AP Physics 1 Review Packet

Section I: Science Skills - Interpreting Graphs & Equations

You should be familiar with the relationships in the chart below.

This means…
i. You can identify the graphs from the shape
ii. You can sketch a graph from the equation
iii. You can predict a change in y based on a given change in x.

Proportional Reasoning: In AP Physics, graphs and equations are useful because they tell us how two variables
are related. You should be able to take a change in one variable and describe how it changes another variable.

𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑇
Example 1: Newton’s Second Law states 𝑎 = 𝑀𝑠𝑦𝑠
. This equation has three proportions.

Acceleration and FNET are linearly proportional, and would make a linear graph.
→ Doubling FNET would double acceleration if mass is constant.
FNET and Msys are linearly proportional, and would make a linear graph.
→ Doubling FNET would double mass if acceleration is constant.
Acceleration and mass are inversely proportional, and would make an inverse graph.
→ Doubling mass would cut acceleration in half if FNET is constant.

Example 2: The period of a spring is .

T is proportional to the square root of m. This means that if m was doubled, T would change by
a factor of 2. If m was increased by a factor of 4, then T would double. T always changes by
the square root of how m is changing.

T is also proportional to . This means that if you know how k is changing, you have to take
both the inverse and square root of that factor to figure out how T is changing. For example,
if k was 9 times bigger, T would be three times smaller (⅓).

M and k are directly proportional to each other. If m was doubled and period was to remain the
same, the spring constant would also have to be doubled.

Make sure that everything else in the equation remains constant when using proportional reasoning!
Updated 4/2023 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS
Linearization and Graph Analysis:
To interpret/analyze the graph, match your equation up to y=mx+b. You should have one variable by itself,
which is your y-axis variable. On the other side of your equation, find your x-axis variable. If it has a constant in
front of it (multiplied by it), that constant is your slope. If you add anything to the term with your x-axis
variable, that constant is your y-intercept.
Example 1: Using the equation FNET=ma, a force vs mass graph would be linear, have a slope equal to
acceleration, and have no y-intercept.

Making non-linear graphs into linear ones is an important skill on the exam. This lets you solve for constants
(slope, y-intercepts) without the help of a computer. This is especially important for the experimental design
parts of the exam because most experiments will ask you to find quantities using graphs. To make a non-linear
graph into a linear one, change what goes onto your x-axis based on the chart above.

Example 2: You are asked to design an experiment to find the spring constant of a mass on an oscillating
𝑚
spring. You use the same equation as above, 𝑇 = 2π 𝑘
, and measure the period for five different
masses. If you made a T vs m graph, it would show a square-root relationship. To linearize this graph,
recognize that T is directly proportional to the square root of m. Make a new graph of T vs 𝑚, which
would be linear. Look back at your equation. You’ve put T on your y-axis, 𝑚 on your x-axis, but you
2π
haven’t accounted for the 2π or k yet. Some re-arranging gives you 𝑇 = * 𝑚. Whatever constants
𝑘
2π
are in front of your x-axis value ( 𝑚) represent your slope, so in this case is the slope.
𝑘

1 2
Example 3: Use the kinematic 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡 . You know that your object starts at rest, so the
1 2 2
equation would simplify to 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 2
𝑎𝑡 . Graphing x vs t would give a parabola. Graphing 𝑥 𝑣𝑠 𝑡
would give a linear graph where the slope represents (½a) and the y-intercept represents x0.

Section II: Content

1. Motion in One Dimension

● The AP formula sheet uses 𝑥 and 𝑥0to represent final and initial position instead of ∆𝑥, which
represents the change in position
● Motion at Constant Velocity:
Equation: ∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 or 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥0 ← This equation CANNOT be used when there is acceleration!
Graphs and proportions are linear.
● Motion with acceleration:
Equations: If the acceleration is constant, use the kinematic equations:
1 2 2 2
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0)
DO NOT use these equations if the acceleration is not constant!

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS

 Kinematics Graphs:
On a ... Position vs time graph Velocity vs time graph Accel vs time graph

Slope represents: Velocity Acceleration Jerk

Area under the curve Displacement (change Change in velocity

represents in position
● Free Fall
Free Fall is motion where the acceleration is 9.8 m/s2 downwards.
The speed of a vertical projectile is zero at its maximum height.

2. Motion in Two Dimensions

● Horizontal and vertical motion happens simultaneously, but completely independently. This means
no horizontal (x) information can be shared with vertical (y) information.
● The only exception is time, which is the same for horizontal and vertical components.
● Projectile motion is an example of two-dimensional motion where the horizontal (x) motion has
zero acceleration (constant velocity) and the vertical (y) motion has a downwards acceleration of
9.8 m/s2.
○ The horizontal speed of a projectile is constant.
○ The maximum range of a projectile occurs with a 450 launch angle.
○ A projectile launched at level ground will return to the ground with the same speed.
○ The vertical speed of a projectile is zero at max height, but NOT the horizontal speed.

3. Forces & Newton’s Laws

● Newton’s First Law: The motion of an object only changes when there is a net (unbalanced) force.
○ Objects at rest or moving at constant speed have balanced forces
○ Objects that are changing speed or direction (accelerating) DO have a net force
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡
● Newton’s Second Law: 𝑎 = 𝑚
(or 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 )
○ Describes the acceleration that results when a net force is applied to an object.
○ Solving this equation for mass gives the inertial mass.
● Newton’s Third Law: Objects interact with each other by exerting equal forces on each other in
opposite directions.
○ If you exert a force on an object, that object must exert the same force back on you.
○ Although the force pairs must be equal, the forces can have different effects based on
the different masses of the objects.
● Constant forces:
○ Force of Gravity (Weight): The attraction between two objects with mass. Given by
𝐺𝑀𝑚
either 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 or 𝐹𝑔 = 2 . Solving for m gives the gravitational mass.
𝑟
○ Normal force: A support force perpendicular to the surface. Often but not always helps
to counteract a downwards pull of gravity.
○ Tension: Force in a string/spring/stretchable object that points towards the center of
that object.
○ Friction: A force between two surfaces. Can slow objects down, prevent them from fully
speeding up, or keep them at rest relative to each other.
Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS
 ● Non-constant forces:
○ Drag Force/ Air Resistance: A speed-dependent force that slows down objects moving in
a fluid, such as air.
○ Spring force: A displacement-dependent force that tries to restore a spring to its
equilibrium position
● Horizontal and vertical forces must be accounted for separately.
4. Rotation & Circular Motion
● Objects move in circular paths due to a center-pointing force, called the centripetal force.
2
𝑚𝑣 2
○ Equation: 𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑇 𝐶 = 𝑟
= 𝑚𝑟ω
○ “Centripetal force” is not a new type of force, it is a name given to other forces when
they cause objects to move in circular paths. (Example - cars travel around curves
because friction provides a centripetal force)
○ Forces that point towards the center of a circle change the direction of motion but not
the speed.
● Uniform Circular Motion occurs when objects rotate with constant speed.
○ Velocity is always changing because of direction.
○ There is centripetal acceleration but not tangential acceleration.
● Non-uniform rotation occurs when the rotational speed is changing.
○ Motion is described with rotational versions of kinematics and dynamics described
above

Translation Rotation Translation Rotation

x θ F τ

v ω m I

a α p L
○ Fundamentals and Newton’s Laws still apply, most importantly an object can only exhibit
rotational acceleration if there is a net torque acting on it.
τ𝑛𝑒𝑡
○ α= 𝐼
is Newton’s Second Law for Rotation. This should be the basis of any rotational
dynamics problem.
● Rolling Motion occurs when an object moves both linearly (translationally) and rotates at the same
time. Both types of motion must be accounted for.
● Planetary Motion:
○ The orbits of planets are elliptical, but can be approximated to circular.
𝐺𝑀𝑚
○ Gravity (𝐹𝑔 = 2 ) provides the centripetal force.
𝑟

𝐺𝑀
○ Orbital velocity is given by 𝑣 = 𝑟
. Derive this by setting Fg = FNET C.
○ g can be called acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) OR gravitational field strength (N/kg).

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS

CONSERVATION LAWS & SYSTEMS: For conserved quantities, like energy, momentum, and angular
momentum, you should always define a system. The system is the group of objects for which you are tracking
the energy or momentum. If a force is exerted between one object in the system on another object in the
system, that is an internal force. If a force is exerted from an object outside the system onto an object inside
the system, that is an external force.
Systems with no external forces are closed systems. Energy/momentum/angular momentum is conserved.
Systems with external forces are open systems. Energy/momentum/angular momentum is NOT conserved.

5. Conservation of Energy
● In all systems, energy must be conserved or accounted for.
○ If a system gains energy, it must be through the action of an external force, and another
system must lose the same amount of energy.
1 2 1 2
● Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion: 2
𝑚𝑣 for translation, 2
𝐼ω for rotation.
● Potential Energy is energy based on position:
○ Gravitational PE: 𝑈𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ, based on height.
1 2
○ Elastic/Spring PE: 𝑈𝑠 = 2
𝑘∆𝑥 , based on stretch/compression distance
● Work is the change in KE: 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 * 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ. It is also the area under a F vs. d graph..
● Energy Conservation statement / starting point: 𝐸𝑖 ± 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐸𝑓
● Systems example: A block slides down a ramp where there is friction. Forces that exist are “Earth
on block” (Force of gravity) and “ramp on block” (Force of friction). In all cases, gravitational
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy and thermal energy.
○ Student #1 solves this problem using a system that includes the block, earth and ramp. This
system is closed because all forces are internal. They use an equation that says “Ug = K +
ETHERMAL”
○ Student #2 uses a system that includes the block and earth, but not the ramp. This system is
open. The system ends with less energy than it started with because the thermal energy of the
ramp is no longer included in the system. They use an equation that says “Ug - Wext friction = K”.
○ Both students correctly solve the problem because they have correctly tracked energy transfers,
just in different ways.
6. Conservation of Momentum
● In all systems, momentum and angular momentum must be conserved and accounted for.
○ If a system gains momentum, it must be through the action of an external force, and
another system must lose the same amount of momentum.
● Linear Momentum: 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 (for translational motion)
● Angular Momentum: 𝐿 = 𝐼ω for rotational motion, 𝐿 = 𝑟𝑚𝑣 for a point mass.
● Impulse (change in momentum) 𝐽 = ∆𝑝 = 𝐹∆𝑡. Impulse is the area under a F vs t graph.
● Angular impulse (change in angular momentum): ∆𝐿 = τ𝑛𝑒𝑡 * ∆𝑡
● In collisions between two bodies, N3L states the forces on each body must be equal and opposite.
The impulse and change in momentum therefore must also be equal and opposite (Whatever
momentum one object gains, the other loses). The momentum of the system is conserved.

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS

 ● The elasticity of a collision depends on how much kinetic energy is conserved.
○ Perfectly elastic: All KE is conserved. Objects bounce off without deforming.
○ General inelastic: Some KE is lost. Objects bounce off.
○ Perfectly inelastic: Max possible (but not all) KE is lost. Objects stick together.
○ Momentum and energy in total should be conserved in all collisions with appropriate
systems.
● Conservation of Angular Momentum is used when a translating object interacts with a rotating
one.
○ Examples: Throwing a ball from a merry-go-round, bat hitting a baseball.
● Conservation of Angular Momentum is also used for a single rotating object changing shape.
○ Example: A figure skater pulls in her arms. Moment of inertia decreases so angular
velocity must increase to keep angular momentum constant.
● Center of Mass: A point that can be used to represent an entire object.
○ Objects are balanced if the center of mass is supported.
○ The velocity of the center of mass does not change in a collision where linear
momentum is conserved.

7. Oscillations
● Oscillating motion is caused by a force that is (i) proportional to displacement and (ii) acts to
restore the object to its equilibrium position.
Mass on a spring Pendulum

Restoring force Spring force (F=-kx) Force of Gravity

Period equation: 𝑚 𝑙
𝑇 = 2π 𝑘
𝑇 = 2π 𝑔

● Period (T) is used to measure time for one oscillation

● Frequency (f) measures the number of oscillations in one second.
● Angular frequency (⍵) measures the number of oscillations in 2𝝿 seconds.
● Trigonometric functions are used to describe position, velocity and acceleration.
○ Usually 𝑥 α 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡), 𝑣 α − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡), 𝑎 α − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡)
■ These relationships are valid when the clock starts at the amplitude. Starting the clock at
a different position will shift graphs horizontally.
○ The position-time function for an oscillator is 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(ω𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2π𝑓 * 𝑡)
○ When position is at maximum magnitude, velocity is zero and acceleration is also maximum
magnitude. The position and acceleration have opposite signs.
○ When displacement is zero, velocity is at maximum magnitude and acceleration is also zero.
● Changing the amplitude of oscillation will affect the energy, but not the timing of the oscillation.
● Conservation of Energy is still a good strategy in oscillations problems when comparing two points.

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS

Section III: Problem-Solving Strategies

Try energy first! Use momentum when…

Use energy when… ● Multiple objects are interacting with each
● There’s a height change involved other.
● There’s a spring involved ● There is a collision.
● A force acts over a given distance. ● A force acts over a time interval.
Use dynamics and kinematics when…
● Energy and momentum don’t work.
● You need to explain why motion occurs

Paragraph-Length Responses and Justifying Answers:

The AP Physics exam is interested not only in whether you can find a correct answer, but also if you can
support it using physics principles as evidence. Use the Claim-Evidence-Reasoning framework to make sure you
are thoroughly supporting your answers.

Be careful with language in written responses:

1. A student is asked to compare the kinetic energies of an object moving at 10m/s East and one moving at 10m/s
West.
○ The student writes: “It is the same since the speed is the same and direction doesn’t matter”.
○ The student is correct, but would probably not receive full credit. What is the same? If you mean kinetic
energy, state it: “The kinetic energy of each object is identical. Kinetic energy depends on mass and the
square of velocity according to the equation KE=1/2mv2, and because mass and v2 are identical for the two
objects, the kinetic energy is also identical.”
2. A student is asked to compare the forces between two vehicles involved in a collision. If they write “The forces
are the same according to Newton’s Third Law”, they would not receive credit because the forces are not actually
the same. The forces between the two vehicles are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.

Example: Sphere A in the diagram at right is dropped at the same instant that
Sphere B is given a horizontal initial velocity. Compare the times the two
spheres take to hit the floor:

Claim: The two spheres will hit the ground in the same amount of time.
Evidence & Reasoning: The only difference between the two spheres is the
presence of an initial horizontal velocity for Sphere B. Time to hit the ground
depends only on the vertical motion as both spheres will stop moving only when they have covered the same
vertical distance to reach the ground. Both spheres have the same initial and final vertical position, the same
acceleration, and the same initial vertical velocity (zero), so they will reach the floor in the same amount of
1 2
time as shown in the formula 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0𝑦𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡

Another hint - Comparing two situations requires you to find the DIFFERENCE between them, and then decide
what is affected by that difference. In this case the only difference is horizontal velocity and there is no
connection between the horizontal velocity and time.
Always ask yourself 1) How are these different and 2) Does that difference matter!
Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS
Another Justification Example:

Scenario: Car A and Car B are racing. They both leave the starting line together and immediately get up to
speed. They continue at constant speed until the end of the race, which happens when Car A crosses the finish
line. Which car had a greater average velocity? Justify your answer.

We know the answer should be Car A. The physics of this scenario is not hard, but it gives us a good scenario
to practice our justifications.

What is different for the two cars? Car A is ahead of Car B. Therefore Car A has a greater displacement.
What is the same for the two cars? Both cars traveled for the same amount of time.

Paragraph justification, with evidence:

Car A had a greater average velocity in this race. We know this because both cars were moving for the same
amount of time, but Car A traveled a further distance in that time. Car A reached the finish line while Car B did
not. Using the relationship Δx=vt, we can see that Δx and v are directly proportional. Since Car A traveled for a
greater distance while time remained the same, it must also have had a greater average velocity.

This answer starts with a claim that directly answers the question. It then backs the claim up by discussing
which factors in the scenario are the same, and which are different. Then, it uses a formula and proportions
as EVIDENCE to link the difference in the scenario (displacement) to the quantity we need to make a claim
about (velocity) to completely justify our answer.

Example #3: Two astronauts are on a spacewalk and use their jetpacks to propel themselves back to the ship.
Astronaut A has a mass of 70kg, and astronaut B has a mass of 90kg. Both astronauts have identical jetpacks
that exert identical forces over the same distance, and then the jetpacks are shut off so the astronauts travel to
the ship at constant speed. Which astronaut reaches the ship first?

What’s different? The mass of the astronauts

What’s the same? The force applied, distance the jetpacks were on, total distance traveled.

Paragraph justification with evidence: Astronaut A will reach the ship first. Both astronauts have to travel the
same distance, so the time to reach the ship will depend only on the speed at which they are traveling
according to the inverse proportion shown in the equation Δx=vt. Astronaut A will be traveling faster due to his
smaller mass. When their jetpacks are on, both astronauts experience the same force over the same distance.
This means that the jetpacks did the same amount of work on each astronaut (W=Fdcosθ). Because the same
amount of work was done, the same amount of kinetic energy was gained by each astronaut. However,
Astronaut A has less mass than Astronaut B. According to the kinetic energy formula (K=½ mv2), mass and v2
have an inverse proportion when K is held constant. The smaller mass for astronaut A means he will gain a
greater speed, allowing him to travel the distance to the ship in a shorter time.

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS

PROBLEM-SOLVING TASK VERBS: Pay special attention to the verb used in the question. Different task verbs
require different types of answers:

● Calculate: Perform mathematical steps to arrive at a final answer, including algebraic expressions,
properly substituted numbers, and correct labeling of units and significant figures. Also phrased as
“What is?”

● Compare: Provide a description or explanation of similarities and/or differences. Derive: Perform a

series of mathematical steps using equations or laws to arrive at a final answer. Describe: Provide the
relevant characteristics of a specified topic.

● Determine: Make a decision or arrive at a conclusion after reasoning, observation, or applying

mathematical routines (calculations).

● Evaluate: Roughly calculate numerical quantities, values (greater than, equal to, less than), or signs
(negative, positive) of quantities based on experimental evidence or provided data. When making
estimations, showing steps in calculations are not required.

● Explain: Provide information about how or why a relationship, process, pattern, position, situation, or
outcome occurs, using evidence and/or reasoning to support or qualify a claim. Explain “how” typically
requires analyzing the relationship, process, pattern, position, situation, or outcome; explain “why”
typically requires analysis of motivations or reasons for the relationship, process, pattern, position,
situation, or outcome.

● Justify: Provide evidence to support, qualify, or defend a claim, and/or provide reasoning to explain
how that evidence supports or qualifies the claim.

● Label: Provide labels indicating unit, scale, and/or components in a diagram, graph, model, or
representation.

● Plot: Draw data points in a graph using a given scale or indicating the scale and units, demonstrating
consistency between different types of representations.

● Sketch/Draw: Create a diagram, graph, representation, or model that illustrates or explains

relationships or phenomena, demonstrating consistency between different types of representations.
Labels may or may not be required.

● State/Indicate/Circle: Indicate or provide information about a specified topic, without elaboration or

explanation. Also phrased as “What…?” or ”Would…?” interrogatory questions.

● Verify: Confirm that the conditions of a scientific definition, law, theorem, or test are met in order to
explain why it applies in a given situation. Also, use empirical data, observations, tests, or experiments
to prove, confirm, and/or justify a hypothesis

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN QUESTION:
Each exam will have one experimental design FRQ. In this question, you will need to describe a procedure for
collecting data in sufficient detail that someone else could repeat the experiment. Use the chart below as a
quick reference for commonly used equipment/ measured quantities. This is not an exhaustive list
Measurement to be Recorded Low-Tech Equipment High-Tech Equipment

Mass Balance (not scale)

Position Meterstick or ruler Motion detector

Time Stopwatch

Velocity None - measure position and time Appropriately placed Motion

instead detector or photogate

Force Spring scale Force sensor

Setup Notes
Motion detectors measure motion towards or away from the detector.
Photogates require an object to pass through them.

Motion Detector:

Photogate:

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS

Selected Algebra Examples: (Lesser focus than conceptual understanding)
1. A block moving with speed v slides up a ramp with friction. Find the speed halfway up.

Energy Approach: Dynamics approach:

𝐾𝑖 = 𝐾𝑓 + 𝑈𝑔𝑓 + 𝐸𝑇𝐻

1 2 1 2 ℎ
2
𝑚𝑣𝑖 = 2
𝑚𝑣𝑓 + 𝑚𝑔( 2 ) + µ𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝑑

Solve for vf Solve for acceleration, then use kinematic to solve for vf

2. A ball rolls from rest down a ramp with friction (energy approach):

Energy Statement: …continued…

𝑈𝑔𝑖 = 𝐾𝑓 + 𝐾𝑅 𝑓 1 2 1 2
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 2
𝑚𝑣 + 5
𝑚𝑣
1 2 1 2 7 2
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 2
𝑚𝑣 + 2
𝐼ω 𝑔ℎ = 𝑣
10
2
1 2 1 2 2 𝑣
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 2
𝑚𝑣 + 2
( 5 𝑚𝑟 )( 2 ) 𝑣=
10𝑔ℎ
𝑟 7

3. Massless Pulley Problem: Find acceleration given both masses and coefficient of friction between M1 and
the table:

For Block 1: For Block 2: For Entire System:

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 Use external forces only.
𝑇 − 𝑓 = 𝑀1𝑎 𝑀2𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑀2𝑎 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑇 − µ𝑀1𝑔 = 𝑀1𝑎 𝑀2𝑔 − µ𝑀1𝑔 = (𝑀1 + 𝑀2)𝑎
𝑇 = 𝑀1𝑎 + µ𝑀1𝑔 𝑇 = 𝑀2𝑔 − 𝑀2𝑎
OR… Solve for a:
Set tensions equal: 𝑀2𝑔−µ𝑀1𝑔
𝑎= 𝑀1+𝑀2
𝑀1𝑎 + µ𝑀1𝑔 = 𝑀2𝑔 − 𝑀2𝑎
Solve for a:
𝑀1𝑎 + 𝑀2𝑎 = 𝑀2𝑔 − µ𝑀1𝑔
This is quicker!
𝑀2𝑔−µ𝑀1𝑔
𝑎= 𝑀1+𝑀2

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS

Updated 4/2024 - T. O’Dell - Hanover Park HS