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Module ENGM030
Bridge deck loading and analysis
Unit 7: Global analysis
Presented by Andy Hodgkinson
Hewson Consulting Engineers Limited
November 2015

inspiring bridges ….

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… whatever their size

… whatever their form

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… whatever their age

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…. all begin with simple concepts

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Objective of the module

….to give an overview of the methods of

analysis used in the design of bridge
decks

Analysis provides the step between:

 Load
 Effect of load on bridge

Topics relating to Bridge Analysis

• Introduction to
• Simplified analysis
requirements of analysis
• Grillage analysis
• Simply supported spans
• Orthotropic plate analysis
• Beam analysis
• Space frame analysis
Prismatic beams
• Finite element analysis
Non-prismatic beams
• Non-linear analysis
• Continuous spans
• Yield line analysis
Influence lines
• Software packages
Slope deflection
Moment distribution

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Prerequisites
What you are expected to know already ……
 Basic structural analysis principles
 Stress, strain, bending moments, shear
forces, torsion
 Bridge loading (covered in other Units)
 Methods of structural analysis
 Principles of limit states design

What you should know after this lecture…….

Contents of lectures
• Design (very brief)
• Purpose of analysis
• Methods of analysis:
 Moment distribution This unit
 Slope deflection
 Area-moment
 Plane frame
 Grillage analysis
 Finite element
Unit 8
 Yield line

• Creep redistribution This unit

• Analysis packages Unit 8

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Design
Normal design procedure is:

► Develop mathematical model of the structure

► Determine the load (dead, superimposed, live)

► Use analysis to determine the effects that the various load

combinations have on the structure

► Design then consists of sizing the members to ensure that

they are strong enough to withstand these effects

► Checks are also carried out to ensure that the structure is

“serviceable”

Basic design equation

Design is carried out to verify that:
Ed ≤ Rd
where Ed = Design value of the effect of the actions
Rd = Design value of the corresponding resistance

presented in the Eurocodes as:

All the partial load factors are specified in the design code (EN
1990) for particular actions.

Material factors are specified in the relevant sections of the

Eurocodes (EN 1992 – EN 1995)

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Analysis
Loading covered by previous units.

Development of analysis methods covered here.

Basically two levels:

 Global analysis: to determine the stress resultants

(moment, shear, deformation: these are also called
load effects) across the length and width of the
deck or major deck component.

 Local analysis: to examine the stress in a small

element of the deck.

In many cases both are required.

Analysis: General requirements

General requirements for analysis laid out in the
relevant Design code or Code of Practice.

For example, the bridge design code for concrete

bridges, BS 5400: Part 1 gives general requirements:
 Linear elastic methods can be used
 Non-linear analysis can be used, not normally required
 Yield line analysis can be used under certain
circumstances.

BS 5400: Part 4 gives more specific requirements for

concrete structures:
 Flexural stiffness based on concrete section, or
transformed section, or cracked section
 Axial, torsion and shear stiffness based on concrete
section
 Flexural and shear modulus based on mean values.

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Why so many methods?

Most methods have limitations as to the kind of structures
which they are capable of representing.

For example, grillage analysis is suitable where load

distribution takes place mainly through flexure and torsion
on the longitudinal and transverse directions.

These structures include:

• Solid slab decks
• Voided slab decks
• Beam-and-slab decks

Grillage is not suitable where there is significant shear

deformation, or distortion in the deck, e.g. cellular or multi-
cell decks.

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Different bridge sections

grillage analysis line beam analysis
required adequate

Solid slab

Voided slab

Discrete boxes

Box girder bridges

Beam and slab

Deck types

• Solid reinforced concrete slabs up to 20m

• Voided reinforced concrete slabs up to 30m
• Inverted prestressed T-beams up to 15m
• Prestressed Y & S -beams up to 40m
• Rolled steel girders up to 25m
• Steel plate girders over 25m
• Post-tensioned concrete slab 30 - 50m
• Steel and concrete boxes over 40m

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Construction types

Methods of analysis

• Influence lines
• Moment distribution
• Slope deflection equations
• Area-moment
• Finite element
• Finite strip
• Grillage analysis
• Yield line

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Analysis: General points

Statically determinate and statically
indeterminate structures:

• The forces (moment, shear) in statically

determinate structures can be determined
from static equilibrium

• The forces (moment, shear) in statically

indeterminate structures cannot be
determined from equilibrium alone; a
knowledge of some geometric conditions
under load is also required

Analysis: General points

Analysis of statically indeterminate structures generally required the
solution of linear simultaneous equations.

This can be avoided by using iterative methods, or by using computer

analysis packages.

For large complicated structures, hand calculations are impractical and

computers are invariably used. This has shifted the emphasis of
analysis away from simplified methods to efficient problem formulation,
allowing very complicated loading configurations and numerous load
cases to be examined in a convenient way.

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Analysis: General points

However……

Hand method of solution should not be

neglected. They are of value for preliminary
calculations, to get a “feel” for the structure, how
it responds to changes in loading, geometry,
member properties.

They are also used to check computer results.

Analysis: Degree of indeterminacy

Degree of determinacy for a truss-type structure:

i  (m  r )  2 j

where i = degree of indeterminacy

m = number of members
r = number of reactions
j = number of joints.
(From equilibrium: 2 equations for each joint: ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0)

Additional equations come from compatibility.

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Analysis: Degree of indeterminacy

Example: Pin-jointed plane frame structure

m = number of members = 18
22 unknowns
r = number of reactions = 4
j = number of joints = 10 20 equations

i = degree of indeterminacy = 2

Analysis: Degree of indeterminacy

Degree of determinacy for a pin-jointed space frame:

i  (m  r )  3 j

where i = degree of indeterminacy

m = number of members
r = number of reactions
j = number of joints.
(From equilibrium: 3 equations for each joint: ΣFx = 0 Σ, Fy = 0, ΣFz = 0)

Additional equations come from compatibility.

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Analysis: Degree of indeterminacy

Example 1: Simply supported beam

Number of unknowns = 3
(3 reactions)
Number of equations = 3
(ΣFx = 0 Σ, Fy = 0, ΣMxy = 0)
Degree of indeterminacy = 0 i.e. statically determinate

Analysis: Degree of indeterminacy

Example 1: Simply supported beam
3m

50kN 50kN
1m 1m

HA

RB
RA
1) Resolve horizontally HA =0

2) Resolve moments about A,

1 x 50 + 2 x 50 = 3 x RB  RB = 150 / 3 = 50 kN

3) Resolve vertically,
RA + RB = 50 + 50  RA = 100 – RB = 50 kN

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Analysis: Degree of indeterminacy

Example 2: Continuous beam

Number of unknowns = 5
(5 reactions)
Number of equations = 3
(ΣFx = 0 Σ, Fy = 0, ΣMxy = 0)
Degree of indeterminacy = 2

Degree of indeterminacy for beams

Example 3: Continuous beam

Number of unknowns = 5
(5 reactions)
Number of equations = 5
(3 from overall equilibrium + 2 more from hinges)
Degree of indeterminacy = 0, ie statically determinate

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Analysis: Superposition

The displacement (or moment, or shear) due to a

number of forces acting together is equal to the
sum of the displacement (or moment, or shear)
due to each force acting separately.

Useful when considering different load

combinations.

Can only be used for linear structures only…..

tension/compression only supports are non-linear!!

Analysis: Superposition

The total bending

moment due to the two
loads can be calculated
by adding together the
= bending moments from
each load applied
separately

True for all load effects

(shear force, reactions,
+ deflection, stress, etc)

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Simply supported beams

Vehicle load

Statics (equilibrium) used to determine

the maximum moment and shear force
for all possible positions of load.
If the bridge is narrow compared with
its depth, then it can be analysed as a
simple beam.
If the bridge is wide, then consideration
must be given to what happens if the
load is shifted to one edge: load not
shared equally in beams across the
deck, torsion effects occur.

Continuous beams
Vehicle Load

• Often used in bridges as they are more structurally

efficient
• Avoid the use of joints and associated problems
• More difficult to analyse (statically indeterminate)
• Relieving loads

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Conventional beam theory

Analysis of beams from first principles

M  E
 
I y 
2 y
M  EI 2
 x
Calculation of bending moments, shear forces,
deflections, stresses and strains.

Covered as part of undergraduate structural

analysis courses.

Methods of analysis

• Influence lines
• Moment distribution
• Slope deflection equations
• Area-moment
• Finite element
• Finite strip
• Grillage analysis
• Yield line

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Influence lines
 Influence lines are produced by carrying out
analysis for generic loading cases
 Use the principle of superposition to determine
load effects at particular points due to complex
loading configurations
 Limited value as they only provide information at
selected points. They give no indication of
distribution.
 Useful for preliminary design.
 Used by analysis programs for automatic
bridge loading

This topic is covered in separate Unit

Moment distribution
An iterative method for analysis statically
indeterminate structures (avoiding simultaneous
equations).
In the moment distribution method, the joint
displacements (and rotations) are first assumed to
be restrained.
The effect of the displacements is then introduced
by successive iterations which can be continued to
any desired precision.
Used to determine bending moments (from which
other load effects can be calculated).
Easy to apply and easily remembered.

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Moment distribution

Method:
• Determine the distribution factors at each joint
• Determine the carry-over factors
• Determine the fixed-end moments at each joint
• Release the joints in turn, distributing the out-of-
balance moments to each member, and
inserting the carry-overs as appropriate
• Continue until the effect of the release at the
joints is negligible

Distribution factors
M 
C

B L BC
Moments due to rotation at B:
MBA = 4EIBA/LBA
L AB
MBC = 4EIBC/LBC
Thus moment is distributed in the ratio:
EIBC/LBC to BC
A
EIBC/LBC + EIBA/LBA
and
EIBA/LBA to BA
EIBC/LBC + EIBA/LBA

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Distribution factors
M 
C

B L BC
Moments due to rotation at B:
MBC = 3EIBC/LBC

Carry-over factors

C
B
θBC

Moment due to a rotation of θBC is:

MBC = 4  EI/L
MCB = 2  EI/L
(obtained from tables or from moment-area)
Carry-over from B to C is 1/2

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Fixed-end moments
Can be found from tables or by calculation:

UDL w/unit length

-wL2 / 12 wL2 /12

W
a b
-Wab2 / L2 Wa2b / L2

Sign convention: clockwise is +ve

Fixed-end moments

Extracts from Steel Designers Manual

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Time for a break….

see you back here in 15 minutes

……. Moment distribution example

Creep redistribution

Moment distribution: Example

A rigid-jointed single-bay portal ABCD is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load as shown. It is prevented from sideways
movement by a horizontal force P, applied at B.

Draw the bending moment diagram and determine the horizontal

force P preventing sway.
10m
UDL 15 kN/m
P B
C
EI = 2

EI = 1 10m
15m EI = 1

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Moment distribution: Example

Solution:
Fixed end moments: MBC = -wL2/12 = -15x102 = -125kNm
MCB = wL2/12 = 125kNm
Distribution factors: at joint B
at BA: 1/15
1/15 + 2/10 = 0.25
at BC: 2/10
1/15 + 2/10 = 0.75

Similarly at joint C - CB = 0.67 and CD = 0.33

Carryover factors: 1/2

Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
100% 25% 75% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125

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Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
100% 25% 75% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125
31 94 -83 -42

Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
100% 25% 75% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125
31 94 -83 -42
½ ½ ½
15 -42 47 -21

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Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
100% 25% 75% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125
31 94 -83 -42
½ ½ ½
15 -42 47 -21
10 32 -31 -16

Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
100% 25% 75% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125
31 94 -83 -42
½ ½ ½
15 -42 47 -21
10 32 -31 -16

5 -16 16 -8
4 12 -11 -5

2 -6 6 -2
15 -4 -2

0 -2 3 -1
02 -2 -1

-1 1 0
01 -1
22 46 -46 66 -66 -32

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Moment distribution: Example

MBC = -46kNm
(-ve anticlockwise)
MCB = 66kNm
B C
B C

MAB = 22kNm
(+ve clockwise) B C

A D

MDC = -32kNm

Moment distribution: Example

B +46
P
Equilibrium of AB
15HA = 46 + 22
HA = 68/15 = 4.5kN HA
A
+22

C -66
P
Equilibrium of CD
10HD = 66 + 32
HD = 98/10 = 9.8kN HD
D

-32

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Moment distribution: Example

Horizontal equilibrium of frame

P = 9.8 – 4.5
= 5.3kN
P
C
B

D 9.8

4.5
A

Moment distribution: Example

Bending moment diagram

+46 kNm -wl2/8 -66 kNm

C
5.3kN B

-32 kNm
9.8 kN
D
4.5 kN +22 kNm

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Moment distribution: Example

Consider if no restraint at B
Frame will undergo side sway
B
5.3kN C

D
A

Moment distribution: Example

There is no direct way to derive the moments from this, and they
are obtained by assuming a side sway of ‘d’ and then
calculating the moments and forces associated with this.
d

C
B

Moment are proportional to

their EI/L2

D
A MAB:MBA:MCD:MDC = 1/152 : 1/152 : 1/102 : 1/102
= 0.44 : 0.44 : 1.00 : 1.00

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Moment distribution: Example

These ‘moments are then applied to the frame, and the moments distributed
as previously.
The associated propping force, HB is derived and compared with P
(previously calculated as 5.3 kN).
The moments are then factored in the ratio of P: HB to give the sway
moments which are added to the previously calculated moment

HB B C

1.00
0.44

1.00
D
0.44
A

Moment distribution: Example

Effect if pinned support, e.g. if point A was ‘pinned’

10m
UDL 15 kN/m
P B
C
EI = 2

EI = 1 10m
15m EI = 1

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Moment distribution: Example

Either:
Derive ‘fixed end’ moments as for fixed beam and then
Distribute, but with no stiffness at joint A

Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
0% 25% 75% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125
31 94 -83 -42
½ ½ ½
15 -42 47 -21
-15 ½ 10 32 -31 -16
-7.5

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Moment distribution: Example

Or :
Change distribution factors at joint B:
3EI/L
4EI/L

at BA: 3/15
3/15 + 4x2/10 = 0.12
at BC: 4x2/10
3/15 + 4x2/10 = 0.88

Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
0% 12% 88% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125

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Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
0% 12% 88% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125
15 110 -83 -42

Moment distribution: Example

A B C D
0% 12% 88% 67% 33% 100%
-125 125
15 110 -83 -42
0% ½

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Moment distribution: Example 2

Multiple spans
UDL 15 kN/m
10m 10m
A EI = 1 C
B

EI = 1

EI = 2 10m

Stiffness BA : BC : BC = 1/10 : 1/10 : 2/10

Moment distribution: Example

A B D B C
0% 25% 50% 25% 0%
-125 125 100%
125 -31.2 -62.6 -31.2
-15.6 62.5 -15.6
-31.3
15.6 -15.6 -31.3 -15.6 15.6
-7.8 7.8 7.8 -7.8
-15.65
7.8 -3.9 --7.8 -3.9 7.8

etc

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Creep Redistribution
When a sustained load is applied to a concrete structure
strains increase over time. This phenomena is known as
‘Creep’. The implications on prestressed concrete
bridge design are twofold:

- Loss of prestress

- Redistribution of forces within a structure to achieve a

minimum energy condition

Creep redistribution is significant in structures built and

prestressed in stages. It must be considered in the
design.

Creep Redistribution
The “creep factor”, , determines the amount of
redistribution that occurs and is dependant on a number
of factors (See Annex B of EN 1992-1-1):
• Age of concrete at time of initial loading
• Type of cement
• Concrete cement content and water-cement ratio
• Ambient humidity
• Time since loading
For precast construction  is typically around 1.6
For in situ construction  ranges from 2.0 to 2.5

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Creep Redistribution
As built forces in the structure are “crept” towards the
instanteous distribution using 

Sudden changes in the structural system

e.g. connecting members, jacking
M final  M asbuilt  ( M instant  M asbuilt ) . 1  e  

Gradual changes in the structural system

e.g. differential settlement
 
M final  M asbuilt . 1  e  / 

Creep Redistribution
Comparison of redistribution factors for sudden and
gradual changes in the structural system
 Sudden Gradual
change change
(1 – e- ) (1 – e- )/
1.6 0.80 0.50
1.8 0.83 0.46
2.0 0.86 0.43
2.2 0.89 0.40
2.4 0.91 0.38

Note that gradual changes result in 40% - 60% of the

creep redistribution of sudden change

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Creep Redistribution
Consider a bridge built by the balanced cantilever
method
Cantilever
balanced Dead load
cantilever BMD

In-situ stitches

Creep Redistribution

As-built BMD

Instantaneous
BMD

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Creep Redistribution

Over time the bending moment distribution will creep from the as-built
condition towards the instantaneous condition. But by how much?
Masbuilt
Minstant

Crept
BMD

M final  M asbuilt  ( M instant  M asbuilt ) . 1  e   

Where is the
creep factor

Creep Redistribution
Values for the creep factor are defined by a number of model codes
including Eurocode 2, CEB-FIP 1978, CEB-FIP 1990, ACI Code 209-78
and others.

BS5400-4 creep model is based on CEB-FIP 1978. Appendix C refers.

  k L .k m .kc .ke .k j
k L depends on the environmental conditions (see Figure 9);
k m depends on the hardening (maturity) of the concrete at the age of loading (see
Figure 10);
kc depends on the composition of the concrete (see Figure 11);

ke depends on the effective thickness of the member (see Figure 12);

defines the development of the time-dependent deformation with time (see Figure
kj 13)

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Creep Redistribution
km kc
kL

Cement content typically 400-

450kg/m3
Effective thickness, ke w/c ratio typically 0.4

he = 2xAc/u kj
where:
Ac = Sectional area
u = Section perimeter

References:
i) Steel Designers Manual - published by SCI
ii) Manual of Bridge Engineering – published by Thomas Telford

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