BIO 142 Lab 7 Endocrine System; Lymphatic System;

Immunology; Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance

Topics
Endocrine System Lymphatic System
Immunology Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance

Reference Videos
QP 187.Hum 1980
QR 181.Y68 2004
QP 34.Bod5 1994
QP 187.6.Hor 1991
The Endocrine System 16 min.
Your Immune System 28 min.
The Body Atlas: Glands and Hormones 25 min.
The Human Body: Hormones 28 min

Models
Endocrine gland model Kidney with adrenal gland Stomach with pancreas
Lymph man model Larynx with thyroid gland Female/male pelvic

Photographic Atlas
Endocrine System Lymphatic System

Endocrine System
The Endocrine System helps to regulate growth, development, and many other
metabolic activities of the body. Tissues or organs called endocrine glands secrete
hormones directly into the blood. Hormones act on specific areas in the body called
target tissues or target cells. These target cells have the receptors needed to bind and
interpret the hormonal message. Only these specific cells can react to the specific
hormones secreted. Exocrine glands, such as sebaceous and sweat glands have ducts
that carry their secretions directly onto an epithelial surface. Unlike exocrine glands,
endocrine glands do not have ducts.

Hormones have the following general effects on the body:

1. regulation of growth and development
2. regulation of catabolic and anabolic aspects of metabolism
3. regulation of the autonomic nervous system
4. fine control over personality

Rev 6/20 1
 Major Endocrine Glands
Structure Major Function
Hypothalamus Regulates anterior pituitary hormones
Pineal gland May affect sleep
Pituitary gland Regulates growth and various metabolic activities of other
endocrine glands
Thyroid gland Controls rate of metabolism
Parathyroid glands Regulate levels of calcium and phosphate
Thymus Processes developing T and B cells
Adrenal gland Affects metabolism, blood pressure, sodium and potassium
levels
Pancreas Regulates blood glucose levels
Ovaries Produce ova and female sex hormones
Testes Produce sperm and male sex hormones

Pituitary Gland - secretes hormones that regulate many body functions and it also
influences other endocrine glands. It is often called the “master gland” of the body.

Pineal Gland - is attached to the dorsal aspect of the diencephalon. The pineal gland
may function in adjusting the body to diurnal variations, and may be involved in
seasonal disorders and “jet lag”.

Thyroid Gland - lies on the anterior surface of the upper trachea just inferior to the
larynx.

Parathyroid Glands - (two pairs) located on either side of the thyroid gland.

Adrenal Glands - are located on the superior surface of each kidney.

Pancreas - is a mixed gland as it has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The
exocrine functions involve secretion of digestive enzymes into the duodenum via the
pancreatic duct. The endocrine structures are small clusters of cells called pancreatic
islets (Islets of Langerhans). The alpha cells of the islets secrete the hormone glucagon,
which helps to raise the blood sugar level: the beta cells secrete the hormone insulin,
which helps to lower the blood sugar level.

Thymus Gland - functions for a short period in the life cycle of the human, after which it
atrophies and becomes nonfunctional. It is located behind the sternum in the upper
mediastinum of the fetus. The role of the thymus gland is to convert embryonic
lymphocytes into T cells (thymus-dependent cells), which aid in the immune response.
The thymus functions until puberty and after puberty the gland begins to atrophy and is
replaced by adipose and other connective tissue.

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Ovaries - paired organs located in the pelvic cavity of the female, one on either side of
the uterus. The ovaries produce and discharge ova and also secrete the female sex
hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Testes - located in the male scrotal sacs. They are responsible for sperm formation and
the synthesis and secretion of the male sex hormone testosterone.

The Lymphatic System

Many people don’t realize that we have in our bodies another circulatory system
besides the cardiovascular system. This second fluid circulating system is called the
Lymphatic System. The lymphatic system is not a closed, circular system and it does not
have a pumping mechanism such as the heart. It is made up of a network of thin-walled
vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph. The word lymph is Latin for “clear water”.
Lymph is similar to blood plasma but it contains fewer proteins and no red blood cells.

Major Functions of Lymphatic System

1. Destroys microorganisms and other foreign substances
2. Provides long-term protection against microorganisms and other foreign substances
3. Collects excess water and proteins from the interstitial fluid that circulates around
cells throughout the body
4. Transports fats from the tissue surrounding the small intestine to the bloodstream

Scattered among the vessels of the lymphatic system are clusters of lymph nodes. The
nodes contain macrophages that engulf bacteria and debris in the lymph. Lymphocytes
and plasma cells are also formed in the nodes. Clusters of lymph nodes are named for
their location and include:

 Cervical nodes
 Axillary nodes
 Lumbar nodes
 Iliac (Pelvic) nodes
 Aggregated Lymph Nodules (Peyer’s Patches) - found in the intestinal mesentery.
Also known as mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues (MALT). Other examples of
MALT are the vermiform appendix and the tonsils.
 Inguinal nodes (located outside the body cavity)

Lymph collected from the lower limbs, trunk, left upper limb, and the left side of the
head and neck drains into the thoracic duct. Lymph from the upper right side of the
body flows into the right lymphatic duct. The thoracic duct opens into the left
subclavian vein. This duct, which transports fats from the small intestine, has an
enlargement near its origin called the cisterna chyli. The right lymphatic duct opens into
the right subclavian vein.

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 Lymphatic Organs
Spleen - large, dark brown organ located to the left of (posterolateral) the stomach. It
filters blood, produces lymphocytes, and destroys aged and worn-out red blood cells.

Thymus - dark, irregularly shaped, bilobular organ that is superior and ventral to the
heart. The thymus is best developed in the young organism. It is responsible for the
maturation of lymphocytes into thymocytes, or T cells. T cells play an important
immunological role related to the body’s response to allergies, parasitic infections,
transplanted tissues, and autoimmune diseases.

Lymph Nodes - tiny organs that filter lymph and serve as active sites of antibody
formation. Macrophages that line the lymph nodes phagocytize (engulf) and remove
foreign materials, bacteria, and cellular debris from lymph.

Tonsils - lymphocytes and antibodies are produced in the tonsils

Three pairs of tonsils:
Palatine tonsils – a pair of tonsils, found of either side of the throat (removed in
tonsillectomy)
Lingual tonsils – a pair of tonsils, found at the base of the tongue
Pharyngeal tonsil – a single tonsil, located in the nasopharynx, behind
the nose (popularly called adenoids, removed in adenoidectomy)

Vermiform Appendix – worm-like structure attached to the cecum of the large

intestine. The appendix apparently serves an immunological function in humans but is
otherwise vestigial (an organ that once had a purpose but now doesn’t).

Aggregated Lymph Nodules (Peyer’s Patches) - clusters of lymphoid tissue in the

tonsils, small intestine, and appendix. They respond to antigens from the intestine by
generating plasma cells that secrete antibodies in large quantities. Lymph nodules are
also in the bronchi of the respiratory tract.

Lymph
The body contains about 1 to 2 liters of lymph. The cells in the lymph fluid are
leukocytes, and they perform the same protective functions as leukocytes in the blood.
The human body contains about 2 trillion lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are the backbone
of the immune system and are the basis of the immune response.

Monocytes are one class of leukocytes capable of developing into phagocytic

macrophage cells, which ingest and digest microorganisms, cell debris, cancer cells, and
any other particulate matter in the lymph. These cells are found in lymph, in lymph
nodes, and adhering to the walls of blood vessels and lymph vessels. These cells group
into large clusters that surround and isolate foreign particles that are too large to

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phagocytize. This “walling-off” process occurs in certain chronic infections, such as
tuberculosis, and limits the spread of the infectious microorganisms.
A second class of leukocytes is the lymphocytes. Lymphocytes processed in the thymus
gland are called Thymic cells, or just T cells. Those processed in other tissues, such as
the fetal liver and bone marrow, are called Bursal cells, or just B cells. B cells generate
daughter cells called plasma cells, which produce specific antibodies against a particular
foreign substance or antigen, and the T cells attack specific foreign cells.

Immunology
The skin and the mucous membranes are the body’s first line of defense against
pathogens.

Antigen - a foreign substance that enters the body

Antibody - proteins produced by B lymphocytes
Pathogen - disease causing agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites
Immune Response - the production of antibodies in response to specific antigens
Serology - the study of the blood serum and its components
Agglutination – very specific antibody-antigen reaction that causes cells to clump
together
Immunoglobulin – A circulating antibody.
Complement – a system of circulating proteins that assist antibodies in the destruction
of pathogens.
Inflammatory response – a local response to injury or infection that is directed at the
tissue level. Inflammation tends to restrict the spread of an injury as well as combat an
infection.
Fever – an elevation of body temperature that accelerates tissue metabolism and
defenses.
Allergy – an inappropriate or excessive immune response to antigens, triggered by the
stimulation of mast cells bound to IgE.
Vaccine – a preparation of antigens derived from a specific pathogen; administrated
during immunization, or vaccination.

Fever
o Elevated body temperature greater than 37.2°C (99°F)
o Circulating proteins called pyrogens can raise the body’s temperature.
o Pathogens, bacterial toxins, and antigen-antigen complexes can act as pyrogens
or stimulate the release of pyrogens by macrophages.
o Fever is usually beneficial.
o Higher than normal body temperature can inhibit some viruses and bacteria.
o For each 1°C rise in temperature, the metabolic rate of the body jumps by 10
percent.
o Cells can move faster, so enzymatic reactions occur faster.
o Quicker mobilization of tissue defenses and an accelerated repair process.

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Autoimmune disorders develop when the immune response mistakenly targets normal
body cells and tissues. The immune system forms antibodies to its own tissues, which
destroy these tissues.

An Antigen is a molecule, or a portion of a molecule, of proteins, carbohydrates, or

lipids or combination of these, found on the surface of microorganisms, infected cells,
tumor cells, and allogeneic (cells from a genetically dissimilar individual) cells. Antigens
enter the body through the skin, mouth, bladder, nose, blood, and other routes. Not all
antigens cause an immune response.

Antibodies are protein molecules produced by B cells/ plasma cells and are always
present in small amounts in blood and body tissues. Once B cells recognize an antigen,
they differentiate into plasma cells. These are specialized cells that produce an antibody
specific for the stimulating antigen. After antibody is released from a plasma cell, it
circulates in plasma and lymphatic fluid seeking out antigen. The human body can
provide a corresponding antibody for every antigen produced and for every one that can
be produced, a truly remarkable capability!

Antibody is produced after the body’s primary, or first, exposure to an antigen. Primary
exposure is called sensitization, or immunization. After the initial exposure to antigen,
antibody production takes about 14 days to reach full power. The time from antigen
recognition to antibody production is referred to as the lag period.

Antibodies have structural components that are complementary to structural binding

sites on antigens. They combine in a lock-and-key fashion with the antigen, inactivating
it. Then the antigen-antibody complex is easily eliminated by phagocytosis (the process
of eating cells).

Forms of Immunity
Immunity (L. immunis; free from burden) is the ability of an organism to recognize and
defend itself against infectious agents (pathogens). A pathogen is any substance that
can cause disease. Susceptibility, the opposite of immunity, is the vulnerability of the
host to harm by infectious agents. Immunology is the study of specific immunity and
how the immune system responds to specific infectious agents. Immunity is either
innate or acquired.

Innate Immunity
1. Innate immunity (or natural immunity) is the immunity with which we are born.
It is inherited genetically from our parents. It includes anatomical barriers to
pathogens such as (unbroken) skin, mucus and tears.

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Acquired Immunity
1. Acquired immunity is immunity obtained in some manner other than
genetically. Acquired immunity can either be passive or active.

 Passive immunity is temporary and is produced by transferring

antibodies from another source. With Passive Immunity, your body does
not make the antibodies.

 Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity occurs naturally when a

mother’s antibodies are transferred to her baby across the
placenta and also through breast milk.

 Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity can be artificially induced

in a person when ready-made antibodies are injected into
someone when necessary. Such is the case when an antivenin
injection is given to a person who has been bitten by a venomous
insect or snake. The immunity conferred is immediate in its effect,
but it only lasts for a short period of time.

 Active immunity can either be naturally acquired or artificially acquired.

Active immunity generally lasts a lifetime. With Active Immunity, your
body makes the antibodies.

 Naturally acquired active immunity is produced when a person is

exposed to an infectious agent and recovers. For example, a child
who catches measles and recovers will not ordinarily contract
measles again because his or her body has had a chance to
produce antibodies that develop in response to the measles
antigens.

 Artificially acquired active immunity comes from being

inoculated (immunized) with a vaccine containing live, weakened,
dead organisms or their toxins. A vaccination is designed to
produce an immune response the next time the person is exposed
to the infectious agent the body will be able to quickly produce
the antibodies will “remember” the pathogen and quickly produce
an immune response.
An immunoglobulin is a protein that functions specifically as an antibody.
There are five classes of immunoglobulins: IgG, IgM, IgD, IgA, and IgE.

IgG is the most potent antibody in the immune system. It makes up about 80% of
antibody that appears in serum. It has the ability to diffuse into tissue spaces where it
binds antigen. IgG antibody is the only immunoglobulins that can cross the placenta
from the mother into the fetus. For example, maternal Rh antibody (anti-D) is an IgG-

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type antibody that that crosses the placenta and attaches itself to Rh+ fetal red blood
cells causing hemolytic disease of the newborn.

IgM is a large molecule that remains in the bloodstream because it is so large that it
cannot cross into body tissues. The chief function of IgM is to activate the complement
system. IgM has the ability to agglutinate antigen, it also functions as a B cell membrane
receptor for antigen recognition. Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies, which are naturally
occurring antibodies against A and B antigens on red cells, are IgM antibodies.

IgD is found in small amounts in serum and body fluids. Its function is not completely
understood but researchers believe it assists B cells by enhancing antibody production.

IgA is found in body fluids and mucus secreted by mucous membranes. It is found in
such fluids as tears, breast milk, bronchiole secretions, and saliva. IgA binds and
immobilizes antigen, thereby allowing mucin (the main ingredient of mucus) to remove
the antigen-antibody complex before it can enter the internal tissues. It protects the
mucous membranes lining the mouth, bladder, gut, nose, and vagina.

IgE is the causative agent in asthma, hay fever, and many allergic reactions. When
released, IgE binds to basophils and mast cells stimulating them to release histamine,
which causes edema, sinus inflammation, itching, bronchiole constriction, and other
symptoms. People with allergies produce IgE in excess. The concentration of IgE also
increases with parasitic infections, especially those caused by protozoa and parasitic
worms (helminths).
Electrolytes
An electrolyte is any substance that conducts electricity in water. Acids, bases and salts
are electrolytes. Electrolytes are crucial to the regulation of fluid balance. The kidneys
are the principal organs responsible for maintaining the electrolyte balance in the body.
The nervous system and the endocrine system and its hormones also play a major role
in controlling the proper concentrations of electrolytes in the blood.

An ion is a positively or negatively charged atom. Ions will always carry a (+) or (–)
symbol with the chemical symbol. A (–) symbol means the molecule has gained
electrons; a (+) symbol means it has lost electrons. A positive ion is a cation, and a
negative ion is an anion. Buffer systems, respiratory regulation, and renal regulation
maintain the body’s acid-base balance.
The most physiologically important electrolytes in the body are:
Cations Anions
Sodium (Na+) Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Potassium (K+) Chloride (Cl-)
Calcium (Ca2+) Phosphate (PO43-)
Magnesium (Mg2+) Sulfate (SO42-)
Hydrogen (H+)

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Fluid or water loss may produce imbalances in one or more electrolytes. A dangerous
condition can result when the body loses fluids from vomiting or when suffering from
prolonged diarrhea. A loss of less than 10% of the body’s water results in an overall
feeling of dryness, lethargy, and fever. A loss of about 20% of the body’s total water is
usually fatal. That is why an extensive third degree burn can result in death, not from
the burn itself, but from the loss of water that seeps through the burned areas.

A change in the rate of breathing changes the carbon dioxide level in the blood, and
thus affects the hydrogen-ion concentration of body fluids.

Respiratory acidosis results from excessive levels of carbon dioxide in body fluids.
Possible causes include emphysema; chronic bronchitis; pulmonary edema. The blood
becomes more acidic which may result in rapid pulse, mental disorientation, labored,
breathing, cyanosis, loss of consciousness.

Respiratory alkalosis results from hyperventilation that depresses carbon dioxide levels
and elevates the pH of body fluids. Possible causes include emotional disturbances;
overdose of drugs; high altitudes (low atmospheric pressure). The blood becomes more
basic which may result in lightheadedness, agitation, vertigo, and tingling sensations.

Metabolic Acidosis can occur from metabolic production of acids or loss of bases.
Kidney disease; prolonged diarrhea in which alkaline intestinal secretions are lost
excessively (especially in infants); Diabetes mellitus – fatty acids converted into acidic
ketone bodies. Buffer systems accept H+, breathing rate and depth increases, kidneys
secrete H+.

Metabolic Alkalosis results from excessive loss of H+ or from a gain in bases; pH

becomes more basic. Gastric drainage (lavage); prolonged vomiting - in which only
stomach contents are lost (because gastric juice is very acidic, its loss leaves body fluids
with a net increase of basic substances and a pH shift toward alkaline, Alkaline Tide);
certain diuretic drugs; excessive antacid ingestion. Decrease in breathing rate and
depth; kidneys retain hydrogen ions; increased concentration of carbon dioxide in
blood.
Imbalances of one or more of the electrolytes, particularly sodium and potassium, are
indicative of certain abnormal conditions.

Sodium/Potassium Imbalances
Hypernatremia results from plasma sodium levels above normal.
Hyponatremia results from plasma sodium levels below normal.
(natrium = Latin for sodium)
Hyperkalemia results from higher than normal levels of potassium.
Hypokalemia results from lower than normal levels of potassium.
(kalium = Latin for potassium)