Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704

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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

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Original article

Numerical performance modelling of solar chimney power plants: Influence T

of chimney height for a pilot plant in Manzanares, Spain
⁎
Erdem Cucea,b, , Harun Sena,b, Pinar Mert Cucea,c
a
Low/Zero Carbon Energy Technologies Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Zihni Derin Campus, 53100 Rize, Turkey
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Zihni Derin Campus, 53100 Rize, Turkey
c
Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Zihni Derin Campus, 53100 Rize, Turkey

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: 3D axisymmetric CFD model is developed for a solar chimney power plant (SCPP) in Manzanares, Spain, and
Solar chimney power plant potential impacts of chimney height (H ) on main performance parameters are comprehensively analysed. Mesh-
CFD model independent solutions are achieved, and accuracy justification is done over the previous numerical and ex-
Chimney height perimental attempts prior to parametric research. Discrete ordinate (DO) non-grey radiation model with solar
Solar intensity
ray tracing approach is adopted in the research. A very good accordance is achieved between the numerical
Optimisation
findings and in-situ data. For five different H values, temperature, pressure and velocity distributions within the
pilot plant are achieved as well as maximum air velocity, mass flow rate of air, temperature rise in collector,
dynamic pressure difference at the turbine position, overall system efficiency and potential electrical power. It is
found that maximum air velocity thus mass flow rate shows an exponential growth in H . On the contrary,
temperature rise in collector notably reduces with the increasing H . Overall system efficiency is determined to
be 0.67% whenH = 500 m. Power output (P ) linearly rises with H . The system is capable of generating 55 and
134 kW electrical power, forH = 200 and 500 m, respectively.

Introduction renewable energy application. Working principle of a typical solar

Solar energy is harnessed for various purposes today. The most
common use of solar energy in practice appears in solar thermal and
solar electricity applications. Solar thermal systems basically aim at
capturing incoming solar radiation within a blackened absorber surface
in which there is a direct or indirect contact between the absorber and
the working fluid [1]. On the other hand, solar electricity refers to the
direct conversion of photons into electrical power through the semi-
conductor devices like photovoltaic (PV) modules [2]. It is well-docu-
mented in literature that both thermal performance figures and PV cell
parameters are dependent on environmental conditions [3]. In other
words, climatic parameters and locational characteristics play a key
role in the overall performance assessment of solar energy applications.
On the contrary to this common fact, there is a clean energy technology
called solar chimney which is capable of generating electricity con-
tinuously irrespective of change in environmental conditions owing to
its unique structure [4].
Solar chimneys do not require fossil fuels for operation, hence they
do not cause any greenhouse gas emissions as a completely eco-friendly
chimney can be basically explained by the functions of two main parts
of the whole plant, which are collector and chimney. Collector is the
part which enables the penetration of solar thermal radiation into the
air medium between the collector and the ground. The incoming solar
radiation is absorbed by the ground material at a rate of its absorptivity
coefficient, and as a consequence of the greenhouse effect, collector air
gets warmer with time. Momentum of air increases with the improve-
ment of thermal energy content of the air medium, and it is accelerated
owing to the remarkable pressure difference provided by the massive
chimney. Although solar energy is a driving force for solar chimneys,
the system is capable of producing energy even in night time because of
the aforesaid pressure difference between the inlet and outlet sections
of the chimney [5].
The idea of solar chimney dates back to 1903, however, first suc-
cessful applications in the world appear in 1980s. solar chimney power
plants (SCPPs) are highly in the centre of interest especially over the
last three decades owing to their characteristic ability in large-scale
harnessing of solar energy. SCPPs are giant structures, however, it is
usually possible to express that a typical system consists of three main

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Zihni Derin Campus, 53100 Rize,
Turkey.
E-mail address: erdem.cuce@erdogan.edu.tr (E. Cuce).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2020.100704
Received 8 January 2020; Received in revised form 10 March 2020; Accepted 31 March 2020
2213-1388/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Cuce, et al.
parts, which are chimney, collector and turbine [6]. Collector is usually
constructed by transparent materials like polythene or clear glass. It is
fixed horizontally or at a specific slope via steel frames, and mounted at
a certain height from the ground to be able to welcome air from outside
to inside through air vents [7]. The level of greenhouse effect beneath
the collector is directly associated with the collector radius, transmis-
sivity coefficient of the collector material and the thermophysical
properties of the ground. Materials with high specific heat capacity are
usually considered on the ground of SCPPs. Stored energy within the
ground material during the daytime contributes to maintain the
buoyant forces even after the sunset. Chimney as the core of the plant is
mounted in the middle of collector, and provides a notable pressure
difference between chimney inlet and outlet. Geometric parameters
such as chimney height and chimney diameter play a key role in the
said pressure difference. Maximum air velocities are usually observed at
a certain height above the chimney inlet, and a turbine is placed at that
position to convert kinetic energy of air to electrical energy. Current
turbines utilised in SCPPs can succeed this energy conversion by an
efficiency over 80% as reported in literature [8].
The first pilot application of SCPPs appears in 1982 in Manzanares,
Spain. The pilot plant has a chimney height of 194.6 m, chimney dia-
meter of 10.16 m, collector diameter of 244 m and collector height of
1.85 m. A fixed horizontal collector design is preferred for the system
covering 40,000 m2 membrane and 6000 m2 clear glass. In the early
1980s, Haaf et al. [9] conduct several experimental and numerical re-
search on the pilot plant for an overall performance evaluation of the
entire system. Their results indicate that there is a temperature rise of
20 °C in the collector air from inlet to outlet. For the solar intensity of
1000 W/m2, maximum velocity of air is reported to be about 15 m/s
around the turbine inlet. The power output of the pilot plant corre-
sponding to this velocity is given to be 55 kW. It is also underlined that
chimney height is a significant geometric parameter on the perfor-
mance figures of a SCPP.
Chimney height is widely studied in other works as well over the
last three decades through theoretical and numerical analyses. For in-
stance, Mullett [10] carries out a research for overall performance as-
sessment of SCPPs with different chimney heights. It is found that the
efficiency of a plant with a chimney height of 1000 m is about 1%,
which is also verified in similar works. The results also reveal that the
estimated power output of a typical plant with a chimney height of
200 m and chimney diameter of 250 m is 100 kW whereas it is
10000 kW with a chimney height and diameter of 400 and 1780 m,
respectively. Ngala et al. [11] numerically investigate the dependency
of power output on chimney height. It is achieved from their results that
there is a linear relationship between the chimney height and the power
output in SCPPs. Choi et al. [12] develop a mathematical model to
evaluate how the geometric parameters and heat storage medium on
the ground affect the power output of a typical SCPP. The results in-
dicate that the power output is enhanced by the rise in chimney height
and diameter. On the other hand, considering heat storage medium on
the ground is found to reduce the power output in the daytime, whereas
it notably contributes to energy generation after sunset. Zhou et al. [13]
develop a numerical model for determining the optimum chimney
height for the pilot plant in Manzanares. They report that the power
output rises with the chimney height until a specific value of 615 m. For
greater chimney heights, power output is observed to decrease for the
existing geometric parameters of the plant. They also address that for
optimum operational conditions, chimney height needs to be increased
in proportion to the collector diameter. Another model is developed by
Ming et al. [14] for performance investigation of SCPPs. The findings of
the 3D model show that there is a linear relationship between the
chimney height and power output. System efficiency is also found im-
proving with the rise in chimney height. For a solar intensity of
1000 W/m2, enhancing chimney height from 200 to 500 m yields to a
threefold improvement in the power output.
Li et al. [15] theoretically investigate the performance of
2
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704
Manzanares pilot plant. Through the MATLAB code developed, the
impacts of collector diameter and chimney height on main performance
figures of the plant are analysed. On the contrary to the findings of
Zhou et al. [13], they report that there is no optimum value for the
chimney height in SCPPs. When chimney height is increased to 2000 m,
power output is predicted to enhance about sevenfold and exceeds
400 kW according to their results. Larbi et al. [16] propose a mathe-
matical model for a typical plant with a chimney height of 250 m and a
collector diameter of 600 m. For the said geometric parameters, power
output of the plant is predicted to be 3.42 MW. However, it reaches
7 MW when the chimney height is enhanced to 500 m. They also report
that power output reduces with the increase in ambient temperature.
Shahi et al. [17] develop a 2D model for the Manzanares pilot plant,
and examine the influence of chimney height on power output. For the
existing geometric parameters, power output is found to be 48 kW for
the solar radiation of 1000 W/m2 whereas it is reported to be 50 kW in
the experimental studies. Then, numerical research is repeated for the
chimney heights of 400, 600, 800 and 1000 m. It is achieved through
the findings that the power output exceeds 300 kW for the chimney
height of 1000 m. Dhahri et al. [18] evaluate the performance figures of
SCPPs with respect to changes in environmental and geometric para-
meters. When chimney height is risen from 200 to 300 m, mass flow
rate of the system is found to improve by about 20%. On the other
hand, this change reduces the temperature rise of air along the collector
from 22 to 16 °C. Toghraie et al. [19] conduct a 3D CFD research for a
SCPP with a chimney height of 100 m, a chimney diameter of 4 m, a
collector diameter of 200 m and a collector height of 2 m. Standard k-ε
turbulence model is considered in the numerical methodology. For the
solar intensity of 800 W/m2, power output is determined to enhance
more than 100% when the chimney height is increased twofold. They
also report that power output is expected to decrease after a certain
value of chimney height.
It is concluded from the literature survey that SCPPs are in-
vestigated by many researchers through theoretical and numerical
models, and most of the works merely focus on main performance
figures such as power output. It is addressed in different studies that
chimney height is a significant geometric parameter in SCPPs, however
there are still contradictions between the results of previous researchers
concerning with the influence of chimney height on power output. In
order to elucidate the abovementioned contradictions and incon-
sistencies, an elaborative CFD research is presented within the scope of
this research. A unique 3D axisymmetric CFD model is developed with a
DO oriented solar ray tracing radiation model. Following the accuracy
justification of the numerical results through the performance reports of
Manzanares pilot plant, impact of chimney height is comprehensively
assessed. Temperature, velocity and pressure distributions as well as
mass flow rates and power output values within the plant are illustrated
as a function of chimney height for a reliable and scientific metho-
dology.
Theoretical background
The present study aims at proposing a reliable and accurate simu-
lation model for SCPPs by taking geometric and material characteristics
of Manzanares pilot plant into consideration. Specifically, chimney
height is investigated in the numerical model as an independent vari-
able for its potential influence on velocity, temperature and pressure
distributions as well as power output. Accuracy justification is done for
maximum air velocities for various solar intensity levels in the range of
100–1000 W/m2. Continuity, momentum, energy and turbulence model
equations are solved simultaneously to achieve the aforesaid perfor-
mance parameters. Following assumptions are considered in the present
work: Numerical analyses are conducted for the steady-state conditions.
Changes in climatic conditions are assumed to be negligible. Boussinesq
approximation is preferred to calculate the change of air density. Heat
losses across the chimney walls can be ignored. There is a uniform and
E. Cuce, et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704

constant solar radiation during each process. The radiative transfer where Mt is the Mach number in turbulent flow. Mt can be calcu-
equation is represented by the discrete ordinate (DO) non-grey radia- lated by
tion model. Following continuity, momentum and energy equations are
k
solved coupled in the numerical analyses: Mt =
a2 (11)
▪ Continuity equation: The inverse effective Prandtl numbers for ε and k are represented by
∂ρ ∂ (ρu) ∂ (ρv ) ∂ (∂w ) αε and αk , respectively. The additional term which differs RNG k-ε
+ + + =0 turbulence model from the standard model is given below:
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z (1)
Cμ ρη3 (1 − η / η0) ε 2
Rε =
▪ Momentum equation: 1 + βη3 k (12)
∂ (ρu) ∂ (ρuu) ∂ (ρuv ) ∂ (ρuw ) ∂p ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u In the aforesaid equation, η0 = 4.38, β =0.012 and η= Sk / ε [20].
+ + + =− + μ⎛ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ Instant streamline and strain curvatures can be adapted in the RNG k-ε
(2) turbulence model. Boussinesq model helps to calculate the change in air
density in the numerical calculations. By considering the buoyancy
∂ (ρv ) ∂ (ρvu) ∂ (ρvv ) ∂ (ρvw ) ∂p ∂ 2v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v parameter in the momentum equation, air density is defined in the
+ + + =− + μ⎛ 2 + 2 + 2⎞
⎜ ⎟
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ model as follows:
(3) (ρ − ρa ) g ≈ −ρa β (T − Ta) (13)
∂ (ρw ) ∂ (ρwu) ∂ (ρwv ) ∂ (ρww ) In the said equation, ρa is the air density at ambient temperature of
+ + +
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z Ta , and β refers to thermal expansion coefficient. When the literature on
∂p ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ∂ 2w ⎞ SCPPs is evaluated, it is easy to say that there are various methods to
=− + μ⎛ 2 +
⎜ + + ρgβ (T − Ta)
⎟
∂z ⎝ ∂ x ∂ y 2 ∂z 2 ⎠ (4) determine the power output of the system. In the meantime, main ef-
fective parameters are listed as turbine pressure drop, chimney effi-
▪ Energy equation: ciency, turbine efficiency and collector efficiency in most cases.
Different figures are utilised in literature for the turbine efficiency (ηt ).
∂ (ρcT ) ∂ (pcuT ) ∂ (pcvT ) ∂ (pcwT ) ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎞ However, ηt is taken to be 0.8 in the present work [21]. Collector ef-
+ + + = λ⎛ 2 +
⎜ + ⎟
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ⎠ ficiency (ηcoll ) is another significant term of the numerical model. Its
(5) value is highly dependent on the incoming solar radiation, and calcu-
lated as follows:
It is well-documented in literature that the air flow in SCPPs belongs
to turbulent flow, and a wide range of turbulence models is utilised by Q̇
ηcoll =
researchers in the numerical modelling works of these systems. When Acoll G (14)
the whole turbulence models are briefly evaluated, it can be easily as-
In the said equation, Q̇ refers to available thermal power of the
serted that RNG k-ε and standard k-ε turbulence models are much more
system, and given by
in the centre of interest as a consequence of their efficacy and simpli-
city. Further evaluations reveal that RNG k-ε turbulence model leads in Q̇ = mc
̇ p (T1 − T2) = mc
̇ p ΔT (15)
terms of a thorough accordance and coherence owing to the turbulent
where temperature increase through the collector is expressed with
viscosity term that the model has.
ΔT . For the determination of turbine pressure drop, there are also dif-
ferent expression in literature. Turbine pressure drop (ΔPt ) is associated
▪ RNG k-ε turbulence model equation:
with the air velocity at the turbine inlet through a linear regression as
∂ ∂ ∂ ⎡ ∂k ⎤ given below:
(ρk ) + (ρkui ) = αk μeff + Gk + Gb + ρε − YM + Sk
∂t ∂x i ∂x j ⎢
⎣ ∂xj ⎥
⎦ (6) ΔPt = 18, 87v − 57, 59 (16)

∂ ∂ Power output in a SCPP can be calculated through the following

(ρε ) + (ρεui )
∂t ∂x i equation:
∂ ⎡ ∂ε ⎤ ε ε2 ΔT
= αε μeff + C1ε (Gk + C3ε Gb) − C2ε ρ − R e + Sε ̇ c
Ptot = mgH
∂x j ⎢
⎣ ∂x ⎥
j⎦ k k (7) Ta (17)

The presence of mean velocity gradient yields to the turbulent ki-
netic energy production. This is represented in equations (6) and (7)
with Gk , and the said term is expressed as follows:
∂ui
Gk = −ρui uj
∂uj
On the other hand, buoyant forces also contribute to turbulent ki-
netic energy production, which is given with the term Gb in the same
equations. Gb can be calculated by the following equation:
μt ∂t
Gb = βgi
Prt ∂x i
In the turbulence model equation, YM refers to how the fluctuating
dilatation in compressible turbulence affects the overall dissipation
rate. YM can be expressed by the following equation:
YM = 2ρεMt 2
where Ta is the ambient temperature, ΔT is the temperature difference
between inlet and outlet sections of the collector, Hc is the chimney
height, g is the gravitational acceleration and ṁ is the mass flow rate of
air. By considering Q v is the volumetric flow rate, power output can also
be obtained by
(8)
Ptot = ηt ΔPt Q v (18)
CFD analyses
The numerical methodology adopted in the present research is
(9) based on a unique 3D axisymmetric CFD model developed for the SCPP
in Manzanares, Spain. Exact material properties and geometric para-
meters of the pilot plant listed in Table 1 are utilised in the CFD model
for a realistic, reliable and scientific approach. It would be useful to
illustrate the outline of the solar chimney concept analysed in the CFD
(10) research with the system components and boundary conditions as

3
E. Cuce, et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704

Table 1 Table 2
Geometric characteristics of the SCPP in Manzanares, Glass, ground and chimney characteristics of the plant utilised in CFD model.
Spain.
Physical property (unit) Glass Ground Chimney
Geometric parameter Value
3
Density (kg/m ) 2500 2160 2719
Mean collector radius 122.0 m Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 1.15 1.83 202.4
Mean collector height 1.85 m Specific heat (J/kgK) 750 710 871
Chimney height 194.6 m Absorption coefficient 0.03 0.9 0
Chimney radius 5.08 m Transmissivity 0.9 Opaque Opaque
Ground thickness 0.5 m Emissivity 0.1 0.9 1
Refractive index 1.526 1 1
Thickness (m) 0.004 0.5 0.00125

depicted in Fig. 1. Physical properties of the ground, chimney and

collector glass are of vital importance for the efficacy of the numerical
Table 3
approach, and thus the aforesaid data is obtained from the in-situ
Main parameters considered in CFD modelling.
measurements as shown in Table 2. Besides, there are some construc-
tional and operational parameters, climatic data and thermophysical Solar radiation (W/m2) 1000
properties shown in Table 3, which are utilised in the CFD analyses. As
Ambient pressure (Pa) 101,325
a consequence of intensive cell counts, iterations take a significant Ambient temperature (K) 293.15
period of time ranging from 24 to 36 h for each case. Since the case is Gravitational acceleration (m/s2) 9.81
axisymmetric, one-quarter part of the pilot plant is modelled in the Ambient air density (kg/m3) 1.2046
Ideal gas constant (J/kgK) 287
analyses via two plane symmetries (YZ and XZ planes) to expedite the
Air conductivity (W/mK) 0.0259
convergence. When the whole geometry is considered, it can be as- Kinematic viscosity of air (m2/s) 1.48 × 10−5
serted that curvatures outweigh the smooth surfaces, hence triangular Air heat capacity (J/kgK) 1006.43
mesh type is preferred in the CFD analyses as illustrated in Fig. 2. Stefan-Boltzmann constant (W/m2K4) 5.667 × 10−8
ANSYS FLUENT is utilised in the CFD analyses as one of the most re- Turbine pressure drop ratio 2/3

liable and well-documented commercial software in market. Finite

volume approach, which is used by ANSYS FLUENT is an ideal method
Results and discussion
for solving the governing equations in the present work. In order to
solve the momentum equation in the numerical research, RNG k-ε
Mesh-independent solution is comprehensively proposed prior to
turbulence model is considered. To be able to determine the interaction
the demonstration of the results of parametric research. In this respect,
between the velocity and pressure figures of air, SIMPLE algorithm is
over the three main performance parameters, which are mass flow rate
used. PRESTO technique is adopted for the pressure interpolation.
of air (ṁ ) at the turbine inlet, maximum air temperature (Tm ) and
Governing equations are discretised by second order upwind method.
maximum air velocity (Vm ), dependency on cell counts is determined as
DO non-grey radiation approach with solar ray tracing method is pre-
shown in Table 4. For the cell count of 386041, % change in ṁ and Vm is
ferred for radiation equation. Exact latitude and longitude data of
observed to be 0.24 and 1.75, respectively. As the aforesaid figures are
Manzanares, Spain is utilised in the radiation model for accurate cal-
satisfactory enough in comparison with the similar works in literature,
culation of solar beam direction. Boussinesq approximation is adopted
the whole CFD is research is carried out over this cell count. Following
to determine the variation of air density with temperature. An ideal
the satisfaction of mesh-independent solution, accuracy verification of
value of 10-6 is selected for the convergence criterion in the iterations.
the CFD model is done through the Vm values in the pilot plant acquired
Parametric research is conducted once the mesh-independent solutions
for various solar intensities in the range of 100–1000 W/m2. It can be
are obtained.
easily understood from the preliminary findings of the CFD model
shown in Fig. 3 that present work is in very good accordance with the
experimental results [22], and provides the best fitted tendency of Vm

Fig. 1. Structural details and boundary conditions considered in the CFD research.

4
E. Cuce, et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704

Fig. 2. Mesh model adopted in the CFD analyses of Manzanares pilot plant.

Table 4 with respect to changes in environmental conditions. When pioneer

Mesh-independent solution results for the CFD analyses. numerical works in the scope [14] are analysed in detail, it is achieved
Cell count ṁ Tm Vm % change in % change that notable deviations occur especially for high solar intensity levels.
Vm inṁ This can be ascribed to the considerable role of turbulence and radia-
tion models in the overall efficacy after a certain value of solar radia-
259,800 278.298 kg/s 318.250 K 14.420 m/s – – tion. On the contrary to the said works, present work provides an ex-
305,619 278.822 kg/s 317.864 K 13.996 m/s 2.94 0.18
386,041 279.513 kg/s 317.852 K 14.242 m/s 1.75 0.24
cellent agreement with the measurements owing to RNG k-ε turbulence
model and DO non-grey radiation model assisted by solar ray tracing
approach.Vm is found to be 14.24 m/s for the solar radiation level of

Fig. 3. Accuracy verification of the CFD model over the maximum velocity values.

5
E. Cuce, et al.
Fig. 4. Maximum velocity (Vm ) in the pilot plant as a function of chimney height
(H ).
2 analysed in terms of its potential change with chimney height. Fig. 10
1000 W/m , while it is given to be 15 m/s in the experimental reports.
As previously mentioned, Manzanares pilot plant has a chimney
height (H ) of 194.6 m. By taking all the other geometric parameters
constant, H is considered to be as an independent variable within the
scope of this research, and main performance figures are obtained for
five different values of H in the range of 100–500 m. Vm is the first
parameter in this respect, and Fig. 4 demonstrates its variation with H .
It is clear from the data that Vm exponentially rises with H . This can be
easily attributed to the improved buoyant forces with the increase in
chimney height as a consequence of enhanced pressure difference be-
tween inlet and outlet sections of chimney. A regression analysis is
performed to the numerical data, and the following equation is devel-
oped for the first time in literature for the relationship between Vm and
H:
Vm = 8.178(1 − e−0.03551H ) + 14.25(1 − e−0.00268H )
The proposed regression model indicates that there is an expected
optimum figure for chimney height since Vm has a tendency of ex-
ponential rise to a maximum data. However, it is difficult to make a
generalisation regarding the exact optimum value of H since a com-
prehensive life-cycle cost analysis is required for such an attempt cov-
ering the chimney cost. Detailed static contours of air velocities in the
pilot plant for the chimney height of 100 and 500 m are illustrated in
Fig. 5. It is unequivocal from the findings that buoyant effects re-
markably contribute to the momentum which yields to improvements
in Vm values around the turbine inlet.
Pressure distributions through the power plant especially about the
turbine inlet are of vital importance for performance assessment of
SCPPs. In this respect, dynamic pressure differences (ΔPdyn ) at 9 m
above the chimney inlet in which the turbine is fixed are determined as
depicted in Fig. 6. It is clear from the findings that ΔPdyn values are
notably enhanced by the rise in H . Maximum ΔPdyn forH = 100 m is
found to be −67.22 Pa whereas it is −147.24 and −202.82 Pa
forH = 300 and 500 m, respectively as illustrated in Fig. 7. Following
regression model is obtained through the parametric research:
ΔPdyn = −328.4(1 − e−0.001632H ) − 19.33(1 − e−0.02488)
Exponential rise of momentum effects with the chimney height can
also be verified through the aforesaid data. Temperature rise across the
collector of the pilot plant is also investigated in the present work as
shown in Fig. 8. Chimney height is a significant parameter in terms of
momentum effects as previously mentioned. However, it is observed
from the temperature contours that thermal energy content of air
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704
beneath the collector is remarkably deteriorated by the increase in
chimney height. This can be attributed to the shorter period of time of
air while it is flowing through the collector area when the buoyant
forces are improved with H . In the CFD analyses, air is assumed to enter
the collector with a temperature of 293.15 K. At the outlet of the col-
lector, air is found to reach a maximum temperature of 304.4 K
whenH = 100 m. On the contrary, it can only rise up to 301.2 K when
the chimney height is 500 m. From this point of view, it can be con-
cluded that chimney height and collector diameter are the performance
parameters which interact each other, and for an optimum perfor-
mance, they are required to be enlarged by an appropriate ratio be-
tween the said parameters. In SCPPs there is a connection path between
the outlet of collector and the inlet of chimney. In this area, some part
of the kinetic energy of air transforms into thermal energy due to in-
tensive collisions of air molecules, and by doing so, additional increase
in air temperature is observed as shown in Fig. 9. This is expressed as
the overall temperature rise in the collector, and should not be confused
with maximum temperature increase. Following equation is developed
through the regression model between average ΔT and H :
ΔT = 12.63 + 11.94e−0.005963H (21)
Mass flow rate (ṁ ) is an important parameter which needs to be
illustrates that ṁ exponentially increases with H . For H = 100 m, ṁ is
found to be 886.76 kg/s whereas it is 1496.35 kg/s for the chimney
height of 500 m. This result is also an expected output of improved
buoyant forces in the chimney with the enhanced momentum effects. A
similar tendency is already achieved for the Vm values as previously
discussed. Regression model proposes the following correlation be-
tween ṁ and H :
ṁ = 686.8(1 − e−0.02597H ) − 1142(1 − e−0.002487) (22)
Efficiency (η) of SCPPs is notably poor because of the huge collector
area. In the efficiency expression, the incoming solar power is written to
the denominator which yields to very low figures. In literature, overall
efficiencies of SCPPs vary in the range of 0.2–1% depending on geo-
metric parameters [19]. An efficiency analysis is also carried out within
(19) the scope of this research to examine the influence of chimney height.
Fig. 11 indicates that there is a linear relationship between η and H .
This is also justified through the regression analysis as follows:
η = 0.003458 + 0.001307H (23)
Power output (P ) of the pilot plant is also analysed as a function of
chimney height as depicted in Fig. 12. It is achieved that P rises linearly
with H . For a chimney height of 200 m, the system is found to generate
55 kW electrical power while it is improved to 134 kW when H is in-
creased to 500 m. The relationship between the power output and
chimney height can be expressed by the following equation:
P = 712.4 + 270.8H (24)
Conclusions
Chimney height is comprehensively analysed in terms of its poten-
tial impacts on main performance parameters. 3D axisymmetric CFD
model is developed for the geometric parameters and material char-
acteristics of Manzanares pilot plant. Following the accuracy justifica-
tion of the CFD results through previous works in the scope, parametric
research is conducted for five different chimney heights in the range of
(20) 100–500 m. Temperature, velocity and pressure contours are achieved
for each case. Mass flow rate of air, average temperature rise in col-
lector, average dynamic pressure difference at the turbine position,
system efficiency and power output are numerically determined.
Following bullet points can be concluded from the research:
▪ CFD model shows a very good agreement with the previous
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E. Cuce, et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704

Fig. 5. Air velocity contours within the pilot plant for the chimney height of 100 and 500 m.

measurements in the pilot plant for certain radiation conditions. Vm

is reported to be about 15 m/s in the experimental analyses for a
solar intensity of 1000 W/m2, whereas it is found 14.24 m/s in the
CFD research.
▪ Vm thus ṁ shows an exponential growth with the chimney height.
▪ Pressure distributions within the plant are of vital importance in
terms of accurate assessment of buoyant forces and momentum ef-
fects. Maximum ΔPdyn for a chimney height of 100 m is found to be
−67.22 Pa while it is −147.24 and −202.82 Pa forH = 300 and
500 m, respectively.
▪ Temperature rise in collector is negatively affected by the rise in
chimney height. Air reaches a maximum temperature of 304.4 K
whenH = 100 m. On the other hand, it can only rise up to 301.2 K
when the chimney height is 500 m.
▪ ṁ can be enhanced from 886.76 to 1496.35 kg/s when H is in-
creased from 100 to 500 m.
▪ Efficiency of the plant shows a linearly increasing tendency with
chimney height. η is calculated to be 0.15% forH = 100 m while it
is improved to 0.67% whenH = 500 m.
▪ A linear relationship between power output of the plant and Fig. 7. Dynamic pressure difference (ΔPdyn ) around the turbine as a function of
chimney height is observed. For H = 200 and 500 m, the system is chimney height (H ).
capable of providing 55 and 134 kW electrical power, respectively.
Pinar Mert Cuce: Conceptualization, Validation, Visualization.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Declaration of Competing Interest
Erdem Cuce: Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing,
Supervision. Harun Sen: Data curation, Formal analysis, Software. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

Fig. 6. Pressure distributions around the turbine inlet of the pilot plant for different chimney heights.

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E. Cuce, et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704

Fig. 8. Temperature distributions through the collector of the pilot plant for different chimney heights.

Fig. 9. Average temperature rise in collector (ΔT ) as a function of chimney

height (H ).
Fig. 11. Efficiency of the pilot plant (η ) as a function of chimney height (H ).

Fig. 12. Power output of the pilot plant (P ) as a function of chimney height
(H ).
Fig. 10. Mass flow rate of air (ṁ ) as a function of chimney height (H ).

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E. Cuce, et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 39 (2020) 100704

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