Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116

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Remote Sensing of Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rse

Estimating particulate organic carbon flux in a highly dynamic estuary using T

satellite data and numerical modeling
Zhihong Wanga,b, Yan Baia,b,c,d,1, , Xianqiang Hea,b,c,d, Bangyi Taoa, Teng Lia,e, Xiaoyan Chena,
⁎

Tianyu Wanga,e, Fang Gonga,e

a
State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou 310012, China
b
School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
c
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510000, China
d
Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316000, China
e
National Earth System Science Data Center, Beijing 100101, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Quantitative estimates of the flux, transportation, and burial of riverine particulate organic carbon (POC) in
Particulate organic carbon flux estuaries and shelf areas are crucial for understanding the carbon cycle in marginal seas. The complexity of the
Changjiang River estuary (CRE) hydrodynamic environment and estuarine processes in the Changjiang River estuary (CRE) results in a POC flux
Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI) with high spatiotemporal variability. In this study, we proposed a new method for time series monitoring of
Numerical model
riverine POC flux by combining satellite ocean color and numerical modeling data. We used 500-m resolution
Total suspended materials
geostationary satellite data from the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI) to retrieve surface POC con-
centrations in the CRE and used the numerical Finite Volume Community Ocean Model (FVCOM) to simulate
three-dimensional (3D) current and sediment distribution. Diurnal, seasonal, and annual variations in POC flux
through the lower reaches (Datong Hydrological Station), upper estuary (Xuliujing Hydrological Station), and
outlets of the CRE, as well as transportation and deposition outside the CRE, were examined from July 2011 to
June 2018. The annual mean POC fluxes through the Datong, Xuliujing, and outlet sections were 1.16 ± 0.16
Tg C/yr, 1.29 ± 0.11 Tg C/yr, and 1.17 ± 0.11 Tg C/yr, respectively. After passing through the estuary, 35.2%
of POC was deposited in the sandbar outside the outlets, 52.9% was transported to the south, and a small amount
entered the eastern shelf. Thus, these results indicated that POC flux through the river and estuary sections
differed from the effective riverine POC flux into the sea. The proposed method combining high spatiotemporal-
resolution satellite data and numerical modeling not only makes full use of their advantages, but also reduces the
uncertainty of their individual estimates. This approach also supports long-term monitoring of riverine fluxes to
the sea and helps clarify the effects of terrestrial inputs on marginal seas under multiple stresses from human
activities and climate change.

1. Introduction
Terrestrial organic carbon (OC) is mainly transported to the sea
through the atmosphere, groundwater, and rivers, with riverine trans-
port being the largest. On a global scale, rivers transport about 216 Tg
C/yr particulate organic carbon (POC) to marginal seas annually, ac-
counting for 46.8% of total OC flux transported by rivers (Cai et al.,
2008). As the world's fourth largest river by discharge, the Changjiang
River transports millions of tons of POC to the Changjiang River estuary
(CRE) every year (Duan et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2012b). This material
flux can affect the water environment of adjacent marginal seas (Shen
and Li, 2011; He et al., 2013a; Cui et al., 2018). Riverine POC goes
through complicated processes such as conversion, decomposition, and
deposition, before entrance and sequestration into marginal seas. Thus,
estuaries are an important “sink” of riverine OC (Berner, 1982; Hedges
and Keil, 1995). Estimating riverine POC flux into the sea is critical for
understanding changes in the estuarine and offshore environment
under high-intensity human activities.
POC flux refers to the mass of POC passing through an area over a
certain period. Thus, POC flux estimates are related to a specific

Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources,
⁎

Hangzhou 310012, China.

E-mail address: baiyan@sio.org.cn (Y. Bai).
1
Current address: 36 Baochubei Road, Hangzhou 310012, China.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.112116
Received 7 April 2020; Received in revised form 23 September 2020; Accepted 25 September 2020
Available online 13 October 2020
0034-4257/ © 2020 Published by Elsevier Inc.
Z. Wang, et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116

Fig. 1. Map of (a) lower reaches of the Changjiang River and (b) study area. T1 and T2 are validation stations for tides; S1, S2, S4, and S5 are validation stations for
current and sediment (Liu et al., 2019b). Xuliujing Station (B0) site was used to estimate riverine POC flux into the CRE. Outlet B1 (121.9°E, 30.9°–31.8°N) was used
to estimate riverine POC flux into the sea. Sites B2 (121.9°–122.8°E, 30.9°N), B3 (121.9°–122.8°E, 31.8°N), and B4 (122.8°E, 30.9°–31.8°N) were used to study POC
transport outside the outlets. Blue and yellow arrows indicate currents in winter and summer, respectively, and orange represents muddy area in the CRE. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

location. For the Changjiang River system, there are several sections
that can be used to represent riverine flux. These include Datong
Hydrological Station, which is the last tidal-free station in the lower
reaches of the river; Xuliujing Hydrological Station, which is the last
station in the upper estuary; and several estuarine outlets (Fig. 1a).
Wang et al. (2012b) conducted monthly field observations at Datong
Station in 2009 and estimated a POC flux of 1.52 Tg C/yr for the
Changjiang River. Zhang et al. (2014) found that construction of the
Three Gorges Dam has not only reduced POC flux, but also increased
the POC mass fraction (POC%) in sediment of the lower reaches of the
Changjiang River. Lin et al. (2009) estimated POC flux at Xuliujing
Station based on field measurements (2003–2006) and reported a dis-
solved organic carbon (DOC)-to-POC ratio of close to one. Gao et al.
(2012) conducted field observations at Xuliujing Station from Sep-
tember 2009 to August 2010 and found that POC flux into the CRE was
mainly controlled by river discharge.
Due to the “filtering effect” of the estuary, riverine POC encounters
a series of processes before entering the sea, which can affect total POC
flux. Thus, POC fluxes estimated at Datong and Xuliujing alone are not
accurate representatives of total riverine POC flux to the sea. Previous
studies have primarily focused on sediment transport in the lower
reaches of the Changjiang River and CRE (Xu et al., 2005; Yang et al.,
2007; Dai and Liu, 2013; Yang et al., 2015b; Xie et al., 2017; Dai et al.,
2018). For example, Wu et al. (2006) used a Digital Elevation Model
(DEM) and geomorphological analysis to establish a sediment budget
model of the CRE based on sediment deposition, and calculated the
annual mean sediment flux of the Datong, Xuliujing, and outlet sections
from 1890 to 1980. Luo (2018) used the Estuarine Costal and Ocean
Model (ECOM) to estimate the sediment flux and sediment transport
mechanism through the CRE outlets and sites outside the CRE. Thus,
direct research on POC flux into the sea has focused on estimating POC
flux in a certain section (Lin et al., 2009; Gao et al., 2012; Wang et al.,

2
Z. Wang, et al.
2012b; Zhang et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2019b), with few studies under-
taking systematic research from the estuary to the continental shelf.
Generally, POC flux estimations in previous studies have been based
on field measurement of POC concentration and flux. In river sections,
field measurement can result in good estimation, but in strong tidal-
affected estuaries, time series monitoring and estimation of riverine
POC flux into the sea can be difficult due to limitations of discrete and
low-frequency field sampling. Hydrodynamic modeling can be used to
estimate sediment transportation based on three-dimensional (3D) se-
diment and current distribution information at high temporal resolu-
tion. However, many parameters require adjustment in the numerical
model, and uncertainty can be high when only using numerical model
outputs to estimate riverine POC flux into the sea. Satellite remote
sensing can achieve simultaneous observations of POC concentration at
a large scale and high frequency. Based on Geostationary Ocean Color
Imager (GOCI) data from the Korea Geostationary Ocean Color
Satellite, Liu et al. (2019b) established a POC flux method for Xuliujing
by combining GOCI-derived surface POC concentration and a POC
profile model established from field measured data in the CRE. How-
ever, ocean color remote sensing can only detect sea surface informa-
tion, and the simplified profile model still contains large uncertainty in
highly dynamic estuaries. Thus, a better method must be developed to
realize stable long-term monitoring of the variation in riverine POC flux
into the sea and to quantify and understand the processes and effects of
POC transportation.
In this study, we propose a new method combining ocean color
remote sensing and numerical modeling to study riverine POC flux in
the highly dynamic CRE. First, we developed a model for estimating
riverine POC flux from the CRE into the sea using 500-m resolution
GOCI-derived POC concentrations at the surface as well as the 3D dis-
tribution of POC and 3D currents of the CRE from the Finite Volume
Community Ocean Model (FVCOM). We then investigated the diurnal,
seasonal, and annual variations in POC flux through various sections of
the CRE and offshore from July 2011 to June 2018. POC transportation
and deposition outside the CRE outlets were also examined. Thus, this
study showed time series variation in POC flux at the daily, monthly,
and annual scale. Furthermore, we clarified the transportation of POC
flux in six sites, ranging from the lower river reaches to offshore areas.
2. Study area and data
2.1. Study area
The study area is shown in Fig. 1. Datong Hydrological Station is
located about 624 km from the estuary, whereas Xuliujing Hydrological
Station is located in the upper estuary. After passing through Xuliujing,
the Changjiang River divides into the North and South Branch by
Chongming Island. The South Branch is further divided into the North
and South channels, and the South Channel then branches into the
North and South passages (Abril et al., 2002; Xue et al., 2009; Yang
et al., 2014). Therefore, the North Branch, North Channel, and North
and South passages constitute the CRE outlets.
Based on previous research, more than 50% of sediment from the
Changjiang River is deposited near the outlets, forming a wide under-
water delta and sandbar (Shen and Li, 2011). Deposition mainly occurs
in the wet season (May–October), and erosion mainly occurs in the dry
season (November to April); in addition, deposition occurs during the
neap tide, and erosion occurs during the spring tide (Shen et al., 1986;
Chen, 2007). After entering the sea, sediment is primarily diffused to
the east and south, forming the main source of sediment in Hangzhou
Bay, particularly during the dry season (Hong et al., 2004). The section
between 122°30′ and 123°E is often used as the eastern edge of sedi-
ment diffusion, which is roughly consistent with the front of the un-
derwater delta (Shen and Li, 2011).
The currents outside the outlets are complex, showing significant
seasonal variation due to the combined action of different water masses
3
Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116
brought in or out by the Taiwan Warm Current, Zhe-Min Coastal
Current, and Subei Coastal Current (Chen, 2009). In summer, Chang-
jiang-diluted water is blocked by the plume front outside the outlets,
and divided into two parts: one extends southeastward to the Zhoushan
Islands, and the other extends northeastward to southwest of the South
Yellow Sea (Zhu and Shen, 1997; Bai et al., 2013; Bai et al., 2014). In
winter, diluted water moves southward along the Zhejiang coast (Chen,
2009). The outlets experience high sea and fresh water mixing in the
maximum turbidity zone (MTZ), and are thus considered as the inter-
faces between the Changjiang River and East China Sea (ECS). There-
fore, these outlets can be used to estimate riverine POC flux into the sea
(Fig. 1b).
2.2. Satellite data and POC algorithm
The satellite data used in this study were obtained from the GOCI
sensor on the Communication Ocean and Meteorological Satellite, the
world's first geostationary ocean color satellite launched by South
Korea in July 2010. The GOCI records radiance at eight bands with
central wavelengths of 412, 443, 490, 555, 660, 680, 745, and 865 nm,
respectively, and a spatial resolution of 500 m × 500 m (Ryu et al.,
2012). It scans the CRE at a 1-h frequency from 8:28 am to 3:28 pm
local time, eight times a day. The GOCI Level-1B data from July 2011 to
June 2018, 19,952 images in all, were downloaded from the Korea
Ocean Satellite Center (KOSC; http://kosc.kiost.ac/) to retrieve POC
concentrations. These data included total received radiance at the top
of the atmosphere. A practical atmospheric correction algorithm using
ultraviolet wavelengths (UV-AC) was utilized to derive remote sensing
reflectance from the GOCI Level-1B data (He et al., 2013b).
We used the surface POC concentration algorithm for the CRE de-
veloped by Liu et al. (2019b). Based on 426 datasets of in-situ total
suspended matter (TSM) and POC concentration in the CRE, Liu et al.
(2019b) found a significant positive correlation between TSM (mg/L)
and POC concentration (mg/L)(R2 = 0.97, P < 0.0001).
POC = 0.0081 × TSM + 0.2562 (1)
The satellite algorithm for TSM in Liu et al. (2019b) consists of three
parts.
1) When the TSM concentration is greater than 15 mg/L, the satellite
TSM algorithm in the CRE constructed by He et al. (2013b) (Eq. (2))
is used, which shows good performance for turbid water, with an
average relative difference (ARD) of 17.83% (N = 99).
[TSM1] = 101.0758+ 1.1230 × Ratio
Ratio = Rrs (Band7)/ Rrs (Band3) (2)
where Rrs (Band7) and Rrs (Band3) are remote sensing reflectance
values at 745 and 490 nm, respectively.
2) When the TSM concentration is less than 15 mg/L, the satellite al-
gorithm for TSM provided by the KOSC (Eq. (3)) is used, which
shows good performance, with an ARD of 26.81% for clear water in
the CRE (Liu et al., 2019b).
[TSM2 ] = 10C0+ C1× (Rrs (Band4) + Rrs (Band5)) C2× Ratio
Ratio = Rrs (Band3)/ Rrs (Band4) (3)
where C0 = 0.649, C1 = 25.62, and C2 = 0.646; and Rrs (Band3)
and Rrs (Band4) are remote sensing reflectance values at 490 and
555 nm, respectively.
3) To better retrieve TSM concentrations in different waters in the CRE,
we combined these two algorithms by selecting the smallest outputs,
as Eq. (4):
[TSM] = min ([TSM1 ], [TSM2 ]) (4)
Based on Eqs. (1)–(4), the TSM concentration can be retrieved from
Z. Wang, et al.
Fig. 2. (a) Grid and (b) topography of study area used in FVCOM.
the GOCI water reflectance data, after which the surface POC con-
centration in the CRE can be calculated. In Liu et al. (2019b), the GOCI-
derived POC results were good, with an average absolute difference
(AAD) of 12.31 mg/L, ARD of 20.60%, and root mean square difference
(RMSD) of 8.99 mg/L. For a more detailed description of the algorithm,
please read Liu et al. (2019b).
2.3. In-situ data for model validation
Sea level data recorded by two tidal gauges in the CRE (T1 and T2
shown in Fig. 1b) were used to validate simulated tidal elevation
(https://www.cnss.com.cn/tide/). Station T1 is located at the
branching point of the South Branch of the Changjiang River, and sta-
tion T2 is located in the South Channel. These two stations record local
tidal elevation data hourly.
Current data recorded by a Teledyne RDI acoustic Doppler current
profiler (ADCP) at four mooring stations (S1, S2, S4, and S5, as shown
in Fig. 1) during the CRE cruises (21 August to 1 September 2015) were
used to verify the simulated current velocity and direction. The ADCP
was deployed 0.6 m under the water surface to record the back-
scattering sound signal by suspended matter in the water column, from
which water velocities at different depths were calculated based on the
Doppler principle. The sampling depth interval was 0.25 m and time
interval was 5 min.
We used the TSM data from the four mooring stations (S1, S2, S4,
and S5 in Fig. 1b) and POC data from S1 obtained during the two CRE
cruises (21 August to 1 September 2015 and 25 February to 6 March
2016) to verify the sediment simulation and POC flux estimation re-
sults. Data from the two cruises were previously published in Liu et al.
(2019b), who sampled water at the maximum-, middle-, and minimum-
flood tidal elevations during a 26-h monitoring period in the CRE to
obtain daily variation characteristics of sediment and POC concentra-
tions under the influence of tides. A Sartorius cellulose acetate
4
Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116
membrane (0.45 μm and Φ47 mm) was used for TSM filtration and a
Whatman glass fiber filter (GF/F, 0.7 μm and Φ47 mm) was used for
POC filtration. The TSM concentration was calculated by the weighing
method and POC content was measured via high temperature com-
bustion (680 °C) using a Shimadzu total organic analyzer. For more
details, please see Liu et al. (2019b).
2.4. Model accuracy assessment index
We used a statistical method developed by Willmott (1981) to assess
model output:
N
i=1
|Xmod Xobs |2
skill = 1 N
i=1
(|Xmod Xobs | + |Xobs Xobs |)2 (5)
where Xmod is the model result, Xobs is the observed result, and X is their
average. Skill measures the degree to which the observed deviation
about the observed mean corresponds to the simulated deviation about
the observed mean, as used in previous studies (Li et al., 2005; Wang
and Justić, 2009; Ralston et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2011). Perfect agree-
ment between model results and observations yields a skill of 1.0,
whereas complete disagreement yields a skill of 0.
3. POC flux estimation method and validation
3.1. 3D sediment model construction
The FVCOM is a prognostic, finite-volume, free-surface, 3D primi-
tive equations Community Ocean Model originally developed by Chen
et al. (2003). It uses an unstructured grid in the horizontal direction and
a σ coordinate system in the vertical direction, which can help distin-
guish the complex coastline and topography of the CRE. In this study,
we used the FVCOM to simulate the 3D hydrodynamic processes and
TSM in the CRE.
To reduce the influence of boundaries, the simulation area was
extended to a rectangular region of 118.5°–126°E and 29°–34°N. There
were 32,569 nodes and 62,211 elements (Fig. 2a) in the horizontal
direction and 10 layers in the vertical direction of the model, as depth
of the CRE is relatively shallow (Fig. 2b). Selecting the 10 layers for
each grid ensured that the vertical resolution of the CRE was ~1 m. In
addition, as per previous studies using the CRE model (Zhu and Zhu,
2003; Wu et al., 2006; Wu and Zhu, 2010), 10 layers are more suitable
for simulation of the CRE hydrodynamics and sediments. Electronic
chart data in S-57 format were used for the Changjiang River and CRE
topography, whereas the topography of other areas was obtained from
ETOPO1 (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mggmglobal/). The resolution of
the Changjiang River and CRE was 500–700 m, and that of the open
boundary was 4.5–10 km from west to east.
The model used “predicted” tides from a 1/30° tidal model at the
open boundaries. The tidal model of the Chinese seas was based on the
Oregon State University Tidal Prediction Software (OTPS); the eight
tidal harmonic constants of M2 (12.42 h), N2 (12.66 h), S2 (12.00 h),
K2 (11.97 h), K1 (23.93 h), O1 (25.82 h), P1 (24.07 h), and Q1
(26.87 h) were obtained using tidal harmonic analysis (Pawlowicz
et al., 2002). Daily discharge at Datong Hydrological Station from July
2011 to June 2018 was used as the river forcing and was derived from
the Changjiang Water Resources Commission (CWRC). The monthly
mean TSM of the river was measured at Datong from July 2011 to June
2018, as reported in the China River Sediment Bulletin. The 6-h sea
surface wind field was obtained from the European Centre for Medium-
Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), with a spatial resolution of 0.125°,
which was used as the wind forcing in the FVCOM.
The FVCOM sediment model is based on the Community Model for
Coastal Sediment Transport. It includes transport of both suspended
load and bedload (Chen, 2012). As the focus of this study was POC, we
only considered suspended load, and used a concentration-based
Z. Wang, et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116

approach subject to the following evolution equation:
Ci uCi vCi (w wi ) Ci
+ + + at the grid centroid in each layer, respectively. Ci,w,t is the hourly mean
t x y z
= AH
Ci
+
C
AH i +
C
Kh i
x x y y z z
where Ci is the concentration of sediment i, AH is the horizontal eddy
viscosity, Kh is the vertical eddy viscosity, and wi is the settling velocity.
Several sediment parameters are involved in the FVCOM sediment
model. Some values we set were obtained from relevant articles on
sediment in the CRE (Du, 2007; Hu et al., 2009; Pan, 2011), including a
sediment particle size of 0.008 mm, density of 2650 kg/m3, and por-
osity of 0.68.
Empirical parameters, such as settling velocity, critical shear stress
for erosion, critical shear stress for deposition, and erosion rate, show
large spatiotemporal variability and are difficult to express in a for-
mula. To reduce the error introduced by the numerical model and to
make full use of the satellite data, we simplified the sediment empirical
parameters in the FVCOM. We used in-situ data obtained from the two
cruises in the CRE, and referred to Hu et al. (2009) and Pan (2011) for
critical shear stress for erosion and deposition (0.02–0.8 N/m2 with
spatial variation), calculated using the Partheniades-Krone formula
(Partheniades, 1965). Finally, the settling velocity of sediment in our
model was set to 0.5 mm/s, critical shear stress for erosion was set to
0.02 N/m2, and critical shear stress for deposition was set to 0.16 N/m2.
Influenced by discharge from the Changjiang River, the erosion rate of
sediment in the CRE is small in the wet season and large in the dry
season (Chen, 1995; Yang et al., 2001). Thus, we set the sediment
erosion rate to 4.0 × 10−6 kg/m2/s in the wet season and
5.0 × 10−6 kg/m2/s in the dry season.
To evaluate the influence of simplified sediment parameters on POC
flux estimation, we selected 2014 as an example for sensitivity analysis,
as this year had the highest satellite data coverage and its annual POC
flux was closest to the average estimated results from July 2011–June
2018. Results (Table 1) showed that, if we set the critical shear stress
for erosion to 0.8 N/m2, the annual mean POC flux was 17.3% lower
than that when set to 0.02 N/m2. The critical shear stress for deposition
did not affect the sediment profile, and thus did not affect the annual
mean POC flux estimation. The settling velocity of sediment was set to
0.1–0.5 mm/s with spatial variation (Hu et al., 2009b). When the set-
tling velocity was set to 0.1 mm/s, annual POC flux was 15.3% lower
than that when set to 0.5 mm/s. It showed that the simplified sediment
parameters had less impact on the POC flux estimation under normal
conditions than in the extreme cases mentioned above.
3.2. POC flux estimation method
In this study, we proposed a method to estimate POC flux based on
model simulation and satellite observation. Fig. 3 shows the steps of
POC flux calculation. POC flux is the product integral of flux through
different layers of a section. POC flux per hour in each layer of each grid
point along a section is calculated as follows:
fluxi, w, t = (ui, w, t , vi, w, t ) Ci, w, t Si, w
where i is the grid index, w is the layer, and t is the time. ui,w,t and vi,w,t
are the zonal and meridional components of the hourly mean velocities
POC concentration at the grid node in each layer. Si,w is the section area
of each layer of each grid element. Due to the shallow water depth of
(6) the CRE (less than 10 m), the water depth difference between each grid
node is small. For the convenience of calculation, we took the depth of
each layer of each grid node multiplied by 500 m to obtain Si,w. As a
model suitable for estuary simulation, the FVCOM can simulate sedi-
mentation and re-suspension in the CRE, and thus well describe the
sediment distribution profile (Ge et al., 2013; Ma et al., 2013;
Niroomandi et al., 2018).
The POC flux calculation steps and data inputs in Eq. (7) and Fig. 3
are as follows:
(1) Monthly satellite-derived sea surface POC concentration (CRi, 1).
Because hourly and daily GOCI data can be affected by clouds, to
obtain sea surface POC concentrations with high spatial coverage
and reduce the impact of low data coverage on POC flux calcula-
tion, we used the monthly satellite-derived POC concentration data
as input, with a spatial resolution of 500 m.
(2) Hourly surface POC concentration at each grid node (Ci, 1, t). As the
model only derived the TSM concentration, we needed to transfer it
to POC and make use of the satellite observations. According to Liu
et al. (2019a), as the TSM of the CRE is generally higher than
50 mg/L, the mass fraction of POC (POC%) in TSM had no obvious
change and was relatively stable at 1%.
Thus, hourly surface POC, Ci, 1, t, can be calculated by:
CMi,1, t
Ci,1, t = × CRi,1
CMi,1 (8)
where CMi, 1, t and CMi, 1 represent the hourly and monthly surface TSM
of each grid node simulated by the model, respectively. This ratio was
used to connect the satellite and model data and fully utilize the high
temporal resolution of the numerical model and real-time monitoring of
satellite remote sensing. To match resolution, we used the nearest
neighbor interpolation method to interpolate TSM data (CMi, 1, t and
CMi, 1) simulated by the model to the same resolution as the satellite-
derived POC data, i.e., 500 m.
(3) The hourly POC concentration in each layer at each grid node
(Ci,w,t). To fully consider the relatively high accuracy and continuity
of satellite-derived sea surface POC concentrations, we set the se-
diment profile as the ratio of hourly surface TSM concentration to
TSM concentration in each layer, that is, Percenti,w,t. We then ob-
tained Ci,w,t by combining the hourly sediment profile and hourly
surface POC concentration (Ci,1,t). Here, the POC profile was very
similar to the TSM profile, as the mass fraction of POC (POC%) in
TSM was basically stable (Liu et al., 2019a).
Thus, Ci,w,t can be calculated as follows:
Ci,1, t
Ci, w, t =
(7)
Percenti, w, t (9)

(4) Finally, ui,w,t and vi,w,t can be obtained from the 3D currents simu-
Table 1
Sensitivity analysis of simplified sediment parameters for POC flux estimation. lated by the FVCOM and interpolated to 500 m. With Eq. (7), we
derived POC flux, using both 3D simulation modeling and time-
Sediment parameter Setting value POC flux of outlets in 2014
series satellite monitoring.
2
Critical shear stress for erosion 0.02 N/m 1.20 Tg
0.80 N/m2 0.99 Tg 3.3. Model validation
Critical shear stress for deposition 0.16 N/m2 1.20 Tg
0.80 N/m2 1.20 Tg
3.3.1. Validation of tidal elevation and current
Settling velocity 0.50 mm/s 1.20 Tg
0.10 mm/s 1.02 Tg We randomly used the January 2017 data from the tidal gauges
(Fig. 1b) to valid the simulated tidal elevations and currents. Results

5
Z. Wang, et al.
Fig. 3. Diagram of POC flux calculation based on 3D TSM and 3D currents simulated by FVCOM and surface POC concentration retrieved from GOCI.
Fig. 4. Comparisons between observed and modeled tidal elevations at stations T1 (a) and T2 (b).
showed that the simulated tidal cycles and amplitudes at different
stations were highly accurate (Fig. 4). The AADs between the simulated
and observed tidal amplitudes at stations T1 and T2 were 0.08 and
0.10 m, respectively; and ARDs were 4.8% and 5.4%, respectively. The
model skills calculated by Eq. (6) were 0.99 at T1 and 0.98 at T2, which
denoted good model performance in simulating tides.
The current validation results are shown in Fig. 5 (see Section 2.3
for stations). The AADs between the simulated and observed current
speeds at stations S1, S2, S4, and S5 were 0.09, 0.16, 0.18 and 0.26 m/s,
respectively; and the ARDs were 19.56%, 26.15%, 19.82%, and
21.89%, respectively. The AADs between the simulated and observed
current directions at stations S1, S2, S4, and S5 were 12.55°, 31.39°,
18.96°, and 22.93°, respectively; and the ARDs were 8.89%, 14.59%,
9.58%, and 12.40%, respectively. The model skills of current speed and
direction are shown in Table 2. Results showed that the simulation
accurately represented the process of tidal currents in the neap and
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Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116
spring tide periods.
3.3.2. Validation of 3D sediment distribution
We used the in-situ TSM data obtained from four mooring stations
(Fig. 1) during the CRE cruises in August 2015 and February 2016 to
validate 3D sediment data. These data were modeled by combining the
model-simulated sediment profile ratio and satellite-derived surface
TSM, i.e., similar to Ci, w, t but using TSM (not POC) in Eq. (9) (Section
3.2.1). The validation results are shown in Fig. 6 and Table 3. The si-
mulation results were in good agreement with the in-situ data, well
reflecting the periodic variation of TSM in the CRE under tidal influ-
ence. Some bottom layer simulation results were not good, and we
speculated that the abnormally increased in-situ TSM was influenced by
the re-suspension of bottom sediment. However, as bottom sediment
concentration had little effect on the TSM profile simulated by the
model, the model results were generally credible.
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(caption on next page)

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Fig. 5. Comparison of in-situ and modeled (a)-(l) current velocity and (m)-(x) current direction in surface, middle, and bottom layers at stations S1, S2, S4, and S5 in
August 2015 and February 2016. Red dot represents in-situ data; blue line represents model output. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Table 2 POC flux at the outlets (section B1) and hourly mean sea level at B1
Current validation results (skills) between model simulation and in-situ data. (Fig. 9a). The POC flux at B1 exhibited two peaks in one day, which
Station Parameter Surface layer Middle layer Bottom layer were mainly affected by tides. The average maximum export and im-
port fluxes of B1 were 0.90 × 10−3 Tg and 0.69 × 10−3 Tg, respec-
S1 Velocity 0.99 0.99 0.99 tively. The POC export flux reached its maximum at the slack tide,
S2 Velocity 0.85 0.91 0.93
whereas the POC import flux reached its maximum one hour before the
S4 Velocity 0.93 0.93 0.92
S5 Velocity 0.92 0.94 0.90
rising tide to the slack tide. Overall, POC export flux was greater than
S1 Direction 0.93 0.95 0.93 the POC import flux during a tidal cycle, i.e., POC in the CRE was
S2 Direction 0.89 0.87 0.87 transported to the sea under the influence of river discharge. Because of
S4 Direction 0.94 0.93 0.93 the irregular semi-diurnal tidal currents in the CRE, the amplitude of
S5 Direction 0.91 0.96 0.96
POC import flux differed within a tidal cycle. Mean POC import flux
was 0.80 × 10−3 Tg one hour before the spring tide and 0.58 × 10−3
Tg one hour before the neap tide.
3.3.3. Validation of hourly POC distribution
Compared with the POC flux at Xuliujing Station (section B0), flux
From Eq. (8), our model can be used to derive the hourly POC in the
at B1 showed different diurnal variation (Fig. 9b). In terms of ampli-
CRE. We determined the hourly surface model-derived POC con-
tude, both export and import fluxes at B1 were higher than those at B0,
centrations and compared them with the hourly surface GOCI-derived
so POC exchange along B1 was stronger than that along B0. This was
POC concentrations on 28 March 2016, a day with the best cloud-free
likely because the amplitude of tides along B1 was larger than that
data coverage. The GOCI POC algorithm was validated by Liu et al.
along B0, and sediment re-suspension at the bottom of the sandbar
(2019b), with a reported AAD of 0.13 mg/L and RMSD of 0.17 mg/L. As
resulted in higher POC concentration at B1 than at B0. In terms of
shown in Fig. 7, the hourly surface POC distribution from the two
phase, the time when POC export and import fluxes at B1 reached their
methods was similar, indicating that the hourly POC concentration
maximum values was about 5 h and 3–4 h earlier than that at B0, re-
could be accurately obtained using our model. The POC concentration
spectively.
in the MTZ varied with sea level. The POC concentration reached a
maximum when the sea level of the CRE was lowest at 12:00 p.m. The
surface POC concentration showed a spatial distribution pattern, i.e., 4.2. Monthly and seasonal variation of POC flux across the estuary
higher in near-shore than off-shore water and higher in the North
Branch than in the South Branch. The spatial distribution of POC con- Monthly mean POC concentrations in the water column along sec-
centration was not completely consistent due to the mismatch between tions B0 and B1 from July 2011 to June 2018 are shown in Fig. 10a.
GOCI scanning time (1-h frequency from 8:28 a.m. to 3:28 p.m. local During this period, the mean POC concentrations of B0 and B1 were
time) and model simulation time (on the hour). In addition, the model- 1.56 ± 0.29 mg/L/month and 1.86 ± 0.29 mg/L/month, respec-
simulated POC concentrations in the South Channel and North Branch tively. Except for a few months (e.g., July 2012 and 2013), the mean
were generally lower than the GOCI-derived concentrations. However, POC concentration in the water column at B1 was 18.76% higher than
as the GOCI-derived concentrations were not at our POC flux estimation that at B0. As the discharge had a dilution effect on POC concentration,
sections, these results had little influence on POC flux estimation. In the changes in POC concentration and discharge were reversed at both
general, with the combined used of GOCI data and modeling, we sections. The trends of monthly mean POC concentration at B0 and B1
eliminated the disadvantage of low ocean color data coverage and the were not significant, with P-values of 0.4957 (> 0.05) and 0.3838
uncertainty of modeling outputs. (> 0.05), respectively.
The monthly POC fluxes at B1 from July 2011 to June 2018 were
3.3.4. Validation of POC flux also calculated (Fig. 10b). The monthly mean POC flux was
For the final modeling of POC flux validation, the in-situ current 0.10 ± 0.03 Tg C/month, with a minimum of 0.03 Tg in February
measurements from the Changjiang River outlets were insufficient for 2014 and maximum of 0.20 Tg C in July 2016. The POC flux in the wet
estimating flux into the sea. Therefore, we only validated flux at the season (0.74 ± 0.02 Tg C) was 1.72 times higher than that in the dry
upper estuary, i.e., Xuliujing Station (S1 in Fig. 1b), based on available season (0.43 ± 0.02 Tg C). From July 2011 to June 2018, the annual
cruise data from August 2015 and February 2016. In-situ POC flux is the mean POC flux at B1was 1.17 ± 0.11 Tg C/yr, with the highest level of
product of in-situ POC concentration and current velocity at the corre- 1.35 Tg C in 2016 and lowest level of 1.02 Tg C in 2013. The trend of
sponding sampling time. Water samples were collected from 0.5 m monthly POC flux was not significant (P = 0.6545) during this period.
below the water surface, at half the depth, and 0.5 m above the riv- The annual mean POC flux at section B0 was 1.29 ± 0.11 Tg C/yr, i.e.,
erbed, totaling 30 samplings during the 26-h monitoring time at S1. 9.3% of POC deposited in the CRE each year.
Correspondingly, the POC concentration and current velocity of the Changjiang riverine POC flux exhibited significant seasonal varia-
first, fifth, and tenth layers in the model were used for comparison. tion and spatial distribution characteristics (Fig. 11). Results showed
Fig. 8 shows the comparison results, with an AAD of 0.10 g/(s·m2) and that it was 0.41 ± 0.06 Tg in summer (June to August), accounting for
RMSD of 0.16 g/(s·m2). The modeled POC flux in winter was more 34.7% of annual mean POC flux. POC fluxes in spring (March to May)
consistent with in-situ POC flux than that in summer. Considering the and autumn (September to November) were similar, being
highly dynamic POC in the CRE, the estimation results were considered 0.28 ± 0.05 Tg and 0.31 ± 0.05 Tg, respectively. POC flux was
satisfactory, with an ARD of 28.13%. lowest in winter (December to February), accounting for only 15.4% of
annual mean POC flux. The POC was mainly transported into the ECS
4. Results through the North Channel (B1–3) and North Passage (B1–2), with
annual mean POC fluxes of 0.56 ± 0.05 Tg C/yr and 0.42 ± 0.03 Tg/
4.1. Diurnal variation of riverine POC flux in the estuary yr, respectively, accounting for 83.7% of the total for B1. The North
Branch (B1–4) was the only section with POC import flux among the
We randomly selecting 28–29 March 2016 to show the hourly mean four channels. The largest POC import flux occurred in winter

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(caption on next page)

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Z. Wang, et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116

Fig. 6. Comparison of in-situ and modeled sediments in surface, middle, and bottom layers at stations S1 and S2 in August 2015 and February 2016, and stations S4
and S5 in February 2016. Red dot represents in-situ TSM; black line represents TSM calculated using model outputs and satellite data. (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Table 3 4.3. POC transport outside the estuary

Sediment concentration validation results (skills) between model simulation
and in-situ data. The South Boundary (B2), North Boundary (B3), and East Boundary
Station Time Surface layer Middle layer Bottom layer (B4) were selected to estimate the transportation of POC outside the
outlets. The monthly mean POC fluxes through these sections are shown
S1 Aug. 2015 0.67 0.69 0.38 in Fig. 12.
S1 Feb. 2016 0.84 0.91 0.75
Section B2 was located from Nanhuizui (121.9°E, 30.9°N) in the
S2 Aug. 2015 0.89 0.83 0.81
S2 Feb. 2016 0.97 0.88 0.68 west to (122.8°E, 30.9°N) in the east. This area is the intersection for the
S4 Feb. 2016 0.89 0.64 0.93 exchange of currents and sediments between the CRE and Hangzhou
S5 Feb. 2016 0.82 0.76 0.87 Bay (Chen et al., 2001). On average, 1.04 ± 0.09 Tg C/yr of POC was
exported and 0.43 ± 0.03 Tg C/yr was imported, with an annual mean
POC flux of 0.62 ± 0.10 Tg C/yr. Due to the influence of the north-
(0.04 ± 0.01 Tg). Wind and wave activities in the CRE were strong in easterly monsoon over the CRE, net POC flux through B2 was largest
winter, resulting in a corresponding increase in POC concentration (0.29 Tg) in winter, accounting for 46.8% of the total. The southerly
outside the outlets. Under tidal action, re-suspended POC was brought wind and less POC transported by the Changjiang River compared with
into the North Branch and then deposited. that in summer resulted in the smallest net POC flux (0.05 Tg) in spring.
POC flux at section B2 exhibited strong seasonal variation. POC flux in
the dry season (0.50 Tg) was 4.13 times higher than that in the wet
season (0.12 Tg). The weaker Taiwan Warm Current and stronger Subei

Fig. 7. Comparison between hourly surface GOCI-derived and model-simulated POC concentrations on 28 March 2016. Last panel shows 7-h variations of model-
simulated POC flux and comparisons with diurnal tidal height at section B1. Gray boxes in last panel represent period of comparison.

10
Z. Wang, et al.
Fig. 8. Comparisons between in-situ and modeled POC flux (g/(s·m2)) at station
S1 in August 2015 and February 2016. Blue dots represent comparisons in
February 2016; red dots represent comparisons in August 2015. (For inter-
pretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of this article.)
Fig. 9. (a) Hourly mean sea level and POC flux at section B1 on 28 March 2016, with sea level 0 representing standard sea level; (b) Hourly mean POC fluxes at B1
and B0 on 28 March 2016. Positive values of POC flux represent net export (from river to sea); negative values represent net import. Section locations are shown in
Fig. 1b.
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Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116
Coastal Current in the dry season resulted in the southward transport of
POC to Hangzhou Bay.
Section B3 was located from Qidongzui (121.9°E, 31.8°N) in the
west to (122.8°E, 31.8°N) in the east. It was used to estimate POC ex-
change between the Subei Shoal and CRE. On average, 0.46 ± 0.04 Tg
C/yr of POC was exported and 0.30 ± 0.05 Tg C/yr was imported,
with an annual mean POC flux of 0.16 ± 0.09 Tg C/yr. POC flux at
section B3 also showed strong seasonal variation. Due to the
Changjiang River discharge and southeasterly wind, POC flux at B3
showed net export in spring and summer (0.14 and 0.12 Tg, respec-
tively). A large amount of POC (−0.11 Tg) was imported at B3 in
winter under the influence of the northwesterly wind and enhanced
Subei Coastal Current, as well as increased sediment re-suspension.
Section B4 was located from (122.8°E, 31.8°N) in the north to
(122.8°E, 30.9°N) in the south. It was used to calculate the amount of
riverine POC entering the ocean after passing through the MTZ of the
CRE. Affected by the tides, the amount of POC exchanged at B4 was
large but had no significant seasonal variation. On average,
1.42 ± 0.14 Tg C/yr of POC was exported and 1.44 ± 0.10 Tg C/yr of
POC was imported, with an annual mean POC flux of −0.02 ± 0.06 Tg
C/yr. The net POC export flux was mainly concentrated in July to
Z. Wang, et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116

Fig. 10. (a) Monthly mean POC concentration in the water column at sections B0 and B1 from July 2011 to June 2018 (N = 84), and (b) monthly mean POC flux to
the sea through section B1 from July 2011 to June 2018 (N = 84). Gray histogram is daily discharge of the Changjiang River, derived from Changjiang Water
Resources Commission (CWRC).

Fig. 11. Seasonal variation in POC fluxes at sections B0 and B1 from July 2011 to June 2018. Section B1 was further divided into B1–1, B1–2, B1–3, and B1–4.
Positive values represent net export; negative values represent net import.

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Z. Wang, et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116

Fig. 12. Monthly mean POC fluxes at (a) South Boundary (B2), (b) North Boundary (B3), and (c) East Boundary (B4). Green line represents net flux, i.e., sum of
import and export fluxes. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Z. Wang, et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116

Table 4 listed the estimates of yearly riverine POC loads into the ECS from
Estimates of total yearly load of particulate organic carbon (POC) into the East publications in different years and sections. We also calculated the
China Sea. monthly (Fig. 13) and annual mean (Table 4) POC fluxes through Da-
Year Section Annual mean POC flux (Tg Reference tong, Xuliujing, and outlets from 2012 to 2017. Compared with pre-
C/yr) vious research, our study estimates were in the same order of magni-
tude but provided long time-series estimation at a high spatiotemporal
1900–2004 Datong 1.51 ± 0.8 (Liu et al., 2018)
scale.
2003–2005 Datong 1.89 (Wang et al., 2008)
#1 Generally, our estimated POC flux at Xuliujing was slightly lower or
2006 Datong 1.60 (Yu et al., 2011) similar than that from published reports (see Table 4), which may be
2006.06–2007.05 Datong 1.88 (Zhang et al., 2014) due to differences in bottom-to-surface sediment ratios. For example,
2001–2008 Datong 2.61 (Hu et al., 2009)#1
based on 4-d in-situ data, Lu (2015) reported daily mean bottom-to-
2009 Datong 1.52 (Wang et al., 2012b)
2003–2012 Datong 1.45 (Yang et al., 2015a)
surface sediment concentration ratios at Xuliujing of 1.98, 2.65, 2.84,
#1 and 3.11, respectively. Using 3-d in-situ data from 2014 and 2016, Liu
2003 Xuliujing 2.69 (Lin et al., 2007) et al. (2019b) reported daily mean bottom-to-surface sediment con-
2004 Xuliujing 1.63 centrations ratios at Xuliujing of 1.29, 1.51, and 2.12, respectively.
2005 Xuliujing 2.21
However, as a highly dynamic estuary, the bottom-to-surface TSM ra-
2006 Xuliujing 1.04
2007–2008 Xuliujing 1.80 (Li et al., 2015) tios profile and TSM distribution in the CRE also show highly dynamic
2009.08–2010.07 Xuliujing 2.34 (Huang and Zhang, changes. In our model, the bottom-to-surface sediment concentration
2014) ratio was about 2, close to the mean value of the above ratios. Li et al.
2009.09–2010.08 Xuliujing 1.31 (Gao et al., 2012)
(2015) reported that 4.9 ± 1.9 Tg C/yr of POC has been intercepted by
2015.05–2016.04 Xuliujing 0.83 (Liu et al., 2019b)
2003–2012 Outlets 1.11 (Luo, 2018) #1
the Three Gorges Dam since 2003. This may have led to a significant
1890–1980 Datong 4.51 (Wu et al., 2006) #1 reduction in POC entering the CRE, and thus the smaller bottom-to-
Xuliujing 4.06 surface sediment concentration ratio found at Xuliujing in our study
Outlets 3.70 compared with that of Lu (2015). However, our model estimate was
2002–2012 Datong 1.51 (Yang et al., 2015b)
#1 higher than that of Liu et al. (2019b), because they simply took 2.21 as
Xuliujing 1.72
Outlets 1.75 the ratio of bottom-to-surface sediment concentration at Xuliujing and
2012–2017 Datong 1.16 ± 0.16 This study#2 set the TSM distribution along Xuliujing as a simple linear distribution.
2011.07–2018.06 Xuliujing 1.29 ± 0.11 This study Our model simulation suggests that a 3D model in combination with
Outlets 1.17 ± 0.11 satellite data can better describe the highly dynamic TSM in the CRE.
The POC concentration and current in the CRE exhibit high spa-
Note: #1: In these references only sediment flux was provided. Here, we used
the POC mass fraction (POC%) formula provided by Liu et al. (2019a) to con- tiotemporal variation due to multiple influences, like tide, wind, and
vert sediment flux into POC flux for comparison. #2: In this study, we calcu- river discharge. Furthermore, the accuracy of analytical methods and
lated the POC concentration at Datong using monthly mean TSM concentration data sampling frequency can impact the reliability of flux estimates
data (provided by the Sediment Bulletin) in POC mass fraction (POC%) formula (Ferguson, 1987). Generally, estimations in previous studies have been
provided by Liu et al. (2019a) i.e., POC% multiplied by TSM concentration. based on field measurements of POC concentration and river discharge.
In a highly dynamic estuary, however, accurate estimation of riverine
September due to large Changjiang River discharge leading to stronger POC flux into the sea can be difficult due to limitations of discrete and
transport of POC to the east. low-frequency field sampling.
Our proposed method provides a systemic view of riverine flux
5. Discussion variation through different sections. The annual mean POC fluxes of the
Datong, Xuliujing, and outlet sites during 2012 to 2017 were
5.1. Changjiang riverine POC flux in different sections 1.16 ± 0.16, 1.34 ± 0.11, and 1.21 ± 0.11 Tg C/yr, respectively.
Except in 2012, the annual mean POC flux of Xuliujing was highest
Studies on riverine POC flux in the lower reaches (Datong), upper among the three sections. POC flux at Datong was 13.4% lower than
estuary (Xuliujing), and outlets of the CRE are sparse. In Table 4, we Xuliujing, on average, similar to that (22.64% lower) estimated by Liu

Fig. 13. Monthly POC fluxes at Datong, Xuliujing, and outlets from 2012 to 2017.

14
Z. Wang, et al.
et al. (2019b). POC flux at Datong was higher than that at Xuliujing in
summer, but lower in winter. This was likely because high precipitation
in summer flushed substantial amounts of terrestrial organic matter into
the river and elevated the POC concentration at Datong, whereas, in
winter, POC flux at Xuliujing increased because sediment resuspension
was effected by strong mixing and relatively low discharge with less
riverine input. As part of the “filtering effect” of the estuary, some se-
diment was deposited before leaving the outlets to the sea. POC fluxes
through the outlets were lower than that at Xuliujing. Our results
showed that 9.3% of POC was deposited in the CRE, similar to the 9.1%
sediment deposition estimated by Wu et al. (2006). Therefore, if the
Xuliujing or Datong stations alone were used to estimate riverine POC
flux into the sea, this would lead to a 10.74% overestimation or 4.13%
underestimation, respectively.
Compared to other river systems, Changjiang River accounts for
about 2.5% of global river discharge, but only 0.06% of global riverine
POC flux (Aufdenkampe et al., 2011). For example, the discharge and
POC flux of the Changjiang River is about 16.5% and 8.9% that of the
Amazon River, which has the largest discharge in the world (Probst
et al., 1994). Furthermore, the discharge and POC flux of the Chang-
jiang River is 1.8 times and 1.3 times that of the temperate-zone Mis-
sissippi River, respectively (Bianchi et al., 2007).
In addition to POC flux, other studies have also researched differ-
ences in riverine OC flux and effective OC flux entering the sea. Schlünz
and Schneider (2000) found that there was great uncertainty in the
amount of terrestrial OC that can effectively enter the ocean. They es-
timated that approximately 430 Tg/C yr of terrestrial OC was trans-
ported to the ocean, but only 10% was buried in the estuary. Galy et al.
(2007) found that about 10%–20% of total terrestrial OC was buried in
the Bay of Bengal, similar to our estimate of 9.3% of POC siltation in the
CRE.
5.2. POC transport and deposition outside the estuary
The Changjiang River sends a large amount of material into the ECS.
Under the influence of wind, tide, river discharge, and current, trans-
ported materials are diffused outside the outlets and exchanged with
those in Hangzhou Bay and the Subei Shoal. With the capability of si-
mulating 3D distribution of POC, we examined POC transport through
sections outside the outlets.
A schematic of riverine POC flux into the sea and diffusion into the
ECS is shown in Fig. 14. About 1.29 Tg C/yr of POC entered the estuary
from section B0 and 1.17 Tg C/yr of POC entered the ECS from section
B1. Furthermore, 9.3% of POC was deposited in the CRE, similar to the
9.1% of sediment deposition estimated by Wu et al. (2006). Processes in
the estuary are very complicated, and both decomposition and de-
position of POC occur in this highly dynamic estuary. Pan et al. (2015)
found that most of the fine particles (particle diameter less than 8 μm)
were flocculated and deposited at the outlets and not transported into
the marginal sea. The reason was that the ionic strength of water
changes strongly near the TMZ. The surface electrical properties of the
particles and the hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of the func-
tional groups were changed, which promoted the formation of organic-
particle complex and thus facilitated the flocculation and deposition of
the particles (Li et al., 2001). POC decomposition might occur during or
after the deposition. In Chen et al. (2008)’s study, it was found that the
pCO2 in the inner estuary of Changjiang sustained high (mostly ranged
between 1000 and 1440 μatm), which was 1.5–3 times higher than
pCO2 in the air. Such high pCO2 value resulted from the decomposition
of particulate organic matter and high pCO2 groundwater discharge. In
FVCOM model, we mainly considered the particle dynamic processes,
and the biogeochemical processes such as the decomposition was not
taken into account, which might overestimate the amount of POC de-
position in the estuary. In general, the deposition of inorganic mineral
particles might be dominated in the CRE, as the mass fraction of POC
(POC%) in TSM was basically stable at 1% (Liu et al., 2019a). Further
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Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116
studies are needed to clarify the amount of POC deposition and de-
composition in the CRE.
After entering the marginal sea, 0.41 Tg C/yr of POC was deposited
over the sandbar, accounting for 35.2% of POC through B1; further-
more, 52.9% was transported southward through section B2 and 13.7%
was transported northward to the Subei Shoal. As the eastern edge of
sediment diffusion into the sea, POC transport across section B4 was an
inward transport. Therefore, the riverine POC that entered the marginal
sea from the outlets was characterized by deposition and southward
transportation, and the amount of POC transported into the ocean to the
east was small. Due to substantial deposition of organic matter in this
area, a large amount of bottom oxygen is consumed through degrada-
tion, resulting in a significant hypoxic area (Chen et al., 2007; Wang
et al., 2012a).
We also determined the profile distribution of annual mean POC
flux through the South Boundary (B2), North Boundary (B3), and East
Boundary (B4), as shown in Fig. 14. In the South Boundary, due to the
influence of the Changjiang River discharge and Taiwan Warm Current,
a large amount of POC was deposited in the muddy area outside the
South Passage, and then re-suspended under the influence of tides and
transported to the CRE, then Hangzhou Bay, and further southward
along the coast (Liu et al., 2011). East of the muddy area, we found that
a small amount of POC was imported to the CRE through section B2.
Thus, the nearshore area of Nanhuizui was found to be the POC ex-
change core between the CRE and Hangzhou Bay (Chen et al., 2001).
The POC from the Changjiang River was mainly transported south
through the muddy area outside the South Passage and the continental
slope. In the North Boundary (B3), POC was mainly exported from the
CRE to the Subei Shoal in the shallow sea area with a water depth of
20 m, consistent with the results of Luo (2018). The area outside the
North Branch nearest Qidongzui was the area with the strongest POC
transport intensity in the whole B3 section. This POC came from a small
part of the North Channel (B1–3) transport, which passed through B3
northward under the influence of tide-induced residual currents (Zhao
et al., 1995). Hui et al. (2014) suggested that tide-induced Stokes drift
plays a major role in the northward transportation of POC. Yuan et al.
(2017) noted that the southerly monsoon in summer is another im-
portant mechanism driving the northward current into the Subei Shoal.
In the East Boundary (B4), the south part was found to be the POC
export core, and the north part was the POC import core, taking 31.3°N
as the boundary. Influenced by the Coriolis force, sediments carried by
the Changjiang River were transported southeasterly after exiting the
outlets (Liu et al., 2011), resulting in a high POC concentration south of
(122.8°E, 31.3°N).
By subtracting the POC fluxes through sections B2, B3, and B4 from
the POC fluxes through section B1, we obtained the monthly mean POC
deposition flux (Fig. 15), which exhibited significant seasonal variation.
The deposition outside the outlets mainly occurred in the wet season
(0.32 Tg), accounting for 78.0% of annual deposition. In the dry season,
the POC deposition was small, and the whole area showed erosion in
January and February. The reason was that riverine POC import was
reduced in the dry season, and sediment deposited over the sandbar in
the wet season was re-suspended by the north wind and transported
southward through section B2 (Liu et al., 2011). These results are in
accordance with the characteristics of “flood depositing and dry
eroding” of the CRE sandbar (Chen, 1995; Yang et al., 2001).
6. Conclusions
We designed a new method for estimating POC flux, combining
satellite remote sensing data and model outputs with high spatio-
temporal resolution for a highly dynamic estuary. The POC con-
centration in the surface layer of the CRE was retrieved by the 500-m
resolution GOCI, and the 3D current and sediment distributions simu-
lated by the FVCOM were combined with GOCI data to estimate hourly,
monthly, and annual mean riverine POC fluxes into the sea from July
Z. Wang, et al. Remote Sensing of Environment 252 (2021) 112116

Fig. 14. Schematic of annual mean riverine POC flux into the sea and vertical distributions of annual mean unit area POC net fluxes through South Boundary (B2),
North Boundary (B3), and East Boundary (B4). Positive values represent net POC export; negative values represent net POC import.

Fig. 15. Monthly mean POC fluxes of four

boundaries outside CRE and their deposi-
tion. Histogram shows monthly mean POC
flux, with positive values for POC export
and negative values for POC import. Brown
line represents amount of POC deposited,
with positive value for deposition and ne-
gative value for erosion. (For interpretation
of the references to color in this figure le-
gend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

16
Z. Wang, et al.
2011 to June 2018. The estimated results showed that the annual mean
POC flux into the sea was 1.17 Tg C/yr, 4.13% higher than the flux at
Datong and 10.74% lower than that at Xuliujing. After leaving the
outlets, about 52.9% of POC was transported to the south and 35.2%
was deposited in the sandbar. Less POC was transported to the shelf
through the East Boundary. Substantial deposition of riverine OC was
an important factor for the hypoxic area found outside the CRE. Thus,
time series satellite monitoring and model simulations are important for
supporting hypoxic prediction and coastal management.
Our proposed method using high spatiotemporal resolution satellite
data and numerical model outputs not only makes full use of their
advantages but also reduces the uncertainty of independent estimation
results using these two methods individually. We determined riverine
POC fluxes in various sections of the lower reaches (Datong
Hydrological Station), upper estuary (Xuliujing Hydrological Station),
and outlets of the CRE. Results showed that POC flux through the river
and estuary sections was different to the effective riverine POC flux into
the sea. Thus, this method for estimating POC flux, and possibly other
riverine materials, based on high spatiotemporal resolution data could
help update estimations of coastal carbon budgets and further be ap-
plied to other river systems. In addition, this approach could be applied
for long-term series monitoring to improve our understanding of the
multiple effects of human activities and climate change on carbon cy-
cles and terrestrial-influenced aquatic ecosystems.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Korea Ocean Satellite Center (KOSC) (http://kosc.
kiost.ac/) for providing the GOGI L1B data. We also thank SOED/SIO/
MNR satellite ground station, satellite data processing & sharing center,
and marine satellite data online analysis platform (SatCO2) for their
help with data collection and processing. This study was supported by
the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant
#2017YFA0603003), the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grants #41676172, #41825014, and #41676170), and the Global
Change and Air-Sea Interaction Project of China (GASI-02-SCS-YGST2-
01, GASI-02-PACYGST2-01, and GASI-02-IND-YGST2-01), the Public
Science and Technology Research Fund Projects for Ocean Research
(Grant #201505003), Zhejiang Talent Program (LR18D060001),
Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China
(2017R52001), and Key Special Project for Introduced Talents Team of
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory
(Guangzhou) (GML2019ZD0602). We thank three anonymous re-
viewers for helping us improve the quality of the paper.
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