PERTEMUAN KE 5

Gas Power Systems

ENGINEERING CONTEXT The vapor power systems studied in Chap. 8 use working fluids that
are alternately vaporized and condensed. The objective of the present chapter is to study
power systems utilizing working fluids that are always a gas. Included in this group are gas
turbines and internal combustion engines of the spark-ignition and compression-ignition
types. In the first part of the chapter, internal combustion engines are considered. Gas
turbine power plants are discussed in the second part of the chapter. The chapter concludes
with a brief study of compressible flow in nozzles and diffusers, which are components in
gas turbines for aircraft propulsion and other devices of practical importance.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
This part of the chapter deals with internal combustion engines. Although most gas turbines
are also internal combustion engines, the name is usually applied to reciprocating internal
combustion engines of the type commonly used in automobiles, trucks, and buses. These
engines differ from the power plants considered in Chap. 8 because the processes occur
within reciprocating piston–cylinder arrangements and not in interconnected series of
different components.
Two principal types of reciprocating internal combustion engines are the spark-ignition
engine and the compression-ignition engine. In a spark-ignition engine, a mixture of fuel and
air is ignited by a spark plug. In a compression-ignition engine, air is compressed to a high
enough pressure and temperature that combustion occurs spontaneously when fuel is
injected. Spark-ignition engines have advantages for applications requiring power up to
about 225 kW. Because they are relatively light and lower in cost, spark-ignition engines are
particularly suited for use in automobiles. Compression-ignition engines are normally
preferred for applications when fuel economy and relatively large amounts of power are
required (heavy trucks and buses, locomotives and ships, auxiliary power units). In the
middle range, sparkignition and compression-ignition engines are used.
9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology
Figure 9.1 is a sketch of a reciprocating internal combustion engine consisting of a piston
that moves within a cylinder fitted with two valves. The sketch is labeled with some special
terms. The bore of the cylinder is its diameter. The stroke is the distance the piston moves in
one direction. The piston is said to be at top dead center when it has moved to a position
where the cylinder volume is a minimum. This minimum volume is known as the clearance
volume. When the piston has moved to the position of maximum cylinder volume, the
piston is at bottom dead center. The volume swept out by the piston as it moves from the
top dead center to the bottom dead center position is called the displacement volume. The
compression ratio r is defined as the volume at bottom dead center divided by the volume
at top dead center. The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to rotary motion by
a crank mechanism. In a four-stroke internal combustion engine, the piston executes four
distinct strokes within the cylinder for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. Figure 9.2
gives a pressure–volume diagram such as might be displayed electronically.
1. With the intake valve open, the piston makes an intake stroke to draw a fresh charge into
the cylinder. For spark-ignition engines, the charge is a combustible mixture of fuel and air.
Air alone is the charge in compression-ignition engines.
2. With both valves closed, the piston undergoes a compression stroke, raising the
temperature and pressure of the charge. This requires work input from the piston to the
cylinder contents. A combustion process is then initiated, resulting in a high-pressure, high-
temperature gas mixture. Combustion is induced near the end of the compression stroke in
spark-ignition engines by the spark plug. In compression-ignition engines, combustion is
initiated by injecting fuel into the hot compressed air, beginning near the end of the
compression stroke and continuing through the first part of the expansion.
3. A power stroke follows the compression stroke, during which the gas mixture expands
and work is done on the piston as it returns to bottom dead center.
4. The piston then executes an exhaust stroke in which the burned gases are purged from
the cylinder through the open exhaust valve.
Smaller engines operate on two-stroke cycles. In two-stroke engines, the intake,
compression, expansion, and exhaust operations are accomplished in one revolution of the
crankshaft.
Although internal combustion engines undergo mechanical cycles, the cylinder contents

Figure 9.1 Nomenclature for reciprocating Figure 9.2 Pressure–volume diagram for
 piston–cylinder engines. a reciprocating internal combustion
engine.

do not execute a thermodynamic cycle, for matter is introduced with one composition and is
later discharged at a different composition. A parameter used to describe the performance
of reciprocating piston engines is the mean effective pressure, or mep. The mean effective
pressure is the theoretical constant pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the power
stroke, would produce the same net work as actually developed in one cycle. That is

For two engines of equal displacement volume, the one with a higher mean effective
pressure would produce the greater net work and, if the engines run at the same speed,
greater power. AIR-STANDARD ANALYSIS. A detailed study of the performance of a
reciprocating internal combustion engine would take into account many features. These
would include the combustion process occurring within the cylinder and the effects of
irreversibilities associated with friction and with pressure and temperature gradients. Heat
transfer between the gases in the cylinder and the cylinder walls and the work required to
charge the cylinder and exhaust the products of combustion also would be considered.
Owing to these complexities, accurate modeling of reciprocating internal combustion
engines normally involves computer simulation. To conduct elementary thermodynamic
analyses of internal combustion engines, considerable simplification is required. One
procedure is to employ an air-standard analysis having the following elements:
- A fixed amount of air modeled as an ideal gas is the working fluid.
- The combustion process is replaced by a heat transfer from an external source.
- There are no exhaust and intake processes as in an actual engine. The cycle is completed
by a constant-volume heat transfer process taking place while the piston is at the bottom
dead center position.
- All processes are internally reversible.
In addition, in a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are assumed constant at their
ambient temperature values. With an air-standard analysis, we avoid dealing with the
complexities of the combustion process and the change of composition during combustion.
A comprehensive analysis requires that such complexities be considered, however. For a
discussion of combustion, see Chap. 13.
Although an air-standard analysis simplifies the study of internal combustion engines
considerably, values for the mean effective pressure and operating temperatures and
pressures calculated on this basis may depart significantly from those of actual engines.
Accordingly, air-standard analysis allows internal combustion engines to be examined only
qualitatively. Still, insights concerning actual performance can result with such an approach.
In the remainder of this part of the chapter, we consider three cycles that adhere to
airstandard cycle idealizations: the Otto, Diesel, and dual cycles. These cycles differ from
each other only in the way the heat addition process that replaces combustion in the actual
cycle is modeled.
9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle
The air-standard Otto cycle is an ideal cycle that assumes the heat addition occurs
instantaneously while the piston is at top dead center. The Otto cycle is shown on the p–v
and T–s

diagrams of Fig. 9.3. The cycle consists of four internally reversible processes in series:
- Process 1–2 is an isentropic compression of the air as the piston moves from bottom dead
center to top dead center.
- Process 2–3 is a constant-volume heat transfer to the air from an external source while the
piston is at top dead center. This process is intended to represent the ignition of the fuel–air
mixture and the subsequent rapid burning.
- Process 3–4 is an isentropic expansion (power stroke).
- Process 4–1 completes the cycle by a constant-volume process in which heat is rejected
from the air while the piston is at bottom dead center.
Since the air-standard Otto cycle is composed of internally reversible processes, areas on
the T–s and p–v diagrams of Fig. 9.3 can be interpreted as heat and work, respectively. On
the T–s diagram, area 2–3–a–b–2 represents the heat added per unit of mass and area 1–4–
a–b–1 the heat rejected per unit of mass. On the p–v diagram, area 1–2–a–b–1 represents
the work input per unit of mass during the compression process and area 3–4–b–a–3 is the
work done per unit of mass in the expansion process. The enclosed area of each figure can
be interpreted as the net work output or, equivalently, the net heat added.
CYCLE ANALYSIS. The air-standard Otto cycle consists of two processes in which there is
work but no heat transfer, Processes 1–2 and 3–4, and two processes in which there is heat
transfer but no work, Processes 2–3 and 4–1. Expressions for these energy transfers are
obtained by reducing the closed system energy balance assuming that changes in kinetic
and potential energy can be ignored. The results are

Carefully note that in writing Eqs. 9.2, we have departed from our usual sign convention for
heat and work. Thus, W12m is a positive number representing the work input during
ompression and Q41m is a positive number representing the heat rejected in Process 4–1.
The net work of the cycle is expressed as

Alternatively, the net work can be evaluated as the net heat added

which, on rearrangement, can be placed in the same form as the previous expression for net
work.
The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net work of the cycle to the heat added.

When air table data are used to conduct an analysis involving an air-standard Otto cycle, the
specific internal energy values required by Eq. 9.3 can be obtained from Table A-22 or A-22E
as appropriate. The following relationships based on Eq. 6.44 apply for the isentropic
processes 1–2 and 3–4

where r denotes the compression ratio. Note that since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1, r = V1/V2 =
V4/V3. The parameter vr is tabulated versus temperature for air in Tables A-22. When the
Otto cycle is analyzed on a cold air-standard basis, the following expressions based on Eq.
6.46 would be used for the isentropic processes in place of Eqs. 9.4 and 9.5, respectively

where k is the specific heat ratio, k = cp/cv.

EFFECT OF COMPRESSION RATIO ON PERFORMANCE.
By referring to the T–s diagram of Fig. 9.3, we can conclude that the Otto cycle thermal
efficiency increases as the compression ratio increases. An increase in the compression ratio
changes the cycle from 1–2–3–4–1 to 1–2’–3’–4–1. Since the average temperature of heat
addition is greater in the latter cycle and both cycles have the same heat rejection process,
cycle 1–2’–3’–4–1 would have the greater thermal efficiency. The increase in thermal
efficiency with compression ratio is also brought out simply by the following development
on a cold air-standard basis. For constant cv, Eq. 9.3 becomes

E X A M P L E 9 . 1 Analyzing the Otto Cycle

The temperature at the beginning of the compression process of an air-standard Otto cycle
with a compression ratio of 8 is 300 oK, the pressure is 1 bar, and the cylinder volume is 560
cm3. The maximum temperature during the cycle is 2000 oK. Determine (a) the temperature
and pressure at the end of each process of the cycle, (b) the thermal efficiency, and (c) the
mean effective pressure, in atm.
SOLUTION
Known: An air-standard Otto cycle with a given value of compression ratio is executed with
specified conditions at the beginning of the compression stroke and a specified maximum
temperature during the cycle.
Find: Determine the temperature and pressure at the end of each process, the thermal
efficiency, and mean effective pressure, in atm.
Schematic and Given Data:

Assumptions:
1. The air in the piston–cylinder assembly is the closed system.
2. The compression and expansion processes are adiabatic.
3. All processes are internally reversible.
4. The air is modeled as an ideal gas.
5. Kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible.
Analysis:
(a) The analysis begins by determining the temperature, pressure, and specific internal
energy at each principal state of the
cycle. At T1 = 300 K, Table A-22 gives u1 = 214.07 kJ/kg and vr1 = 621.2.
For the isentropic compression Process 1–2

Interpolating with vr2 in Table A-22, we get T2 673 K and u2 491.2 kJ/kg. With the ideal gas
equation of state
The pressure at state 2 can be evaluated alternatively by using the isentropic relationship,
p2 = p1( pr2/pr1).
Since Process 2–3 occurs at constant volume, the ideal gas equation of state gives

At T3 = 2000 K, Table A-22 gives u3 = 1678.7 kJ/kg and vr3 = 2.776.

For the isentropic expansion process 3–4

Interpolating in Table A-22 with vr4 gives T4 1043 K, u4 = 795.8 kJ/kg. The pressure at state
4 can be found using the isentropic relationship p4 = p3(pr4/pr3) or the ideal gas equation
of state applied at states 1 and 4. With V4 = V1, the ideal gas equation of state gives

(b) The thermal efficiency is

(c) To evaluate the mean effective pressure requires the net work per cycle. That is

where m is the mass of the air, evaluated from the ideal gas equation of state as follows:

Inserting values into the expression for Wcycle

The displacement volume is V1 - V2, so the mean effective pressure is given by

This solution utilizes Table A-22 for air, which accounts explicitly for the variation of the
specific heats with temperature. A solution also can be developed on a cold air-standard
basis in which constant specific heats are assumed.
This solution is left as an exercise, but for comparison the results are presented for the case
k = 1.4 in the following table: