WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH, VOL. 42, W10424, doi:10.

1029/2005WR004486, 2006

Fluvial suspended sediment dynamics:

Implications for particulate organic carbon transport modeling
Heinz Bungartz,1 Angela Krüger,1 and Christof Engelhardt1
Received 4 August 2005; revised 2 May 2006; accepted 7 July 2006; published 20 October 2006.
[1] The effect of fluvial suspended sediment aggregation on the hydrodynamic transport
properties of particulate organic carbon (POC) was investigated using a combination of
field measurement and numerical modeling. Field-based settling tube experiments were
conducted to obtain particle settling velocity frequency distributions of a 4-km-long
section of a lake outlet river at two distinct discharge levels (6.8 and 29.7 m3 s
1). Results
of field studies conducted in April 2001 and April 2002 showed that the lacustrine settling
velocity frequency distributions of suspended particulate matter (SPM) and POC were
altered owing to the formation of riverine aggregates having comparatively higher settling
velocities. Data suggest that aggregation promoted deposition fluxes of POC; these fluxes
were in turn closely tied to the processes that controlled deposition of SPM. Data
interpretation was aided by the employment of a hydrodynamic sediment transport model.
The approach used to integrate aggregation in the sediment transport simulations
represents the interaction of multiple settling velocity mass fractions. Both field data and
modeling demonstrated the effect of aggregation on the increase in deposition fluxes of
POC.
Citation: Bungartz, H., A. Krüger, and C. Engelhardt (2006), Fluvial suspended sediment dynamics: Implications for particulate
organic carbon transport modeling, Water Resour. Res., 42, W10424, doi:10.1029/2005WR004486.

1. Introduction edged that the SPM load in rivers mostly consists of

[2] Production, fluxes, and transformation of particulate
organic carbon (POC) and the impact of these processes on
the local habitat are key concerns in understanding aquatic
ecosystems [Ittekkot, 1988; Minshall et al., 2000]. In rivers,
POC originates from organic-rich surficial soil, riparian
vegetation, and autochthonous production, which is influ-
enced by the trophic state and season. Also important is the
allochthonous input of algae from lakes and tributaries, and
the contribution of macrophyte debris from the littoral zone.
[3] Much of the literature regarding carbon transport has
focused on the mechanics controlling the production, stor-
age and export of POC from river basins [Barth et al., 1998;
Gomez et al., 2003]. Karickhoff [1981], Voice and Weber
[1983], and Sobek et al. [2004] emphasize the central role of
POC in organic contaminant association and transport.
Moreover, particulate organic matter often has a high
nutritional value and thus can be a major food source for
both pelagic and benthic consumers [Ramseier et al., 2000].
Of particular interest, along with lateral carbon flows, are
the in-river vertical fluxes of POC which couple the water
column with the streambed.
[4] On the basis of the determination of carbon content in
suspended particulate matter (SPM), POC yields are com-
monly estimated as a proportion of the SPM discharge.
Thus the movement of POC is directly linked to the
movement of suspended sediments. It is widely acknowl-
1
Department of Ecohydraulics, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology
and Inland Fisheries Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union.
0043-1397/06/2005WR004486
composite particles or flocs/aggregates, formed by allochth-
onous and autochthonous material, which could be from the
pelagic, benthic or terrestrial environment [Eisma, 1993].
These flocs represent a complex matrix of microbial com-
munities, organic and inorganic particles, and interfloc
spaces or pores [Droppo, 2001]. Aggregate formation is
mediated by a number of physical, biological and chemical
variables. Aggregation is a dynamic process, indicating that
hydrodynamic aggregate transport properties change in
response to the ambient conditions. However, the extent
to which POC fluxes are quantitatively linked to the
aggregate dynamics in the freshwater fluvial environment,
is poorly understood because of few experimental studies.
[5] Previous studies on aggregation phenomena and the
processes governing them, have been focused on marine,
estuarine and lacustrine environments [Kranck, 1973; Eisma
and Li, 1993; Grossart and Simon, 1997]. In marine
systems the role of large aggregates (marine snow) in the
vertical flux of organic matter into the oceans’ interior is
widely accepted [Jackson and Burd, 1998].
[6] In fluvial systems the basic nature of cohesive par-
ticles, their constituents and hydrodynamic transport prop-
erties have only recently been investigated [Leppard and
Droppo, 2005]. Correlative microscopy observations were
used by Droppo [2001, 2004] to evaluate the internal
structure of riverine flocs and its potential effect on floc
behavior. The works of Tsai et al. [1987] and Van Leussen
[1997] suggest that turbulence is the most relevant physical
mechanism for the formation of aggregates in riverine
transport. Suspended sediment concentration, and concen-
tration of dissolved and particulate organic carbon might be

W10424 1 of 12

W10424 BUNGARTZ ET AL.: SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DYNAMICS
Figure 1. Map of the study reach of the Spree River showing the locations of the transect stations T1,
T2, and T3/T3*; T3 and T3* denote the different outflow cross sections of the study reach at discharge q1
and q2, respectively.
other important factors controlling aggregation [Burban et al.,
1990; Droppo and Ongley, 1994].
[7] POC incorporates many forms of organic material
(such as detritus, macrophytes, microorganisms and their
secretions, and transparent exopolymer particles) which are
extremely cohesive and may thus help promote aggregation
and aggregate stabilization. However, studies on the impact
of biological factors (such as the influence of sticky
polymers produced by diatoms or bacteria) on particle
aggregation and their role in floc stabilisation and sedimen-
tation have been almost solely orientated to marine environ-
ments [Alldredge et al., 1993; Passow et al., 2001] and
engineering systems [Bura et al., 1998].
[8] Despite the common presence of aggregates within
fluvial systems, their mechanisms of formation are not well
understood. The most significant impact of flocculation, in
terms of sediment transport, is that it alters the downward
fluxes of sediment by changing the hydrodynamics of the
sediment. Aggregation and break up of flocs essentially
alter the particle size, density, and surface area, with
concomitant changes in particle settling velocity [Droppo
et al., 2000; Droppo, 2004]. Turbulent shear is believed to
affect aggregation processes, and consequently aggregate
sizes and settling velocities, in two opposing ways. Turbu-
lence is to some extent conducive to particle aggregation
resulting in larger particles, however increasing turbulent
shear rate presumably increases the chance of floc destruc-
tion, thus limiting floc size [Manning and Dyer, 1999]. This
dynamics, in turn (because settling velocity is a fundamental
input value in modeling these processes), impacts the ability
to predict suspended sediment and sediment-associated
carbon transport.
[9] Even though it is clear that settling velocity changes
dynamically due to particle formation processes, aggrega-
tion is neglected in virtually all of existing sediment
transport models developed for rivers, and the composite
structures are usually assumed to behave as discrete indi-
vidual particles. Conventional models which omit the
effects of particle dynamics provide erroneous predictions
of POC transport [Ongley et al., 1992; Nicholas and Walling,
1996].
[10] To establish the role of aggregation in suspended
sediment dynamics and its effect on POC transport in a
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W10424
fluvial system, we examined changes in the settling velocity
frequency distribution of SPM and POC in a lake outlet
river (Spree River, Germany). We now present data from
field measurements of settling velocity, and results of sim-
ulations using a hydrodynamic sediment transport model.
We applied the model to transport and deposition of three
interacting settling velocity fractions of sediment-associated
carbon. The objectives of our study were (1) to demonstrate
the influence of enhanced turbulence in the river (compared
to the lake) on aggregation and associated changes in the
lacustrine settling velocity distribution, (2) to predict POC
vertical fluxes and to investigate the extent to which these
fluxes are tied to aggregation processes, and (3) to reveal the
potential error due to particle aggregation in predicting POC
transport. For the both latter objectives, we carried out two-
dimensional vertical plane transport simulations. Results
were evaluated with field data of total SPM and POC
concentration and settling velocity frequency distributions
for river discharge levels of 6.8 and 29.7 m3 s
1.
2. Study Site
[11] The Spree River is a typical lowland river in northern
Germany with a catchment area of about 10,000 km2. The
river originates in the Lusatian mountains (Saxonia, Ger-
many) at an elevation of 580 m, and flows for 400 km
through several shallow lakes to Berlin. A detailed descrip-
tion of the Spree River, and its tributaries and lakes, is given
by Köhler [1994].
[12] We investigated a 4-km-long sixth-order section of
the river, the ‘‘Krumme Spree’’ (14°000E, 52°070N). The
inflow cross section of the study reach (transect station T1)
was located about 500 m downstream from the outlet of
Lake Neuendorfer See (Figure 1). The enhanced turbulence
(compared to the lake) on the chosen river section provided
optimal conditions for study of the influence of changes in
turbulent shear on aggregation processes and associated
changes in the settling velocity distribution.
[13] As a result of channel straightening between 1906
and 1912, the Krumme Spree now has a trapezoidal
channel. Mean slope is approximately 0.01%, the mean
width 25 m, and the mean depth 1.5 to 2.5 m, depending on
river discharge. Between 1997 and 2002, river discharge
varied from 2 m3 s
1 to 32 m3 s
1 (mean 12.4 m3 s
1), with

W10424 BUNGARTZ ET AL.: SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DYNAMICS
mean flow velocities between 0.08 m s
1 and 0.67 m s
1
(mean 0.29 m s
1).
[14] At transect T1, concentration and composition of
SPM, content of POC, and aggregate settling characteristics
were predominantly controlled by the particle input received
from the lake. The seasonal variability of SPM concentra-
tion was greatly affected by phytoplankton dynamics. From
April 2001 until May 2002, when field studies were con-
ducted, SPM concentration at transect T1 varied between
3.1 and 11.7 mg dry weight L
1. The lake, as a point source
of suspended organic carbon, imposes on this outlet stream
its own patterns of mostly autochthonous organic carbon
production. Expressed as a percentage of SPM, contents of
POC at transect T1 showed a large organic rich fraction
(annual mean 17% of dry SPM with only small seasonal
fluctuations) [Rother and Köhler, 2005]. In the lake, typical
frequency distributions are dominated by material with
settling velocities <1.25 cm h
1 (75 – 80% of SPM); mate-
rial with settling velocities >90 cm h
1 contribute only 2 to
4% to SPM concentration. In the river, under equilibrium
conditions, only proportions between 38 and 60% are in
the lower than 1.25 cm h
1 fraction, whereas the fraction
>90 cm h
1 ranges from 6 to 20% [Kozerski et al., 1991].
The distinct differences in settling velocity distribution
indicate how the lacustrine hydrodynamics of suspended
sediment may be altered by riverine turbulence structures.
3. Field Work: Materials and Methods
3.1. Experimental Design
[ 15 ] Field settling experiments were conducted on
24 April 2001 and 23 April 2002, at discharge levels of
6.8 m3 s
1 (= q1) and 29.7 m3 s
1 (= q2), respectively.
Longitudinal changes in total SPM concentration and set-
tling velocity frequency distribution of SPM were deter-
mined for both discharge levels. To examine how POC
pathways are tied to SPM aggregate dynamics, percentages
of POC in total SPM and in SPM settling velocity fractions
were measured, resulting in settling velocity frequency
distribution of POC.
[16] The distances between the inflow cross section (T1)
of the study reach and the sampling sites T2 and T3/T3*
were 1050 m and 3830 m/2200 m, respectively (Figure 1).
T3 and T3* denote the different outflow cross sections of
the study reach at discharge q1 and q2, respectively. The
distance T3* = 2200 m at discharge q2 was chosen to be
shorter than that at discharge q1 (T3 = 3830 m) because
under conditions of higher turbulence/discharge an equilib-
rium between the settling velocity fractions is achieved
faster [Bungartz and Wanner, 2004].
3.2. Suspended Particulate Matter Concentration
[17] Water samples were collected in Lagrangian (time of
travel) sampling mode between the transect stations T1 and
T3 at 7 sites (discharge level q1), and between T1 and T3*
at 4 sites (discharge level q2). At each site, three replicate
grab samples were collected midstream at a water depth of
about 0.3 m. To determine suspended particulate matter
(SPM) concentration (mg dry weight L
1), samples were
filtered through preweighed Sartorius 0.45 mm cellulose
acetate filters, dried to constant weight at 105°C, and
weighed again.
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W10424
3.3. Particulate Organic Carbon Concentration
[18] Particulate organic carbon (POC) was measured
using the same samples used for SPM determination. What-
man glass microfibre filters GF/F were washed with 50 ml
pure water, combusted at 500°C for 5 h and preweighed.
After filtration, filters were dried to constant weight at
105°C and weighed again. POC was determined using the
CHN Analyser Vario EL (Elementar Analysensysteme,
Hanau). POC was measured as mg C L
1. In the combus-
tion reactor, oxygen gas and other oxidizing and catalyzing
reagents support the completeness of high-temperature
combustion of organic carbon compounds to carbon diox-
ide. CO2 was detected and quantified by the thermal
conductivity detector.
3.4. Settling Velocity Determinations
[19] In order to determine settling velocity frequency
distributions of suspended particles, a modified bottom
withdrawal method was employed [McCave and Syvitski,
1991; Prochnow et al., 1996]. Field settling tubes (Perspex
columns with an inner diameter of 4.7 cm, height 30 cm)
were filled with river water 0.3 m below surface, and
stored vertically in a large container filled with river water.
[20] Frequency distributions of SPM were obtained from
sediment accumulation – time curves, the so-called Oden
curves. Following the theory of Oden [1915], in such a
system, after time t, the material that has settled to the
bottom of a tube with the height H, can be divided into two
fractions: (1) a portion of the sediment with settling velocity
vs(t) < H/t and (2) particles with vs(t)  H/t. According to
these considerations, a water sample is filled into the
settling tube equipped with a tap at the bottom. At times
tk (0 < t1 < . . . < tN) samples are withdrawn and filtered in
order to determine the mass of particles Bk = Bk(tk) settled
during the time tk. The discrete Oden curve is then estab-
lished by pairs (tk, Bk).
[21] In our experiments, at each of three withdrawal times
t1 = 1 h, t2 = 6 hrs, and t3 = 24 hrs, samples from one rack
(with four tubes to provide replicate samples for each
withdrawal time tk), were taken and then filtered to determine
the sediment content in the lowest 5 cm of each tube. As a
result of this quasi in situ measurement, the SPM load was
divided into three fractions, each assigned to an interval of
settling velocities (first fraction < 1.25 cm h
1, 1.25 cm h
1 <
second fraction < 30.0 cm h
1, third fraction >30.0 cm h
1).
More detailed information on the measuring procedure and
data processing are given by Prochnow et al. [1996]. Settling
velocity distributions of POC have been calculated by using
measured POC contents of total SPM and of SPM settling
velocity fractions.
3.5. Flow Characteristics
[22] Estimates of effective river bed roughness heights and
shear velocities in the river midstream region were obtained
by fitting the log law of the wall to measured vertical profiles
of the streamwise flow velocity. For these measurements, we
used a portable one-dimensional electromagnetic current
meter (NAUTILUS C2000, OTT/Germany).
4. Field Work: Results and Discussion
[23] Distributions of particle settling velocity were mea-
sured in both hydraulic situations at the transect stations T1,
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W10424 BUNGARTZ ET AL.: SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DYNAMICS W10424

SPM appears to be already altered by river turbulence

structures in the section from the lake outlet to transect
T1 (Figure 3). It can be hypothesized that the typical
lacustrine sediment settling characteristics are modified
more quickly (in comparison to discharge q1) due to higher
fluid shear. An equilibrium in the floc formation processes
is consequently reached faster, due to a short response time
of aggregation (the time needed to establish an approxi-
mately constant relation between settling velocity fractions)
and further changes of the distribution (such as the decrease
of the <1.25 cm h
1 fraction) are relatively small over the
traveling distance to transect T3*. The median settling
velocity of SPM increases from 0.94 cm h
1 at T1 to
1.02 cm h
1 at T3*.
[25] Comparison of settling velocity distributions of POC
and SPM for both discharge situations (see Figure 3)
indicates similar distribution patterns at all transect stations.
Mean contents of POC in total SPM of 14.8% and 17.7%
were determined for the discharge levels q1 and q2, respec-
tively. Percentages of POC present in SPM and in settling
velocity fractions are summarized in Table 1. An interesting
result concerns the formation of aggregates with high
settling velocities; the percent POC in the >30 cm h
1
fraction increased from 10% (at transect T1) to 16.3% at the
outflow cross section (T3) at low discharge q1, and from 9.4
to 13.3% for high discharge q2. Data in Table 1 also show
that POC content in the settling velocity fractions differs
Figure 2. Longitudinal profiles of suspended particulate
matter (SPM) and particulate organic carbon (POC)
concentration at discharge levels of 6.8 m3 s
1 (q1) and
29.7 m3 s
1 (q2). Each point represents the mean value with
the standard error of the mean (n = 3 –5).

T2, and T3/T3* with the modified bottom withdrawal

method described above. Longitudinal profiles of total
SPM and POC concentration (Figure 2) showed that at
low discharge q1, there were losses of 25% and 30% for
SPM and POC respectively, probably attributable to simple
sedimentation along the river reach, (SPM (mg dry weight
(dw) L
1) = 6.66
0.33 X, R2 = 0.38, and POC (mg C
L
1) = 1.04
0.066 X, R2 = 0.33; distance X in kilo-
meters). At high discharge q2, there was a slight increase of
SPM and POC concentration (Figure 2), possibly due to net
resuspension. Concentration data, however, showed no
significant dependency on traveling distance.
[24] The results of the settling column experiments show
that settling velocity distribution and its longitudinal alter-
ation is dependent on aggregation processes controlled by
river discharge/turbulence (Figure 3). At the low discharge
q1, the settling velocity distribution of SPM at transect T1
still exhibits characteristics typical for the distribution in
the lake (about 80% of the total mass are in the lower than
1.25 cm h
1 fraction). From transect T1, this distribution
changes slowly over the traveling distance to transect T3.
While the relative contribution of particles with settling
velocities <1.25 cm h
1 to the total mass declines to 60% at
transect T3, the contribution of particles having settling
velocities >30 cm h
1 increases from 14 to 31%. This
process results in an increase in the SPM median settling Figure 3. SPM and POC settling velocity fractions and
velocity from 0.44 cm h
1 at T1 to 0.89 cm h
1 at T3. At frequency distributions determined at the transect stations
the high discharge q2, the settling velocity distribution of T1, T2, and T3/T3* at discharge levels of 6.8 m3 s
1 (q1)
and 29.7 m3 s
1 (q2).
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Table 1. Percentages of Particulate Organic Carbon in Total Suspended Particulate Matter and in Three Settling Velocity Fractions at the
Transect Stations T1, T2, and T3/T3* at Discharge Levels of 6.8 m3 s
1 (q1) and 29.7 m3 s
1 (q2)
Discharge q1 Discharge q2

Transect Station Total SPM First Fraction Second Fraction Third Fraction Total SPM First Fraction Second Fraction Third Fraction

T1 14.5 14.6 21.3 10.0 17.9 18.9 19.7 9.4

T2 13.7 12.3 13.6 17.4 17.3 19.3 18.6 10.7
T3/T3* 16.1 15.0 22.5 16.3 17.8 19.1 19.1 13.3

from that in total SPM at both discharge levels. The varying
POC content in the >30 cm h
1 fraction over the traveling
distance indicates POC transfer between fractions owing to
aggregation processes. This change in the proportions of
POC in SPM fractions (as a results of nonequilibrium
transport) may influence transport and deposition of organic
carbon. An overview of further settling characteristics given
in Table 2, reveals a strong consistency of SPM and POC
data at both discharge levels.
[26] The similarity of the settling velocity distributions of
SPM and POC (Figure 3) suggests that both distributions,
and their alteration over the traveling distance, were con-
trolled by the same process of aggregation and breakup of
flocs. The POC is assumed to promote particle aggregation,
and the increasing contents of POC in the >30 cm h
1
fraction might promote floc stabilization. Considering also
the comparable longitudinal decline in SPM and POC
concentration at discharge q1 (Figure 2), it can be suspected
that riverine turbulence provides aggregation mechanisms
which continuously generate particles that settle toward the
river bed, thus largely accounting for the losses of SPM and
POC.
5. Modeling: Model Description
[27] In order to reliably simulate cohesive sediment
transport, it is necessary to add to the hydrodynamic model
base, appropriate algorithms describing the properties and
behavior of cohesive sediment, and its response to hydro-
dynamic stresses as well as to the interactive biological and
chemical factors influencing floc development.
[28] In the present study, we used a hydrodynamic model
called SEDIFLOW [Prochnow et al., 1991]. In this model,
an approach is employed to incorporate particle aggregation
as an additional element. The aggregation module repre-
sents the interaction of multiple SPM/POC classes (frac-
tions) with corresponding multiple deposition behavior.
Aggregation and breakup are represented indirectly by mass
fluxes between the SPM/POC fractions, thus simulating
only the effects rather than the processes of aggregation.
The model has previously been calibrated with regard to
morphological data and the specific hydraulics of the
examined river reach. Details of longitudinal river topogra-
phy, results of flow velocity calculations, and results of
model application to transport and deposition of tracer
particles are presented by Bungartz and Wanner [2004].
Finally, the ability of the model to reliably simulate natural
SPM transport and settling was validated.
[29] We applied a two-dimensional vertical plane version
of the numerical model SEDIFLOW. The governing equa-
tions used to describe 2-D turbulent open channel flow are
based on the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations
for incompressible flows. The standard k-e model [Rodi,
1993] was employed to calculate the vertical turbulent
transfer coefficients for momentum and particulate matter.
[30] The selected model type reflects the downstream
transport of settling velocity mass fractions in the midstream
part of the river by vertical plane simulations. Vertical
structures of flow and SPM/POC concentration, as well as
the interaction between the pelagic and the benthic zone
controlled by the prevailing hydrodynamic conditions, are
calculated in detail. Transverse variations and particle
retention due to the presence of dead zones or vegetation
were neglected in the model. The focus and scope of this
paper preclude describing the numerical model in full; a
more detailed description of the mathematical background
has been provided by Bungartz et al. [2000]. However, for a
better understanding it is helpful to outline here the basic
idea of the approach for integration of particle aggregation
in the sediment transport model. Detailed information on

Table 2. Particle Settling Characteristics at the Transect Stations T1 and T3/T3* at Discharge Levels of 6.8 m3 s
1 (q1) and 29.7 m3 s
1
(q2)a
Median Averaged
Median Settling Averaged Averaged Settling
Settling Velocity at Settling Settling Velo- Velocity in
Velocity at T1 T3/T3* Velocity at T1 city at T3/T3* Equilibrium
(Measured), (Measured), (Measured), (Measured), (Simulated),
Mean SPM Mean POC cm h
1 cm h
1 cm h
1 cm h
1 cm h
1
Discharge Concentration, Concentration,
Level mg dw L
1 mg C L
1 SPM POC SPM POC SPM POC SPM POC SPM POC

q1 6.02 0.89 0.44 0.38 0.89 1.03 8.67 7.01 17.38 18.08 17.5 17.2
q2 6.55 1.16 0.94 0.87 1.02 0.96 11.11 8.28 14.44 12.06 14.28 11.37
a
Mean concentration equals longitudinally averaged concentration.

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Table 3. Hydraulic Conditions at Discharge Levels q1 and q2a

Discharge q, Mean Water Mean Flow Mean Bed Longitudinal Response Time
m3 s
1 Depth Midstream, m Velocity, m s
1 Shear Stress, N m
2 Mixing, m2 s
1 of Aggregation, hours

6.8 (q1) 2.62 0.18 0.097 1.8 3.1

29.7 (q2) 3.25 0.75 1.76 9.55 0.45
a
Mean values equal longitudinally averaged values.

model parameters and on initial and boundary conditions
are given by Bungartz and Wanner [2004].
[31] The vertical plane transport of k interacting settling
velocity mass fractions ci is governed by the system of
convection-diffusion equations


@ci @ci @ci @ Dx @ci
þu þv
ditions (concentration data and settling velocity distribu-
@t @x @y @x sci @x


@ Dy @ci i

þ ci  vs ¼ Fi ; i ¼ 1; . . . ; k
@y sci @y
where t is time (s), x and y are the streamwise and vertical
Cartesian coordinates (m), respectively, ci is the SPM
concentration (mg dw L
1) of the ith fraction, or POC
concentration (mg C L
1) of the ith fraction, u and v are the
components of flow velocity (m s
1) in x, y directions,
respectively, vis is the settling velocity (m s
1) of the ith
SPM/POC fraction in quiescent fluid (settling velocity of
ith SPM fraction and ith POC fraction is identical), Dx and
Dy are the coefficients of turbulent momentum exchange
(m2 s
1) in x and y directions, respectively, and sci is the
turbulent Schmidt number, which relates the coefficients of
sediment mixing to the coefficients of turbulent momentum
exchange.
[32] The source term Fi (mg dw L
1 s
1 or mg C L
1

1
s ) on the right hand side of equation (1)
X
k
Fi ¼ Fsi þ Fij
j¼1
describes external SPM/POC sources and the interaction
between settling velocity fractions. This term models the
effects of particle aggregation and breakup on the
concentration of settling velocity fractions, where Fsi is a
vector, describing external sources/sinks (mg dw L
1 s
1 or
mg C L
1 s
1), and Fij is a coupling matrix, describing
SPM/POC fluxes (mg dw L
1 s
1 or mg C L
1 s
1)
between k considered SPM/POC fractions, where the mass
transfer between the ith and jth fraction is governed by the
exchange terms
Fij ¼ Qði; jÞcj
Qðj; iÞci :
Here Q(i,j) is the reciprocal value of the response time of
aggregation (s
1), and Q(j,i) is defined by
 
Qðj; iÞ ¼ Qði; jÞ  Kij s
1 ;
where Kij are constant partitioning coefficients, describing
an equilibrium between the settling velocity fractions that is
assumed to occur under uniform conditions related to the
mechanisms controlling aggregate formation along the river
reach.
[33] In the numerical procedure, the effect of particle
formation processes on the settling velocity distribution is
specified by the fluxes Fij. These fluxes were adjusted to get
accurate simulations of the settling velocity distribution at
the transect station T3/T3*. Simulation results can be used
to quantify the influence of the factors which are believed to
regulate particle formation. Using appropriate initial con-
tions of SPM and POC measured at the inflow cross
ð1Þ section) for the numerical calculations, after the response
time of aggregation, a roughly constant relation between
concentrations ci and cj is established downstream (Kij =
cjeq/cieq, where cieq, cjeq are the equilibrium concentrations).
It should be stressed that in this model concept, particle
interaction is allowed merely between either SPM or POC
fractions. Dynamics in the distribution of POC to sediment
settling velocity fractions can be modeled indirectly by
different partitioning coefficients Kij for SPM and POC
fractions.
6. Modeling: Results and Discussion
6.1. Flow Field Calculations
[34] Using field data from previous depth measurements
and numerical simulations of particulate tracer experiments
(April 1999) at discharge levels of 7.9 and 14.8 m3 s
1
[Wanner and Pusch, 2000; Bungartz and Wanner, 2004], we
determined the parameters necessary to operate the model
(for example for the coefficient of longitudinal mixing, a di-
ð2Þ
mensionless value Dx/hu* 70 was identified numerically;
here h is the mean water depth, u* is the mean bed shear
velocity). In order to characterize the discharge situations q1
and q2, a summary of hydraulic parameters is presented in
Table 3. Hydraulic predictions (steady state flow fields) for
the two discharge levels are carried forward to the partic-
ulate transport component of the model, which is able to
simulate both the transport of suspended sediment and POC,
and the depositional behavior for a range of SPM/POC
settling velocity fractions.
6.2. Model Simulations of SPM and POC Transport
in the Spree River
[35] In order to simulate fraction behavior, a specific
settling velocity vis was assigned to each particle fraction
ci (i = 1,2,3) as follows: v1s = 0.625 cm h
1, v2s = 15.6 cm h
1,
and v3s = 50 cm h
1. As mentioned above, ci can repre-
sent both SPM and POC settling velocity mass fractions.
While for fractions c1 and c2, the mean value of the respec-
ð3Þ tive interval was used, for c3 the value was an estimate,
because the measuring procedure precluded determination
of an upper limit for the settling velocity. Using the hydrau-
lic predictions resulting from the hydrodynamics module,
the transport of SPM and POC fractions downstream
from transect T1 was simulated with and without particle
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W10424 BUNGARTZ ET AL.: SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DYNAMICS W10424

Figure 4. Comparison of predicted SPM and POC behavior along the sampling reach, with and without
aggregation, at discharge level q1 (all values at 30 cm below surface). (a and b) Settling velocity
fractions. Symbols for first fraction are as follows: solid circles, measured; thin dashed line,
nonaggregated; thick dashed line, aggregated. Symbols for second fraction are as follows: open circles,
measured; thin dotted line, nonaggregated; thick dotted line, aggregated. Symbols for third fraction are as
follows: squares, measured; thin dot-dashed line, nonaggregated; thick dot-dashed line, aggregated.
(c and d) Total concentrations. Symbols are as follows: diamonds, measured values; thin solid line,
calculated as the sum of the fractions, nonaggregated; thick solid line, calculated as the sum of the
fractions, aggregated. (e and f) Mean settling velocity vsm calculated from equation (4) for nonaggregated
(thin solid line) and aggregated (thick solid line). In all graphs, lines represent calculated values, and
symbols represent measured values.

interaction. The measured settling velocity distributions
at T1 were used to specify initial sediment concentrations ci
at the inflow boundary. In the interacting fractions mode,
the values of the partitioning coefficients Kij in equation (3)
were tuned so that the downstream relationships between
SPM/POC fractions (at transect T3/T3*) were accurately
reflected by the simulations. Using these coefficients, proper
values for the response time of aggregation 1/Q(i,j) were
identified by numerical experiments. In the noninteracting
mode, all fractions behaved independently (Fij = 0 in (2)).
External sources were neglected (Fsi = 0).
[36] Measurements at discharge level q1 showed that the
flow field was in an apparently depositional mode, in which
both SPM and POC concentrations declined along the study
reach. Therefore, in our simulations, we made the simpli-
fying assumption that deposition occurs, but not resuspen-
sion. In contrast, at the considerably higher discharge q2,
measurements suggested a net resuspension rate resulting in
a slight increase of SPM and POC.
[37] In such situations, where the bed shear stress exceeds
a critical value high enough to mobilize consolidated
material, deposition and resuspension can occur simulta-
neously [Lick, 1982]. However, other investigators argue
that simultaneous erosion and deposition do not occur
during cohesive sediment settling [Lau and Krishnappan,
1994]. In our model concept, we assume a spatial variability
of bed shear, and of bed composition and stability, at which
opposite sediment fluxes at the riverbed are allowed. The
estimation of the resuspension rate is the key problem in
modeling nonequilibrium suspended sediment transport,
particularly when more than one fraction is considered
[Celik and Rodi, 1988]. Depositional history, consolidation,
and biostabilization of settled material are factors that
essentially affect resuspension of sediment containing a
significant amount of cohesive particles. Because of these
effects, fine sediment is increasingly difficult to resuspend
after deposition [Eisma, 1993].
[38] The features of downstream transport and deposition/
resuspension for aggregated and nonaggregated fractions
are shown in Figures 4 and 5 for discharge levels q1 and q2,
respectively. At discharge q1, predicted total SPM/POC
concentrations (as the sum of the concentrations ci) reflected

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Figure 5. Comparison of predicted SPM and POC behavior along the sampling reach with and without
aggregation at discharge level q2 (all values at 30 cm below surface). (a and b) Settling velocity fractions.
Symbols for first fraction are as follows: circles, measured; thin dashed line, nonaggregated; thick dashed
line, aggregated. Symbols for the second fraction are as follows: circles, measured; thin dotted line,
nonaggregated; thick dotted line, aggregated. Symbols for the third fraction are as follows: squares,
measured, thin dot-dashed line, nonaggregated, thick dot-dashed line, aggregated. (c and d) Total
concentrations. Symbols are as follows: diamonds, measured values; thin solid line, calculated as the sum
of the fractions, nonaggregated, thick solid line, calculated as the sum of the fractions, aggregated. (e and f )
Mean settling velocity vsm calculated from equation (4) for nonaggregated (thin solid line) and aggre-
gated (thick solid line). In all graphs, lines represent calculated values, and symbols represent measured
values.

the decline of measured values only when particle interac- it is apparent that the mass weighted averaged settling
tion was allowed (Figures 4c and 4d). Modeling which did velocity vm
s , calculated using the relation
not take particle formation processes into account, resulted
in lower sediment deposition fluxes than the modeling that X
3 X
3
considered aggregation due to particle interaction. This vm
s ¼ ci  vis = ci ; ð4Þ
i¼1 i¼1
result is consistent with the results presented by Ongley et
al. [1992] and Nicholas and Walling [1996]. For SPM,
longitudinally averaged deposition rates of 1.0 10
4 and behaves very differently when aggregation processes are
2.5 10
4 mg dw m
2 s
1 were predicted for nonaggre- assumed. In the case of nonaggregating fractions, vm s
gated and aggregated fractions respectively; corresponding decreases downstream; however, when the aggregation is
rates for POC were 1.4 10
5 and 4.1 10
5 mg C m
2 s
1. allowed for, vm s increases markedly for a distance of about
Consequently, deposition flux of POC for aggregated frac- 2000 m, then approaches a constant (equilibrium) value (see
tions was predicted to be about 3 times higher than for Table 2). The dynamic behavior of vm s within the distance
nonaggregated fractions. Figures 4a and 4b illustrate the of 2000 m corresponds to a response time of aggregation
very different downstream behavior of the three fractions 1/Q(i,j) = 3.1 h. This response time was identified numeri-
when particle interaction was considered. Simulations dem- cally as the most suitable value in fitting model predictions
onstrate that the predicted higher deposition rates were to SPM experimental data.
caused by the formation of aggregates having relatively [39] For discharge q1, any model parameters (in particu-
high settling velocities. Furthermore, from Figures 4e and 4f lar the partitioning coefficients Kij and the response time of
aggregation) used for simulation of SPM fraction behavior
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W10424 BUNGARTZ ET AL.: SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DYNAMICS
were also applied to simulate the transport of POC fractions.
As shown in Figure 4, these parameters proved to be
suitable, not only for SPM, but also to reflect the POC
transport by the numerical model. This finding gives reason
to the assumption of a close linkage between SPM aggre-
gate dynamics and alterations in the settling velocity distri-
bution of POC.
[40] Simulation results of the transport of SPM/POC
fractions for the high discharge q2 are depicted in Figure 5.
The increasing SPM values suggest that under the prevailing
hydraulic conditions, a net resuspension occurs. Even though
it is quite possible that resuspension of particles from all frac-
tions occurs, our numerical experiments provided the best fit
to experimental data when only material of the <1.25 cm h
1
fraction was allowed to resuspend. Rates of 7.6 10
4 mg
dw m
2 s
1 and 1.2 10
4 mg C m
2 s
1 were identified
numerically for the resuspension of SPM and POC respec-
tively. Consequently, the percent POC present in resuspended
sediment is about 15.8%. Accounting for the model predicted
deposition rates, net resuspension rates were 4.3 10
4 mg
dw m
2 s
1 and 0.67 10
4 mg C m
2 s
1 for SPM and
POC respectively. Predicted total SPM and POC concen-
trations show only small deviations from the measured
values, and virtually no difference regardless of aggregation
(Figures 5c and 5d). This is accounted for by the opposite
trend of the lower than 1.25 cm h
1 settling fraction, and the
fraction with settling velocities higher than 30 cm h
1
(Figures 5a and 5b).
[41] However, as already demonstrated for discharge q1,
simulations reveal a different transport behavior of the
fractions when sediment was nonaggregated and aggregated.
Independent of discharge level, simulation show that in the
case of noninteracting sediment, the shares of the fraction
with low settling velocities (<1.25 cm h
1) are overesti-
mated by the model, whereas the shares of the third fraction
(settling velocity of >30.0 cm h
1) are underestimated.
Figures 5e and 5f depict the changes in the mean settling
velocity vm s at discharge q2. Owing to the higher turbulence
intensity, an equilibrium between the fractions (indicated by
constant vm s ) is already established after a response time of
aggregation of about 0.44 h. This measure corresponds to a
traveling distance of 1200 m. Deviating from the proce-
dure applied to discharge q1, partitioning coefficients used
for SPM simulations had to be modified in order to properly
reflect POC field data by the numerical model. Although
SPM and POC fractions exhibit a consistent qualitative
longitudinal behavior (Figures 5a and 5b), a disparity in
the partitioning coefficients Kij = ceqj/ceqi (ratios of equilib-
rium concentrations in (3), governing the mass fluxes Fi,j)
of SPM and POC necessitates the use of different model
parameters.
[42] We can only speculate about the reasons for the
different association of POC with settling velocity fractions.
Diverse hydraulic conditions differently influence the for-
mation of aggregates, and hence the distribution of POC to
SPM settling velocity fractions. Seasonality can also control
aggregate development and stability. For instance, the
occurrence of exopolymeric substances, which are known
to be conducive to aggregation due to their cohesiveness, is
closely related to growth stage and species composition of
phytoplankton [Grossart and Simon, 1997; Passow, 2002].
However, not only phytoplankton, but also bacteria, (in
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W10424
particular when attached to surfaces like biofilms or macro-
aggregates), were shown to produce slime films [Decho,
1990]. Bacterial activity may release large amounts of very
small sticky fibrillar material providing bridging mechanism
between floc components, and thus may directly control the
formation and properties of aggregates [Liss et al., 1996].
[43] Overall, field data and model predictions highlight
the significance of aggregation for transport, deposition,
and retention of POC in rivers. Transport of terrestrial
carbon into rivers, and eventually into the ocean, con-
stitutes an important link in the global carbon cycle, but
the POC flux is likely tempered by sedimentation losses.
About 45% of the organic carbon entering the rivers
globally, is transported to the ocean, 25 –30% is oxidized
within the system, and 25– 30% is stored in the system as
sediment [Sarin et al., 2002]. Beside the global aspect of
organic carbon fluxes, riverine POC transport is important
in distributing energy and associated nutrients at multiple
spatial and temporal scales, and is therefore a vital
measure of trophic linkages between river segments.
Explicit information regarding POC transport distance is
required to quantitatively asses the strength of longitudi-
nal linkages in river ecosystems, and to estimate fluxes of
organic matter between suspended and benthic POC pools
[Minshall et al., 2000]. Our results reveal that vertical
fluxes of organic carbon can be highly variable tempo-
rally, due primarily to temporal variations in river turbu-
lence (discharge). Model calculated deposition rates also
show that POC deposition in fluvial systems may poten-
tially be enhanced by particle aggregation.
[44] Comparing the alteration of settling velocity distri-
bution along the examined river reach, a different fraction
behavior is shown at both discharges (Figure 3). Response
time of aggregation became considerably shorter at higher
flow velocity/fluid shear (Table 3). For approximately
uniform flow conditions along a river reach, we assume
that depending on the prevailing shear characteristics, a
definite aggregate settling velocity distribution develops.
Under the influence of turbulence forces, there is a contin-
uous process of aggregation and breakup, resulting in a
dynamic equilibrium of the aggregates (strength, size,
density and settling velocity) after a particular response
time of aggregation [Van Leussen, 1997; Manning and
Dyer, 1999]. It is hereby assumed that larger flocs are
formed in zones of lower shear with settling velocities high
enough to settle toward the river bed. There, the strongest
lift and shear forces occur, and only those flocs that are
strong enough, settle through the region of maximum shear
stresses to the bed. If the floc integrity is less than the
ambient turbulent shear stress, the floc will fracture, and the
resulting smaller units (with lower settling velocities) are
lifted back to participate again in the aggregation process
[Metha and Partheniades, 1975]. Thus turbulent bed shear
stress can impose a maximum floc size on the suspended
floc population.
[45] The ‘‘Kolmogorov microscale of turbulence’’ Lk =
(n 3 e
1)1/4, as a measure for the smallest eddies in a
turbulent patch in a river (where n (m2 s
1) is kinematic
viscosity and e (m2 s
3) is dissipation rate of kinetic
energy), is assumed to be a good reference for the maximum
possible floc size, which in turn may influence the settling
velocity spectrum of suspended particles [Van Leussen,
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W10424 BUNGARTZ ET AL.: SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DYNAMICS W10424

are also well reflected by the model at the transect T2. In

Figure 6, model-calculated mass fluxes Fi,j between the ith
and jth SPM/POC fraction are depicted for discharge
level q1. Simulations show high transfer rates from the
lower than 1.25 cm h
1 fraction directly to the >30 cm h
1
fraction within the distance of 1000 m. In contrast, the mass
transfer from the <1.25 cm h
1 fraction to the second
fraction (1.25 cm h
1 < 2nd fraction < 30.0 cm h
1) is
comparatively low over the total distance, whereas the mass
transfer flux from the second fraction to the >30 cm h
1
fraction is more intensive within the first 500 m.
Corresponding to the similar longitudinal behavior of
SPM and POC fractions, fluxes Fi,j shown in Figure 6 also
exhibit this similarity.
[48] The response times of aggregation and median
settling velocities under equilibrium conditions for the
examined river reach at four turbulence levels, represented
by their mean bed shear stresses (data from this study and
from Bungartz and Wanner [2004]), are given in Figure 7.
The numerically identified response time of aggregation
declines with increasing turbulence, that is to say the higher
the turbulence, the faster an equilibrium between the frac-
tions is established. Although our analysis is based on only
a few data sets, the behavior of median settling velocity is in
agreement with the hypotheses that settling velocity is
largely controlled by turbulent shear. Manning [2004]
Figure 6. Model calculated mass fluxes Fi,j between showed that the settling velocity of flocs formed in an es-
the ith and jth SPM/POC fraction at discharge level of tuary, rise with increasing shear stress until a limiting value
6.8 m3 s
1 (q1). was reached. Accordingly, turbulence is to some extent con-
ducive to particle aggregation, resulting in larger particles
with higher settling velocity (increasing median values up
1997]. This described quantitative effect of turbulence on to a particular bed shear stress, as shown in Figure 7a).
the aggregation process and deposition behavior of cohesive
sediment is also referred to as ‘floc recycling’ and may have
implications on the modeling of these processes [Droppo,
2004].
[46] Our simulations confirm that the bed shear stress of
0.097 N m
2 at discharge q1 is below a threshold value
(determined by the strength of the flocs) for deposition,
resulting in a net deposition rate for SPM and sediment-
associated POC. Beyond a critical bed shear stress for
erosion (discharge q2, bed shear stress of 1.76 N m
2),
only extremely shear resistant flocs with high settling
velocities are still deposited, but simultaneous resuspension
of other fractions leads to a net resuspension rate. Consid-
ering that under the conditions of high discharge q2, flocs
will be destroyed in the zone of high shear, the numerically
identified net resuspension rates for SPM and POC will
comprise not only resuspended bed material but also frag-
ments of flocs which get broken up as they approach the
bed. However, our model is not designed to differentiate
between these two constituents. Simulations only reflect the
fraction behavior near the water surface, which to a great
extent is controlled by the breakup of flocs under shear
stresses applied near the bed.
[47] As we noted above, the mass fluxes Fij were adjusted
to get accurate simulations of the settling velocity distribu-
tion at the transect station T3/T3*. Starting with the mea-
sured initial settling velocity distribution at the inflow
transect T1, the modified distribution occurred after a Figure 7. (a) Median settling velocity and (b) response
certain traveling distance, which was dependent on the time of aggregation versus mean bed shear stress, obtained
response time of aggregation. Model predictions show that from two studies at the river reach downstream from the
measured absolute fraction concentrations (Figures 4 and 5) outlet of Lake Neuendorfer See.
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A further increase in shear (beyond a critical value) may re-
sult in the breakup of flocs in fragments with lower settling
velocity (indicated by the low median value at high shear
stress in Figure 7a).
7. Conclusions
[49] Aggregate dynamics have significant consequences
for the transport of suspended sediment and sediment-
associated organic carbon in rivers. The present study has
employed both field data on the behavior of SPM and POC
settling velocity fractions, and numerical modeling, to
establish the role of aggregation in the continual alteration
of hydrodynamic transport properties of SPM and its
implications for POC transport.
[50] Field experiments showed the effect of different
turbulent shear on aggregate formation, and its effect on
particle settling velocity frequency distribution, in a lake
outlet river at two markedly different levels of river dis-
charge. Our data suggest that aggregation results in the
formation of particles with settling velocities high enough to
settle toward the river bed. Furthermore, field data indicate a
close interrelationship of particle formation processes and
POC deposition fluxes.
[51] A hydrodynamic and sediment transport model has
been applied to simulate transport and sedimentation
behavior of SPM/POC settling velocity fractions. The ag-
gregation module we used represents the interaction of
multiple SPM/POC fractions, with corresponding multiple
deposition behavior. The mass fluxes between the three
settling velocity fractions could be quantified by comparing
field data of settling velocity frequency distributions with
predicted numerical results. Simulation results show the
capability of the model to reliably predict SPM/POC trans-
port and vertical exchange processes at the river bed.
[52] However, because of the close linkage between floc
strength and sediment transport, there is a great need for
more intensive study of floc dynamics under varying shear
rates during their journey through the water column
[Droppo, 2004]. Although the effect of shear on floc
formation is quite well understood, in contrast, the breakup
of floc under applied shear stress is an almost unexplored
field of flocculation research.
[53] Generally, the predictive capability of models of
cohesive sediment and sediment-associated material trans-
port is limited. Because of the inherent nature of cohesive
sediment and site specificities, an adequate database against
which cohesive sediment models could be validated does
not exist [Teisson, 1997]. Nevertheless, existing models
represent valuable exploratory tools allowing the examina-
tion of the interaction between model components, as well
as the sensitivity of processes to model parameters.
[54] The results of the present study contribute to a small
but growing set of supporting data on the effect of aggre-
gation on the transport properties of POC in rivers. Our
preliminary results will hopefully encourage others to tackle
a number of critical issues on river carbon transport, such as
improvement of estimation of organic carbon flux in rivers,
in-river POC deposition and storage, remobilization of POC
deposits, as well as the model-based identification of in-
river processes such as biological utilization or phytoplank-
ton dynamics.
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W10424
[55] Acknowledgments. We would like to thank Antje Lüder, Marcus
Schulz, and Axel Siegemund for their assistance with field work. Grit
Siegert is thanked for performing POC analysis. Two anonymous reviewers
are thanked for their constructive criticism and many helpful suggestions
for improving the manuscript. We are indebted to Sarah Poynton for final
corrections to the manuscript.
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H. Bungartz, C. Engelhardt, and A. Krüger, Department of Ecohydraulics,
Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries Berlin, PO Box
850 119, D-12561 Berlin, Germany. (bungartz@igb-berlin.de)