Review Related Literature

Gender inequality is a pervasive issue worldwide, with varying interpretations of

its meaning found in various studies. Historically, women have been associated with
domestic duties and caring for children. However, as societal norms evolve, so too have
women's roles. In contemporary times, women are actively engaged in the workforce
alongside men, contributing to household income. According to (The World Bank,
2022), women around the world encounter limited income prospects in comparison to
men. They exhibit a lower inclination towards engaging in income-generating activities
or actively pursuing employment opportunities. The global rate of women's participation
in the labor force stands at slightly above 50%, whereas men's participation rate
reaches 80%. Nevertheless, under specific conditions, women have been deprived of
their role. Women are not granted the same level of access, status, and opportunities as
men due to long-standing gender discrimination that has become ingrained in societal
norms over the centuries. Gender inequality arises when cultural norms perpetuate the
belief that men are stronger and more capable of performing certain jobs than women.
This societal construct suggests that men are inherently better suited to handle all
responsibilities in their lives, while women may struggle to compete with men in certain
areas. Gender inequality has the potential to create significant public crises and can
have a profound impact on human development (Li, 2011). As a result of this
phenomenon, there has been a growing emphasis on women's rights and gender
equality in the literature that examines different industries including manufacturing (Wu
& Cheng, 2016), agriculture (Meemken & Qaim, 2018), and global supply chain
(George, Gibson, Sewall, & Wofford, 2017). Limited research has been dedicated to
exploring the implementation of gender equality policies in the workplace, despite the
abundance of studies on women's rights and gender equality. Women at the managerial
level often face challenges such as limited involvement in decision-making processes,
obstacles to professional advancement, and restricted opportunities for growth. Cultural
and social biases have hindered women from fully realizing their potential as decision-
makers (Tovar, 2006; Eagly & Carly, 2007). Workplace gender equality pertains to
ensuring that women and men have equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities in
the realm of employment (UN 2013). Gender equality does not mean that women and
men will become the same, but rather that the rights, responsibilities, and opportunities
of both genders will not be contingent on their sex at birth. It involves considering the
diverse interests, needs, and priorities of women and men while acknowledging the
differences within various groups of each gender. Equality between women and men is
regarded as both a human rights issue and a crucial factor for sustainable development
that focuses on the welfare of individuals. Achieving gender equality is important for
workplaces not only because it is ‘fair’ and ‘the right thing to do,’ but because it is also
linked to a country’s overall economic performance. Globally, women frequently bear
the primary responsibility for a majority of unpaid care work, encompassing tasks like
cooking, cleaning, and childcare. As per a (2019 research conducted by the World
Bank), women dedicate an average of 25 hours per week to unpaid care work, while
men contribute only ten hours. Consequently, women invest twice as much time as men
in unpaid care work, leading to a substantial impact on their lives. The research also
discovered a notable difference in the amount of time women dedicate to unpaid care
work in various regions. In Europe, women typically spend 20 hours per week on unpaid
care work, while men spend only eight hours. In Asia, women spend an average of 23
hours per week on unpaid care work, compared to ten hours for men. In Africa, women
spend an average of 29 hours per week on unpaid care work, while men spend 11
hours. This discrepancy can be attributed to various factors such as cultural norms,
economic limitations, and inadequate access to childcare services. In Africa, cultural
norms prescribe that women bear the responsibility of managing the household and
taking care of children. This is commonly perceived as a woman's inherent duty, posing
challenges for women who aspire to defy these societal expectations. These
circumstances create obstacles for women to free themselves from unpaid care work,
consequently restricting their access to education and employment opportunities, and
adding to their stress and exhaustion. Moreover, it hinders women's involvement in
public affairs. Numerous legal obstacles continue to hinder women from fully engaging
in the economy. These obstacles encompass regulations that limit women's capacity to
possess property, establish enterprises, and pursue careers in certain industries.
Entities like CEDAW or Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination
against Women explicitly urge nations to eliminate gender-based discrimination from
their legislation in order for women to unlock their economic capabilities. When women
possess equal rights and opportunities as men, they are more inclined to acquire
education, secure employment, and receive equitable remuneration. Moreover, they are
also more likely to actively participate in decision-making processes and make valuable
contributions to the economy.

Work-related stress has a significant impact on the physical and mental well-
being of female executives. According to a study conducted by (Deloitte,2022), a
staggering 53% of female respondents reported experiencing higher stress levels
compared to the previous year, leading to dangerously high levels of burnout. Nearly
half of the women surveyed admitted to feeling exhausted, and almost 40% of those
considering changing jobs cited burnout as the primary reason. The study also revealed
that women are more prone to burnout than men across all regions globally. For
instance, in Africa, 62% of women reported feeling burned out, in contrast to 48% of
men. Factors such as unrealistic expectations, lack of support, and poor work-life
balance contribute to the burnout experienced by female leaders. The issue of gender
pay disparity is a widespread concern. For over half a century, laws have been
implemented to combat wage inequality based on gender. The Equal Pay Act of 1963
marked the beginning of these efforts, followed by the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of
2009. This latter act aimed to bridge the gap in pay between men and women by
empowering employees with enhanced means to address paycheck discrimination
through federal antidiscrimination laws. The gender pay gap, as defined by (Kirton &
Greene, 2005), is the disparity in earnings between men and women within the
workforce. (Bovill, 2013) from the Office for National Statistics reported that the average
pay gap for both full and part-time employees decreased from 19.6% to 18.6% between
2011 and 2012, indicating some progress. Nevertheless, despite the gradual reduction
of the gender pay gap, it remains a significant concern, particularly when men and
women receive unequal pay for similar tasks of equal value and skill level. According to
the (Global Gender Gap Report 2023) by the World Economic Forum, the global gender
pay gap stands at 23%. This indicates that, on average, women earn only seventy-
seven cents for every dollar earned by men. Women are still required to put in extra
effort to match the earnings of men over the course of a year. The widest gender pay
gap is observed in Africa, where women earn an average of sixty-one cents for every
dollar earned by men, while the narrowest gap is in North America. It is projected that,
at the current pace of progress, it will take one hundred and thirty years to eliminate the
global gender pay gap. Women are compelled to work longer hours and shoulder more
unpaid responsibilities in order to achieve parity with men in terms of earnings.
Consequently, there exists a persistent income disparity between men and women
throughout their lifetimes, leading to a higher likelihood of women retiring in poverty.
The gender pay gap poses a significant obstacle to women's financial independence,
making it challenging for them to provide for themselves and their families. Closing the
gender pay gap not only aligns with ethical principles, but it also yields advantageous
outcomes for companies. Greater pay transparency is crucial for closing the gender pay
gap. Pay transparency involves revealing the salaries of employees and any disparities
in pay based on gender. By publicly establishing and sharing the criteria used to
determine pay structures, employers and employees can promote transparent, fair, and
unbiased procedures. This transparency can also contribute to reducing the gender pay
gap, as it often leads to increased pay for all employees, with men experiencing slower
growth compared to women, resulting in narrower gaps over time. Transparent pay
practices instill a sense of fairness and equality among employees, leading to increased
motivation, productivity, and teamwork. Additionally, it enables both employers and
employees to address gender disparities in pay, negotiate fair compensation, and
mitigate the risk of unequal pay allegations. On the contrary, withholding pay
information can perpetuate gender discrimination and erode trust within the workplace.

The concept of race, color, equality, and diversity, along with the political discord
of inclusion and equity, persist in clouding the understanding of human efforts to uphold
harmony and social justice. While equity, diversity, equality, and inclusion each have
their own unique identity within the historical context of humanity, the interpretations and
characteristics of each trait are adapted to align with established local norms (Vasquez
Heilig, Brewer & Williams, 2019). Scholars in the social sciences, policymakers, and
managers in human services are debating whether achieving one element is possible
without the others. (Puritty et al. 2017) argued that diversity and inclusion cannot be
maintained in isolation; the components of each concept complement and support one
another as society strives to promote a fair argument in the modern workplace. Equity
remains an aspiration for some, as the integration of diversity and inclusion continues to
shape today's work environment. The unequal treatment and occasional deliberate or
unintentional exclusion of certain groups, whether through intentional planning or
inadvertent oversight, can be viewed as a means of exerting control over the
marginalized (Dwyer & Gigliotti, 2017). When companies embark on rebranding and
image reconstruction, color and equality are emphasized as key elements in strategic
planning, rather than focusing solely on equity. The narrative of color, race, diversity,
and inclusion is deeply intertwined with humanity's historical evolution worldwide. It is
essential to grasp how individuals perceive and make sense of the world, as this
influences their decisions and behaviors, ultimately shaping their efforts to promote
those values (Vasquez Heilig, Brewer & Williams, 2019). Some legal requirements may
indirectly promote diversity and inclusion, but the primary responsibility lies with
businesses and community leaders. Companies may face challenges in implementing
forward-thinking policies that align with their values and mission. Despite the growing
momentum for diversity, inclusion, and equity, societal acceptance remains a challenge
that requires the correct civic values, affirmative action, or strategic rebranding. Various
authorities, such as the EEOC, EPIC, and ILO, closely monitor businesses as they
navigate the evolving market forces impacting diversity across different contexts
(Luchenski et al., 2018). The Manpower Act, Law No. 13, 2003, incorporates the
fundamental labor principles of equality and non-discrimination in the workplace. These
principles are designed to promote human dignity within the realms of social and
economic justice. Moreover, these principles have become widely recognized in the
business sector as essential standards for enhancing market efficiency and fostering
sustainable economic growth. The government has implemented policy measures to
uphold the principles of equality and non-discrimination. Additionally, numerous
companies have established specific policies to adhere to these principles.
Nevertheless, there are persisting challenges in practice. Discriminatory practices are
frequently observed in the workplace, particularly towards women, minorities, and other
vulnerable groups. In order to combat discrimination and promote fairness in the
workplace, it is crucial to identify the root causes of inequality and determine effective
solutions. The responses to these inquiries vary based on individual perspectives
regarding the origins and impacts of disparities among various groups, such as gender,
race, or religion. Understanding the concepts of "discrimination" and "equality" is
essential for shaping policies, as each concept carries distinct policy implications.

Insufficiently qualified women in decision-making positions hinder the promotion

of gender balance. Consequently, an increase in female representation may result in a
decrease in the overall quality of leaders. Specifically, the implementation of compulsory
gender quotas, aimed at achieving gender balance, may result in less qualified women
being promoted, potentially leading to poorer performance compared to the possibly
more qualified men they replace. Critics of gender quotas contend that such measures
contradict the principles of meritocracy. Therefore, the matter of quality is of utmost
importance. However, these feared adverse effects are not persuasive. On the contrary,
the inclusion of both men and women in decision-making roles has the potential to
enhance the caliber of representatives. This occurs through various means. Firstly,
women in developed nations tend to possess high levels of education. The under-
representation of women may not be due to their lack of competence or qualifications,
but rather the presence of statistical discrimination. This means that individuals are
evaluated based on the average characteristics of a group rather than their individual
merits. Consequently, even though qualified women are available, they are often
overlooked during the promotion and evaluation process. Discrimination not only results
in unequal outcomes, but it also leads to inefficiencies such as wasted talent and a lack
of motivation to invest in human capital for the discriminated group. Ultimately, this
results in an inefficient allocation of resources. When affirmative action measures
compel companies to actively seek out women, the most competent women are
appointed, potentially raising the overall quality. By mitigating the inefficiencies
associated with discrimination, these measures can yield efficiency gains. Secondly, by
allowing women to participate in the competition, there is a possibility of a positive
selection effect. This means that if the pool of candidates is expanded to include both
men and women, the chances of selecting better candidates will increase due to the
increased competition. Third, having a gender-balanced representation of individuals in
positions of power can lead to a re-evaluation of the entire group of representatives. If
highly qualified women are included, the standard of quality for men will also rise,
resulting in an overall improvement in the quality of the group. Fourth, it is widely
acknowledged that women are less prone to corruption, more responsible, and have
lower rates of absenteeism. This recognition further supports the idea of including
women in leadership roles. Lastly, more gender-balanced leadership can inspire more
women to become competitive and strive for similar positions, thereby expanding the
talent pool even further. This creates a virtuous cycle of increasing quality and
opportunities for everyone involved.

A diverse workplace is made up of individuals from distinct cultures, each with

varying characteristics, aspirations, and expectations (Cennamo & Gardner, 2008).
Workplaces are important settings for health action and improvement. The work
environment has a direct impact on the physical, mental, financial, and social welfare of
employees, which in turn affects the well-being of their families, communities, and
society as a whole. By upholding workplace equality, employees are able to feel
appreciated, empowered, and acknowledged within the organizational structure. This
approach effectively eliminates the potential for discrimination, as diversity is embraced
and managed with regard to factors such as caste, religion, and disability impacts.
Employees with different backgrounds have varying needs and a strong desire to be
treated with respect in their workplace. It is crucial for management to recognize and
understand the requirements of these diverse groups in order to prevent any tensions or
conflicts among employees (Hill, Stephens, & Smith, 2003). Maintaining a harmonious
work environment is essential for organizations to enhance productivity. Managers
worldwide are actively promoting workplace equality by avoiding any divisive language
or comments that create an "us" versus "them" mentality (Yang & Guy, 2006).
Consequently, the terms "diversity policy" and "equality policy" have become common
labels in British organizations and organizations globally. Managing equality and
diversity in the workplace based on gender varies depending on the differences in
gender perceptions across different societies. Embracing and effectively handling
diversity allows employees to contribute their distinct viewpoints, backgrounds, and
expertise in the workplace without worrying about discrimination or unfair treatment. As
a result, a work environment that is more inclusive and diverse is created, fostering a
sense of appreciation and respect for all individuals. Moreover, promoting equality in the
workplace cultivates a feeling of inclusivity and empowerment within the workforce.
When employees perceive that their voices are valued and their perspectives are
acknowledged, they are inclined to assume responsibility for their tasks and actively
participate in achieving the company's objectives. Consequently, this results in higher
levels of job fulfillment, enhanced team spirit, and lower rates of employee turnover. In
addition, fostering workplace equality fosters an environment of inclusivity and respect
towards all employees. This involves acknowledging and catering to the requirements of
employees with disabilities, while also guaranteeing that employees from various
backgrounds and identities feel valued and integrated. Through these efforts,
companies can cultivate a feeling of community and belonging among employees,
ultimately enhancing collaboration and communication. Furthermore, it is imperative to
prioritize workplace parity to effectively attract and retain top-notch personnel. In today's
fiercely competitive job market, countless employees actively seek out companies that
prioritize diversity, fairness, and inclusivity. By giving utmost importance to workplace
equality, organizations enhance their prospects of attracting and retaining skilled
individuals who share their values. Ensuring workplace equality is imperative for
establishing a favorable and efficient work atmosphere. Through advocating for
diversity, inclusivity, and respect toward all staff members, companies can eradicate
discrimination, cultivate a feeling of belonging and empowerment, foster an inclusive
culture, and attract and retain exceptional individuals. Consequently, it is vital for
organizations to give utmost importance to workplace equality in order to accomplish
their objectives and thrive in the fiercely competitive business landscape of today.

The management in the workplace must ensure, as much as reasonably

possible, that no workers are subjected to workplace violence or harassment. Targets,
victims, or affected individuals who suspect they have experienced inappropriate
behavior or potential violence and harassment can report this to their supervisor or
colleagues in their workplace if they feel it is appropriate and comfortable to do so.
Managers who are approached by a target, victim, or affected individual should advise
them that they can seek confidential advice, support, and information regarding the
available options within the company's legal framework from the designated office that
provides such services, such as a welfare officer, staff counselor, helpline, or another
trusted point of contact. Managers are expected to offer guidance, support, and/or
knowledge promptly, with sensitivity and objectivity, through various methods outlined in
the company's policies for managerial involvement. This may include facilitating
discussions among team members regarding the issue at hand, as well as seeking
assistance from specialized company units. Such intervention can help address the
issue efficiently at the managerial level. All actions taken will be documented in
accordance with the company's policy, ensuring transparency and accountability.
Management is committed to maintaining confidentiality regarding the identity of
complainants and the details of complaints, unless disclosure is essential for
investigating the issue, implementing corrective measures, or mandated by legal
requirements. Additionally, Management will guarantee that all employees are
knowledgeable about the dangers of workplace violence and harassment, and are
adequately trained and equipped to safeguard themselves. Furthermore, Management
will participate in frequent training sessions on violence and harassment, which will
include activities such as promoting awareness among staff, communicating dedication
to assisting employees, recognizing and responding to red flags, fostering trust, and
offering confidential, non-judgmental listening, workplace resources, and referrals. The
identification of workplace conditions or personnel issues that may contribute to the
occurrence of workplace violence and harassment is crucial in order to effectively
prevent and mitigate these risks. This procedure highlights the significance of
recognizing such factors and taking appropriate measures to address them. It is
essential to conduct a workplace violence and harassment risk assessment that is
sensitive to gender considerations on a regular basis to ensure the safety of employees
and maintain a secure work environment. Engaging relevant stakeholders, particularly
representatives of affected worker groups, in the assessment process is crucial.
Quantifying the level of risk associated with workplace violence and harassment is
imperative when considering necessary actions to mitigate these risks, as it aids in
identifying appropriate safeguards and control measures. If true gender equality is going
to be achieved and sustained, far greater action is needed. In focusing on the
workplace, a crucial measure in enhancing the well-being of women and children is
guaranteeing that all individuals are entitled to a work environment that is devoid of
gender-based violence. A significant milestone in the global arena towards achieving
this goal was achieved with the recent adoption of the ILO Convention No. 190 (C190)
during the International Labour Conference of the International Labour Organization
(ILO). The realm of eradicating violence against women has evolved, transformed, and
honed itself to a remarkable extent since its inception with the UN Declaration on the
Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW) in 1993. Back in 1979, when the UN
General Assembly ratified the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the issue of violence against women was so
overlooked that it was not even mentioned in this pivotal document. It took fourteen
years for this glaring omission to be corrected with the addition of DEVAW as a
complement to CEDAW. Many societies also turn a blind eye to violence against
women, either because victims conceal it and society ignores it, or because it is so
prevalent and visible that it is considered normal and therefore not a concern.