are responsible for the day-to-day organization, staffing and management of the
academy trust. And they must undertake a leadership role, including setting high standards of
financial probity and financial management, and ensuring that these are communicated to staff as
well.

Acting in the public interest

The accounting officer is therefore the individual in a school who links the accountability and
governance structures. He or she is a member of the governing body of the school and must
ensure that the school acts within its powers and that its policies reflect legislative requirements,
national policies and local requirements. At the same time, they must ensure that the school
trust’s operating capacity is aligned with these requirements including its staffing, financial
management and control environment. In all its actions, the accounting officer must ensure the
academy trust acts in the public interest.
In practice, the accounting officer or the head teacher does not do this all on their own. Many of
the tasks, such as drafting policies, running finance systems and processes, and HR support or
the school bursar, are delegated to other members of staff.

For example, while accountability for financial matters cannot be delegated, in the day to day
financial management of the academy, the Head teacher will inevitably need to place reliance on
the work of the Human resource and the school bursar.

Decision-making. A school must be rigorous in its decision-making, the reasons for decisions
should be explicit and the supporting information should be recorded. Clients, governors, and
staff should be supported through the availability of appropriate financial advice for all major
resource committees including the finance committee, the audit committee, and the governing
body(ies). The Head teacher has a key role to play in ensuring that members of these bodies have
the timely, robust and impartial information that they need, together with meaningful financial
analysis.

Internal control and risk management. To assist the accounting officer or the bursar, the Head
teacher should lead the implementation and maintenance of a framework of financial controls
and procedures for managing financial risks, and must determine accounting processes and
oversee financial management procedures that enable the school to budget and manage within its
overall resources. At the most fundamental level this means ensuring robust systems of risk
management and internal control, that financial control is exercised consistently, and that the
school implements appropriate measures to protect its assets from fraud and loss.

Monitoring the academy’s financial position. To assist in monitoring the academy’s financial
position, the Head teacher should have responsibility for drawing up budgets, financial targets
and performance indicators to help assess delivery.

Securing value for money (economy, efficiency and effectiveness) releases resources for higher
priorities within an academy trust. The Head teacher should ensure that value for money is the
concern of all managers, but it is helpful for the Head teacher to take the lead in coordinating and
facilitating a culture of efficiency.

Accounting records & statements. The Head teacher must undertake a leadership role across
the academy. This will mean, together with the other committees and governing body members,
determining the strategic direction of the school and its academies (where relevant), and also
being responsible for turning policy aspirations into reality. The Head teacher should align
financial planning with the school’s vision and strategic objectives and to develop financial
forecasts and budgets that illustrate that the institution’s strategy is realistic and capable of being
delivered.

The Head teacher should ensure appropriate policies are in place so that decisions are taken
objectively and steps are taken to avoid or deal with conflicts of interest whether real or
perceived.

b. As the pandemic hits the entire world, many organizations and individual have had to take the
feel of its effects. These effects have exceedingly affected both the social and financial
operations of schools, since all schools are closed and therefore few of the schools have managed
to remain in operations using the virtual means. But even those that have managed to operate are
going through a hard time to stay operational.

Focusing the financial implications, I think most of the schools face the following challenges
which include but not limited to Impact on budget, Cost of technology and resources, Job losses,
and Social and emotional support for learners and teachers.

Impact on Budget
As schools work to maintain some level of instruction and other support for learners, with school
buildings closed, there are growing concerns that the economic fall-out from the Covid-19
pandemic could undermine the state budget, which provides for school funding. State revenues
depend mostly on income and taxes. The wave of lay-offs and reductions in working hours,
because of the closure of "non-essential" business activities, means that wage income will be
reduced. Those who have lost income will have less money to spend and those maintaining their
income will have fewer opportunities to shop. This reduces sales and, therefore, sales tax
prevenues. The loss of tax revenue could mean cuts in funding for public programmes, leading to
more unemployment and the reduction of public purchases from the private sector. So, if schools
are going to suffer losses because of nonpayment of school fees, teaching and learning will be
affected.

Job Losses

The current economic downturn has put a large number of public-school teachers' jobs at risk. In
general, Ugandans continue to lose jobs because of the Covid-19 and the resulting lockdown. As
more and more people lose their jobs, the more it has influenced schools' finances, as an
increased number of parents are not be able to pay school fees, which is having a devastating
impact on school budgets.

Though many parents wish to contribute and have approached schools to pay a reduced amount
towards school fees in an attempt to assist schools in surviving the Covid-19 pandemic period. If
parents are prepared to pay reduced amounts of school fees, schools should consider this and
prioritise the budget. Schools need to re-plan their budgets to fit the needs of the school for the
remainder of 2021. Though parents can also be exempted or partially exempted from paying
school fees, depending on their circumstances. School leadership will once again be challenged
to come up with solid plans to accommodate all the demands and requests from parents.

Cost of Technology and Resources

Though some schools are increasingly moving into the online environment. Some schools that
have been using electronic devices, shifted to online classes. As a result, education has changed
dramatically, with the rise in e-learning, teaching is undertaken remotely and on digital
platforms. True that online learning has been shown to increase the retention of information and
is more time efficient. These changes brought about by the corona virus might be here to stay.

There are, however, challenges that must be overcome. Learners without reliable internet access
and technology struggle to participate in digital learning. This gap is seen across Uganda and
between income brackets. Both learners and teachers must at least have some computer
knowledge in order to function successfully in the online environment. This will bring about
additional costs, as many teachers need to be trained in online programmes

Schools and their principals are under pressure to balance their books for 2021. The budget must
be reorganised, and budget posts need to be moved around, for example, the maintenance budget
can be re-allocated to Covid-19 spending. Parents also need buy-in, and clear communication
with parents and stakeholders is essential.

Social and Emotional Support

As a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, our interconnectedness has never been as clear. We now
understand how important it is to be empathetic and resilient, build long-distance relationships,
and depend on our collective resolve to strengthen our schools and communities. pon returning
to school (after or during Covid-19), children may struggle with significant adjustments to their
routines (for example, schools, social distancing, and home confinement), which may interfere
with their sense of structure and security. Learners might have questions and may behave
differently in reaction to feelings of fear, sadness and anger relating to the pandemic and related
conditions. Learners may worry about their safety and that of their loved ones, how they will
meet their basic needs (food, shelter, and clothing) and the uncertainties of the future. Strong
school leadership is needed now more than ever before. Teachers (who might need the same
emotional and social assistance) must meet the challenge to place learners in a safe social and
emotional space.

This then poses more danger as Many learners will remain at home (grades are phased in at
different times of the year) when parents need to start working. Learners might find themselves
in the care of someone who cannot support them in their learning routine. Parents might be
forced to pay someone to assist learners with their lessons, while still having to pay school fees
(as schools will still teach online), which will put a strain on the family budget, and result in a
domino effect for the school.

NKUMBA UNIVERSITY
DIPLOMA IN ARTS WITH EDUCATION (SECONDARY)
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

LECTURER
DR. SIMON PETER ONGODIA

COURSE WORK

BY

KISAKYE ANTHONY
2000101081
28TH JULY 2021
Question
1. (a) Using relevant examples, distinguish between criterion-referenced and norm-
referenced assessment.
(b) Explain the incidences of formal and informal assessment in schools.

a. Criterion-referenced assessment occurs when candidates are measured against defined and
objective criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to establish a
person's competence or whether she or he can do something.
Take an example, if some criteria is set before the test with reference to which the performance
of each students will be evaluated, it will become criterion referenced devaluation. Suppose the
following criteria are finalized for this test:
Pass marks: 40 %
Distinction: 80%
In the test above, all those students who get 20 or more than 20 (40%) are declared as pass. All
those students who score less than 20 are declared as fail. All those who get 40 or more (80%)
are declared as distinction. If any prize is given to those who score at least 90%, then only the
students who will get 45 or more will get the prize. As all decisions are taken on the basis of
some criteria.
Another example of Criterion-referenced assessment is the driving test, when learner drivers are
measured against a range of explicit criteria such as "Not endangering other road users".

Norm-referenced assessment also known as "grading on the curve", typically using a norm-
referenced test, is not measured against defined criteria. This type of assessment is relative to the
student body undertaking the assessment. It is effectively a way of comparing students.
Take an example, A group of students are tested for the awareness towards environmental
pollution through a written test. The test consists of 50 objective type questions of one mark
each. There was no negative marking in the test. The full mark of the test is obviously 50. After
the conduction of the test, it is marked by the examiner. There are 150 students in the group.
Marks of all students are added and the additive marks are divided by 150 to find the average
performance of the group. Suppose it is found to be 30, so 30 marks is the average obtained by
the whole group in which some achieve 49 out of 50 and some other achieve very less, say 12
out of 50. The 30 mark, i.e., the average of the group is said to be the norm of this group. Now,
the evaluation of all 150 students is done considering this 30 (the norm) as a point of reference.
All students who have got marks above 30 are considered as above average, all those who have
achieved below 30 are considered as below average and all those who have achieved just 30 are
supposed as average. There is no pass or fail in this type of evaluation as there is set marks for
passing the test. This type of evaluation is called as norm-referenced evaluation and the test is
considered as norm-referenced assessment.
Another example most entrance tests to prestigious schools or universities are norm-referenced,
permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass where "passing" in this context means being
accepted into the school or university rather than an explicit level of ability. This means that
standards may vary from year to year, depending on the quality of the cohort; criterion-
referenced assessment does not vary from year to year unless the criteria change.

b. Formal assessments have data which support the conclusions made from the test. We usually
refer to these types of assessment as standardized measures. These tests have been tried before
on students and have statistics which support the conclusion such as the student is reading below
average for his age. The data is mathematically computed and summarized. Scores such as
percentiles, stanines, or standard scores are mostly commonly given from this type of
assessment.

Formal assessment is data driven. It occurs after a learning cycle has ended; it is not immediately
actionable; and it may be designed by others. Examples include exams, written assignments,
such as essays, and other high stakes activities. Most formal assessment is summative in nature
and thus tends to be highly motivating to learners. It is, however, also associated with increased
stress. Given the role of formal assessment in decision making (evaluation/grading), formal
assessment are held to higher standards of reliability and validity than informal assessments.
Examples of Formal assessments include but not limited to standardized tests, criterion
referenced assessments, norm referenced assessments, achievement assessments and aptitude
assessments.

Informal assessments are not data driven but rather content and performance driven. For
example, running records are informal assessments because they indicate how well a student is
reading a specific book. Scores such as 10 correct out of 15, percent of words read correctly, and
most rubric scores are given from this type of assessment. The assessment used needs to match
the purpose of assessing. Formal or standardized measures should be used to assess overall
achievement, to compare a student's performance with others at their age or grade, or to identify
comparable strengths and weaknesses with peers. Informal assessments sometimes referred to
as criterion referenced measures or performance based measures, should be used to inform
instruction. The most effective teaching is based on identifying performance objectives,
instructing according to these objectives, and then assessing these performance
objectives. Moreover, for any objectives not attained, intervention activities to re-teach these
objectives are necessary.
Also, Informal assessments are those spontaneous forms of assessment that can easily be
incorporated in the day-to-day classroom activities and that measure the sudents’ performance
and progress. Informal assessments are content and performance driven.
Examples of Informal assessments include but not limited to checklist, observation, portfolio,
rating scale, time sampling and event sampling

In conclusion, Informal assessment cannot completely replace the formal assessment. We

need both in school, as one complements the other, in depicting accurate pictures of
our students. We can use either type (depending on the intended purpose) to improve teaching
and learning. The type of assessment we should use should match the intended purpose of the
assessment. For example, if we want to assess the sudents’ academic achievement and compare it
with other students, then we can use the formal assessment. If we want to use assessment to
monitor students’ progress and help them maximize their own learning, or use assessment to
improve instruction, then we can use the informal assessment.