Peace & Conflict Studies

 Peace means ‘the absence of war,’ and we know it by its absence.

 PCS seeks to understand conflicts' root causes, dynamics, and complexities, including their
social, political, economic, and cultural dimensions.
 PCS aims to identify and address potential sources of conflict before they escalate, focusing on
early intervention, diplomacy, and mediation to prevent violence and instability.
 Human Rights and Social Justice: PCS is closely aligned with principles of human rights and social
justice, advocating for equality, dignity, and the protection of vulnerable populations affected by
conflict.
 Personal and collective ethical transformation: Like history and life, peace is a terrestrial
creation struggling for survival in a constantly changing and sometimes threatening
environment.

Historical Examples & Evolution

 Interwar Period (1919-1939): The aftermath of World War I witnessed growing interest in
international relations and peace advocacy. The establishment of organizations such as the
League of Nations and the Kellogg-Briand Pact(1928) reflected early attempts to prevent future
conflicts through diplomacy and collective security. The creation of the United Nations (1945),
focusing on conflict resolution and human rights, laid the groundwork for developing PCS as a
distinct academic field.
 The 1950s and 1960s witnessed the establishment of academic programs dedicated to peace
studies, including the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) and the Peace Research Institute
Dundas (PRID).

 BOP: If one state becomes much more vital, the theory predicts it will take advantage of its
weaker neighbors, thereby driving them to unite in a defensive coalition.
 Liberal Peace: Common people are self-interested in peace since they can generally obtain
material and non-material well-being only during peace.
 Martin Ceadel’s Theoretical spectrum of War and peace
Ceadel’s classification of five significant perspectives on peace and war.

1. The Pacifist Theory: War is unnecessary and immoral, and peace can be achieved through
nonviolent means such as negotiation, diplomacy, and disarmament

2. The Realist Theory: Balance of power or deterrence

3. The Just War Theory: Criteria for determining when war is morally justified

4. The Structural Theory: Economic inequalities, political instability, ethnic or religious tensions, or
the presence of arms races

5. The Cultural Theory: Nationalism, ideologies, or religious beliefs

Critical Characteristics of Anarchical Structure

 The principle of sovereignty contributes to the decentralised nature of the international system.
 In international relations, all states are considered equal sovereign entities regardless of size,
population, or wealth.
 Unlike domestic societies, where a central government maintains order and resolves conflicts,
there is no equivalent/central authority at the international level.

Conflict in International System

 Security Dilemma: The absence of a central authority and anarchic structure compels states to
rely on their capabilities for security. However, the actions taken by one state to enhance its
security can be perceived as threatening by other states.
 Competing Interests: These conflicting interests may arise from territorial disputes, resource
competition, ideological differences, or geopolitical rivalries.
 Power Imbalance: Powerful states may seek to assert their dominance or pursue hegemonic
ambitions, while weaker states may resist or join alliances to counterbalance more vital actors.
 Normative Disagreements: Disputes over human rights, governance systems, and cultural
practices can create tensions between states and contribute to breaking diplomatic relations or
even armed conflict.

Post-Westphalian nature of conflict &

Information Age
Changing Nature of Conflicts
Traditional Domains
 Conflicts in traditional domains often refer to disputes or tensions arising in land, resources, religion,
and ethnicity.

 Land Disputes: Conflicts over land ownership, boundaries, or usage rights are common,
especially in regions with limited arable land or where land holds cultural significance.

 Resource Scarcity: Competition for limited resources like water, minerals, or energy sources can
lead to conflicts, particularly in regions where resources are unequally distributed or where
environmental degradation exacerbates scarcity.

 Religious Conflicts: Differences in religious beliefs or practices often fuel conflicts, ranging from
disputes over holy sites to broader sectarian tensions between religious communities.

 Ethnic Struggles: Ethnic conflicts arise from grievances related to identity, discrimination,
political representation, or historical injustices. These conflicts can escalate into violence or civil
war.

 Territorial Disputes: Nations may contest sovereignty over territories, leading to diplomatic
tensions or military confrontations. Historical claims, strategic interests, or unresolved colonial
legacies can trigger these disputes.

 Cultural Clashes: Conflicts stemming from cultural differences, such as language, customs, or
social norms, can occur within multicultural societies or between distinct cultural groups.

Non-Traditional Domains

Non-traditional conflicts, also known as unconventional or asymmetric warfare, refer to conflicts that do
not follow the conventional, state-to-state warfare model. These conflicts often involve non-state
actors, irregular tactics, and unconventional methods. Non-traditional conflicts are diverse, dynamic,
and challenging phenomena that require innovative approaches and comprehensive strategies to
address effectively. They pose unique security, political, and humanitarian challenges that transcend
traditional warfare and conflict resolution notions.

Non-traditional conflicts often involve non-state actors such as insurgent groups, terrorist organizations,
militias, or even criminal organizations. These groups may operate independently or in collaboration
with state actors. In non-traditional conflicts, weaker actors often employ asymmetric tactics to exploit
the vulnerabilities of more vigorous opponents. These tactics may include guerrilla warfare, terrorism,
cyber-attacks, propaganda, and unconventional weapons.

Nontraditional conflicts often involve a combination of conventional and unconventional tactics, blurring
the lines between warfare, politics, and other forms of conflict. This hybrid approach allows actors to
leverage multiple tools and domains simultaneously, such as cyber-attacks, propaganda, and irregular
warfare, to achieve strategic objectives. It aims to exploit the adversary's weaknesses while avoiding
direct confrontation. Hybrid warfare combines a variety of tactics, including conventional military force,
irregular warfare, cyber-attacks, economic coercion, and propaganda. Hybrid warfare often involves
ambiguous or deniable actions, making it difficult to attribute responsibility to a specific actor(Legal and
Ethical Challenges). Hybrid warfare exploits the power asymmetry between actors by leveraging
unconventional tactics to offset the advantages of conventional military forces. This allows weaker
actors to challenge more vigorous opponents effectively. hybrid warfare incorporates non-military
elements such as information operations, economic coercion, and political manipulation. Social media
platforms have emerged as powerful tools for spreading propaganda, shaping public opinion, and
mobilizing support for various causes. State and non-state actors leverage social media to disseminate
misinformation, manipulate narratives, and influence political outcomes. These non-kinetic methods
play a crucial role in shaping perceptions and influencing decision-making. Cyber capabilities enable
hybrid actors to achieve their objectives with minimal risk and cost. Hybrid warfare tactics can
destabilize regions by fueling internal conflicts, undermining governments, and exacerbating existing
tensions. Disinformation campaigns, cyber-attacks, and other tactics threaten the integrity of
democratic systems. Countering hybrid warfare requires a comprehensive approach integrating military,
diplomatic, economic, and informational elements. This includes investing in cybersecurity capabilities,
enhancing intelligence sharing and collaboration, promoting digital literacy and media literacy, and
strengthening international cooperation to address common threats (Defense and Resilience).

Nontraditional conflicts are often fueled by globalized/transnational issues such as terrorism, organized
crime, economic instability, and ideological extremism. They can transcend borders and involve multiple
actors operating in different regions.

Nontraditional conflicts are characterized by their complexity, unpredictability, and ambiguity. The
involvement of multiple actors, diverse interests, and evolving tactics makes them difficult to resolve
through conventional means.

Deterrence refers to situations where potential adversaries are deterred from engaging in direct conflict
or aggression due to the presence of nuclear weapons. The concept of deterrence relies on the threat
of retaliation with nuclear weapons to dissuade an opponent from initiating hostilities.
 Generations of Warfare
Based on technological changes, tactics, and strategic thinking.

1. The premodern era was characterized by line and column tactics, musket warfare, standing
armies, linear formations, reliance on firepower, and relatively limited technology.
2. In the industrial age, trench warfare, firepower dominance, and an emphasis on attrition were
joint, as was the use of more advanced weaponry, such as machine guns and artillery.
3. "Maneuver warfare," Created by the U.S. military in 1989, refers to the tactics of warfare used
after the Wehrmacht developed the blitzkrieg. Third-generation war uses Mobilization tactics
and surprise to bypass the enemy's lines and collapse their forces from the rear.
4. Use of irregular tactics, asymmetric warfare, and non-state actors. It blurs the lines between
war and politics: guerrilla warfare, information warfare, and a focus on influencing public
opinion.
5. Still a theoretical concept, 5GW is often associated with warfare conducted in the cognitive
domain, including psychological and cyber warfare. Influence through information
manipulation, cyber-attacks, and leveraging social, economic, and political systems.

Future Trends of Warfare: Warfare continues to evolve in response to technological

advancements, geopolitical dynamics, and shifts in societal norms.

Cyber warfare, artificial intelligence, unmanned systems, space warfare, bio-warfare, and
environmental-driven conflicts are blurring traditional boundaries between warfare and other
domains such as politics, economics, and information.

Conflict Resolution
Conflict is a natural aspect of human interaction, and its effective handling is crucial for
maintaining peace and promoting constructive outcomes. Within the realm of peace and
conflict studies, three key concepts often emerge:

Conflict resolution(Addressing roots causes and interests of conflicting parties to reach a

mutually acceptable solution) through Analysis, Negotiation & Agreement. Mediation of a
neutral third party i.e. Israel-Palestine conflict & mediators from the United Nations. Negotiation
among conflicting parties engage in direct discussions to reach a mutually beneficial agreement
i.e. Labor Unions resolution of wages issue. Conflict transformation involves addressing the
root causes of conflicts and transforming relationships to promote long-term peace and
reconciliation. In post-conflict societies, initiatives such as truth and reconciliation commissions
aim to heal wounds, promote forgiveness, and build trust between former adversaries.

Conflict settlement(Ending the immediate hostilities and reaching a formal agreement or

ceasefire between conflicting parties through compromises and concessions to achieve a
temporary resolution to the conflict) through Peace agreement i.e. the Dayton Accords (1995)
ended the Bosnian War and established a framework for peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In
Arbitration, conflicting parties submit their dispute to a neutral third party who renders a
binding decision to resolve the conflict commercial & businesses disputes. Legal settlements or
alternative dispute resolution (ADR) processes like mediation or arbitration, are used to resolve
divorce & property issues.

Conflict management(Ongoing process of preventing, mitigating, and controlling conflicts to

minimize their negative impact before escalate into violence and promote constructive
outcomes) through Conflict Prevention Proactive measures are taken to address underlying
tensions and prevent conflicts from escalating i.e. Ceasefire agreements. In Crisis Management
Strategies and protocols are implemented to respond to crises and manage conflict-related
emergencies effectively such as humanitarian organizations reliefs. Open channels of
communication & dailogue are established to facilitate dialogue, promote understanding, and
de-escalate conflicts. For instance, community-based organizations may organize dialogue
sessions or peace forums.

Conclusion: In the arena of power politics, true strength lies not in the escalation of conflict,
but in the wisdom to navigate it towards resolution. The magnitude of conflicts incited doesn't
measure true mastery in the art of power politics, but by the ability to deftly diffuse tensions,
cultivate trust, and sow the seeds of enduring peace

Conflict in the Middle East and South Asia, Africa

https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/10-conflicts-watch-2024#gaza

https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/10-conflicts-watch-2024#east

https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/10-conflicts-watch-2024#sudan

https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/10-conflicts-watch-2024#haiti

https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/10-conflicts-watch-2024#ethiopia

https://acleddata.com/conflict-watchlist-2024/#1675782491180-f5817e2e-f99a

https://acleddata.com/conflict-watchlist-2024/
1. Sahel Region Conflict (Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso): Involves
coups and insurgencies with jihadist groups, significantly
impacting the West African region.
2. Haiti's Gang Violence: Although not a conventional war, the
severity of gang violence and the potential for international
intervention make this situation critical.
3. Ethiopia's Internal Conflicts: With rebellions in different regions
and rising tensions with Eritrea, this conflict has serious
implications for the Horn of Africa region.
4. Sudan Internal Conflict: This war has resulted in thousands of
deaths and millions displaced, significantly impacting the
region's stability.
5. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict (Israel vs Hamas): This conflict has
escalated with severe impacts on civilians and involvement from
regional players. The United States backs Israel, while Iran
supports Hamas. This conflict has broader implications for the
Middle East region.
6. War in Yemen (US & UK's Involvement Against Houthi
Rebels): This conflict, though primarily a civil war within Yemen,
has significant international involvement, especially from the
Saudi-led coalition supported by the US and UK, and has caused
a substantial humanitarian crisis.