Unit 06 - Fundamentals and W+P+E

Unit 06 - Work + Power + Energy

 Cells and Batteries
Types of cells

Primary cells : The cells in which chemical action is not reversible are called as primary
cells. They produces limited amount of energy and mostly non - electrolytes are used.
Secondary cells : the cells in which chemical action is reversible are called as secondary
cells. If cell is down it can be recharged.

Cell terminology

E.M.F. of a cell : The voltage of a cell measured in open circuit condition

Internal resistance of a cell : The opposition by a cell to a current when it flows internal to
the cell is called the internal resistance.
Terminal Voltage : The voltage across the external resistance considering the drop across
internal resistance is called as terminal voltage.
 Comparison of primary and secondary cells

Sr. No. Primary cells Secondary cells

1 Chemical actions are irreversible Chemical actions are reversible

2 Cell is completely replaced when it is down Cell is recharged when and if down

3 Polarization is present Polarization is absent

4 Low efficiency High efficiency

5 Low capacity High capacity

6 Less cost High initial cost

7 No maintenance is required Frequent charging and maintenance is required

8 e.g. dry cell, mercury cell, zinc-chloride cell e.g. nickel-iron, lead acid, nickel-cadmium cell
 Series and Parallel Connections of Cells
Cells in Series Connection
In series, cells are joined end to end so that the same current flows through each cell.
Multiple cells are arranged in such a way that the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative
terminal of the another and then again the negative terminal is connected to the positive terminal and so on,
then we can that the cells are connected in series.
In case if the cells are connected in series the emf of the battery is the sum of the emf of the individual cells.
Equivalent EMF of Cells in Series
If E is the overall emf of the battery combined with n number cells and E1, E2, E3, En are the emfs of individual
cells.
Then E1 + E2 + E3 + ……. + En
Equivalent Resistance of Cells in Series
Similarly, if r1, r2, r3, rn are the internal resistances of individual cells, then the internal resistance of the
battery will be equal to the sum of the internal resistance of the individual cells i.e.
r = r1 + r2 + r3 + ……. + rn
cells are connected in series to get more voltage rating.
 Series and Parallel Connections of Cells
Cells in Parallel Connection

Cells are in parallel combination if the current is divided among various cells.
In a parallel combination, all the positive terminal are connected together and all the negative
terminal are connected together.
emf of each cell is identical then the emf of the battery combined with n numbers of cells
connected in parallel is equal to the emf of each cell.

Equivalent Resistance of Cells in Parallel

If emf of each cell is identical, The resultant internal resistance of the combination is,
r = (1/r1 + 1/r2 + 1/r3 +……... + 1/rn)-1
Cells are connected in parallel to get more current capacity i.e. more back up
 Lead Acid
Battery

The plates, which are actually electrodes are

a) Anode: Lead Peroxide (PbO2) of Chocolate brown colour
b) Cathode: Spongy Lead (Pb) with slate grey colour

Electrolyte : Aqueous solution of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4).

Dissociation:
At anode: PbO2  Pb++, O− − , O− − , +e , +e
In electrolyte : 2(H2SO4)  H+ , H+ , H+ , H+ , SO4− −, SO4−
At cathode : Pb  Pb++ , e − , e −

Overall Reaction:
PbO2 + 2(H2SO4) + Pb ↔ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Describe the maintenance procedure of Lead acid battery
1. The battery should be recharged immediately after discharge
2. The electrolyte level in the cells must always be kept above top of the
electrodes (plates). The specific gravity of electrolyte must be checked during
each charging. If the electrolyte is to be added, it should be pure.
3. The battery should not be left in the discharged condition for longer period,
as it reduces the life of battery.
4. The discharged battery should be protected from low temperatures to
prevent the electrolytes from freezing and bursting the cell container.
5. The battery should not be overcharged as it can weaken the plate structure
of the cells.
6. A battery like a lead-acid battery contains sulfuric acid. Such a battery should
be handled and transported carefully as the leakage of acid can cause damage to
skin or eyes.
7. A battery should be charged in a well-ventilated space free from flames or
sparks, as the gases released during charging are explosive.
8. The terminals of the battery should be kept clean to avoid corrosion and to
prevent increase in contact resistance. A thin layer of Vaseline or petroleum jelly
should be applied over the terminals.
9. A battery should be overcharged after every 3 to 4 months to wipe out the
traces of impurities on the electrode plates. If this is not done, the internal
resistances of the cells increase.
 The methods of charging the storage batteries

Constant
voltage
charging

In this the charging voltage is kept constant throughout the charging

process.
The charging current is high in the beginning when a battery is in
discharged condition, and it gradually drops off as the battery picks up
charge resulting in increased back emf.
Charging at constant voltage may be carried out only when the
batteries have the same voltage
 Constant
current
charging

In this method of charging of batteries, the batteries are connected in

series so as to form groups
each group is charged from the dc supply mains through loading
rheostats.
The number of batteries in each group depends on the charging circuit
voltage which should not be less than 2.7 V per cell.
Ampere-hour efficiency is the ratio of output ampere-hours during discharging
to the input ampere-hours during charging.
Watt-hour efficiency
 a) Cathode: A Positive electrode is made with Lithium

Lithium Ion battery Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2) has a current collector made of
thin aluminum foil.
b) Anode: A negative electrode made with specialty
carbon has current collector of thin copper foil.
c) Separator: It is a fine porous polymer film.
d) Electrolyte: Lithium salt in an organic solvent.
Electrolyte is selected in such a way that there should
be an effective transport of Li-ion to the cathode
during discharge. Type of conductivity is ionic in
nature rather than electronic.
Lithium Ion battery
 Applications of Lead Acid Battery:
1. Used in automobiles for starting and lighting
2. Used in generating stations and Substations to operate protective devices and
emergency lighting
3. Used Un-interrupted Power Supply (UPS)
4. Used in Emergency Lighting
5. Used in telephone exchange
Applications of Lithium Ion Battery
1. Used in mobile phones, Laptops
2. Used in cameras and calculators
3. Used in Electric vehicles
4. Used in toys and rechargeable flash lights
5. Used in aerospace applications.
 Comparison of Lead Acid and Lithium ion battery

Lead Acid Lithium Ion

Anode PbO2 LiCoO2
Cathode Pb Carbon
Electrolyte H2SO4 Lithium salt with organic solvent
Specific power 180 W/kg 340 W/kg
Specific Energy 50 Wh/kg 265 Wh/kg
Energy density 50-100 Wh/m3 690 Wh/m3
Cycle life 200-300 cycles 1200 Cycles
Cost Low cost Costly
Rated Voltage 2.2 Volt 3,6 Volt
Maintenance Maintenance required Maintenance free
Charging Slow and inefficient Fast charging
Handling Difficult Easy
Use Car, motorcycle, UPS, Emergency lighting Mobile phone, Laptop, Camera, Electric vehicles