Dats Contnts 14,522 Data neryptin standard (DES)-hased encryption 596 1453 Visual Crplography 396 1454 CAPTCHA 598 Image Forensics 598) 602 14.7.1 PixeLbased techniques 602 147.12 Feature-based techniques 603 148.42 MPEG compression 612 148.44 MPEG variations 6/5 149. Medical Image Processing 616 14.9.1 Radon Transform 616 149.11 Recovery using ‘backpropagation method 618 149.12 Recovery sing algebraic * method 618 149.13 Recovery using ditect Fourier 14.11 Data Mining and Content-based Image Retieval Systems 626 Crossword 634 Word Search Puzzle 635, L_ ff CHAPTER \ 1 ee Introduction to Image Processing ions fr mass communication, pictures still at universally understood language. Walt Disney Company age procesing concepts information sources, x the application requirements. The objective cated with image procesing Sod to give an overiow of image types, maging appllations andthe dtl image ‘with the folowing ater studying processing environment. Te reader wil become fr the chapter: + Survey of image procesingappications 1.1 OVERVIEW OF IMAGE PROCESSING is so sophisticated that we recognize objects in a few seconds, without fen years, yet recognize hinvher in spite of the change in his! her appears ‘method by which humans gather knowledge for recogr ‘very unique. 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Analog signals are characterized by ct time, They are often referred to as pictures. The processes signal are called analog processes. Analog image processing is an area that processing of analog electrical signals using analog.cireuts. The imaging syst film for recording images are also known as analog imaging systems. In medical imaging, ‘The analog signal is often simpled, quantized, and converted digitizer. Digitization refers to the process of sampling and quar process of converting continuous-valued image fl, y) into a discrete image, 3s computers cannot handle continuous data, So the main sim is to create a diseretized version of the continuous data, Sampling is a reversible process ait is possible to get the origi back. Quantization is the process of converting the sampled analog va fo a discrete ger. Digital image processing isan area ind software algorithms to carry fons may include qu advantages over analog images. Some ofthe advantages ae as follows: 1. Its easy to post-process the image. Small corrections ean be made in mage using software ne image inthe digital memory. the image over networks. So sharing an age docs not require any chemi to analog conversion process. 1.3 IMAGE PROCESSING AND RELATED FIELDS. Image processing is an exciting interd “INTRODUCTION TO IMAGE PROCESSING 5 Digits sina = Opies raps ~ / Fig. 1.2. Image processing and other closely related fields Image Processing and Computer Graphics Computer graphics and image processing are very close ‘aster data or bitmaps, whereas computer graphics 2D matrix form and ofte ‘elationships between the objects. Vectors are lines or pri ‘an image. Veetor graphics ae often used to represen ies often take numerical data as input and produce an image as output. However, in image processing, the input is often an image, The goal of image processing isto enhance the quality ofthe image to ass the result of image processing is often an image or the de Iogical extension of computer graphics and serves asa complementary field ronment by means of various the processing of a one- pure swox yo 49quITO aH, {Fo s9qURU SIL HoNRIOSAL jDoHLAR poy st 9BEU fw swou Jo saquime 94 [puts yiy aes940 qoxtd ax jo anyon ayp ‘oun Kory ue wf 2 2) 19N9NOH{ “SUN o4 Sey puE ZBquIN e es poze ‘pojduaes [oxid aap yo ae 4 moutoy> &ejdsip 40 “sumo v yo quouio|9“(esoUteD [eUSIP v Jo KEL JOsUDS ay JO ways) ansojoyd ‘s0suos uly “Yxanu09 Buqupaue syouy, “rep =ro.Ds4p auaseudax sfaxty “38 up v ani 01 s94N9KO1 oUIqUIOD 1 s499I9 Supring 24p paropystos axe sjoxtg "sfoxtd JO ‘iL ouiae aimoxd, Jo uoHeHa19ge TE pur swt yo wonaosioyut ayp ay “{1—4 reps009 a Sn, “SmURIOD { pu S01 Y (a=W IHS WIS O'S pu a(x) f aos wos sods a-00F wor os oF swojoy se (€'x)f wonur uojum 29 eo aust ax “esau uy “suuunjoo aay pu sor any soy aBeuat ayy, (@)E"L Bd ‘uy umoys se xuous o st aBoun oxy yo 2asmos ogy. “aeuH paxe|dsip eswOyS(8)—"| BNBL ‘ios nsyeus wy quniuo> aBeu su9j9b3 yp Areuyg ews (e) Uonewu9se1¢01 38eurjaBig ETB 2 onigsa00ue 30¥M! 01 NolLsngouLN (@he'| pur (CT 8 4 gg a1 seu roypopy ase yeds aq Jono sowea yxy [URIS Cg © Se pouyp aq weD aru ry poureuosar 9NoUsROU Se € pur ¥ soyeupr009 NOUvANaS3u43¥ 29H TWLIDIG FL soydde yet ease ue st Su ‘od sonstets og ‘2ouaray ‘pur Surnunoo se yons sons ‘oysners pue Gussere1g seu, SEL Suissanoud aoe Jo pmas 4 Apmis a4, “sMa4 feondo 9 ut 910 pareroosse pur “suo ‘somde ‘s08e ‘se “eipoant 0} poreax A(Suos are sau ‘uonippe UT “Bu1ss9004 ue st ssoooud oapta ‘sy, speau oapIn As YON SUNDAE 5 19 8 se paiapisuoa ng wea oapin S08 nue “1oej ul “SOBeUH Ns yoge st Buussoo0.d aBeUs, Susszeigoapin pueBusspoiga6euy FEL ‘suo worsta ounypeus2op anus yay ayy se o4z05 ued emp SHS oud oem Sop “BuIpurysi9pun oUIDS ILA paTe!AOsse UOYO St snonyqure auou S| worst sonar syon¥0oo it 98g] # yodsut OF ouyseu ads jonsta porewomne axe us yo woreuoutojdu op jorred se sonpoud smpu03e pare ways fonsta wen op ‘tend posoudat axa1yoe pu stonpoud you \wo}ss {dd ayy, "stw21s45 Uo ide Jo sour sous spo ‘eroures pas Suny se yans sjoadse Auew sopnut saqndwoa poe WOIStA SUIYPeU—splAygRS WIEN OAK YH “Pay ISEA w S| MOIST DIOL igsz00¥e a9¥mI WI9IC.ce. The resolution can then be quantified as 200 ine pairs per mm, solution depends on two parameters—the number of pixels ofthe image and jon, referred to as the bit depth. image. The total number of by the number ine the quality of | isthe ome grey scale vahes ean to the number of bits used to repres bit depth is called gam is necessary to represent the image is rows x Number of cokimns x Bit depth Chapter 2. sncept of 2D images ean be extended to 3D images also. A 3D image isa x, and 2 are spatial coordinates. In 3D images, the term “voxel an abbreviation of ‘volume element’. ITRODUCTION TO AGE PROCESSING -9 15: TYPES OF IMAGES ‘There is no single accepted way of classifying images. They can be classified based on many criteria, Some ways in which images can be classified are shown in Fig. 1.4 151 Based on Nature mages ean be broadly clasifed as natural and synthetic images. Natural images are, 1.52 Based on Atributes Based on attributes, images can be classified as raster images and vector graphics. 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Therefore, ransmission time would be ao _ 315%300%8 _112500x8 =32143 sec 28%1000 28000 image of sie 5 inches by 6 inches scanned atthe rate of 300 the image? image i the modem is 28 kbps? emote sensing image may have perceptual range. Hence ‘added te these bands, = 5. 300% 6 X 300 X $= 1500 X 1800 x 8=21600000 bits convenience. These are called images are popular ia the medical ken to tans domain also. 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For example, mal ” epresented in the first quadrant of the Cartesian coordinate system as shown in Martin Parr Figure ) of dimension 3 x3, where ( left comer. Sic x=0,1,2, Howeve This chapter provides an overview of mage processing operations. The Discrete images a concepts of image topology such 5 neghbourhsod and connectivity ‘A discrete are introduced inthis chapter. The important arithmetic, logical statisti spat, “Many programming environments including MATLAB st and set operations are discussed. After studying ths chapter, the reader vl Wepreseataton ofthe given matrix is shown in Fig 320). he fourth quadrant of the ‘quadrant of Cartesian coordinate system 12 physi ‘Js are represented | log image of size 3 3 is Fig. 3.1. ‘LEARNING OBJECTIVES + Concepts of image geometry and topology Image processing operations i + Spatal operations 3.1. BASIC RELATIONSHIPS AND DISTANCE METRICS image inthe fourth quadrant of Cartesian coordinate system 1 handled by software environments such as MATLAB Fig. 3:2 Dizerete image ( (2) Image coordi 1.2 Image Topology adjacency, and conn topology nthe simplest case the neighbours of given 3.14 Image Coordinate System reference pixel ate those pixels with which the given reference pixel shares edges and comes. Images canbe easily represented asa two-dimensional aay or mati, The pop aoe eesincaate coords = (DO themat form is due tothe fet that most of the program: data siucture and can easily implement matix-level ‘two horizontal and two vertical pixels Fig. 3.3. 4Neighbourhood nyo} in Fig. 33,dusexa 304 “9Beu Ue Jo ve 3 94 uonefar ewig 946-9 =a sowie yo ad syinads gy Sep} 9 jonnoadsa (9's) pure (+) soyeuspio09 suoneey Pe 2m uaaag 2: se pouyap aq ut vu % pu aye sped aj a4 yyy paxt0sgo a '¢ Lg UL uMOgS ses teu dues 6 Bu ae enenn yrenbouy sedan, sisyy daze Oa + Oday = DG = (der suBIp OL “E 1 0= (6h =dnoz@'da 2 pr dye soy aay pu pouyop- jem st (6A) og 24p gf aun pare aq wes wonDUTy 204 9 99 Po sfoxid a spexid b pue d spd ony funtnoouion poxtyy Alapeuue pom (sy ws bpuedspud mg pus (r “a sjoxid aautp sopisuoy-aouesip *q ‘2g vo aout ue ub pue d sjoxid ‘yea ayeas Kau woud & 24 8 99ND SOUEISIP HL, saunseaymueisia SUE ved Sus sa) 198 a4 94 01 pres 19 Uy np UL 34 0 pres sue pur dsjaxtd ay Aamriwwy-y sjon2| A218 Jo afues Suv 2g gst 4 "980 reug © J04 -payses axe Kousoelpe ao yeas fax 40 pu {1 '9) 24 M4 4 18 81 Co 3 US a4) 01 Buojog g pul 231 ue wg] = 0} | wow Surfer Boj we st y a32y jawunssy uu 5 possoucxa 09 ura sdtysuonn|as au, woHjau a2U2} patie st dijsuomyjas agp “ploy somusdosd sax 289 ‘Aitansoutory Aansouuoo faxid q pauyop st s[axid axow 20 om wadding diysuONe|s1 gH, Aanpauuey eve ouyde umoys st pu (2) (INO OM = CONN staxtd yo es UL ¢'¢ BSH se payuasoudar st sjoxtd asouL. ‘sisx9 osye 2y Poownoguion's SE m qo sos uouiuo> #27 . x dx auz4y pue poo ssn ost yg vy son ga JL ti, posses ng re soc ga 3a eer aie (( xjd pox Jo. smog au aapxoyou vse WOU SSB “SPIO 17 Sty uw Agoonydesd wsoys-am (C3) jou og sony souaoyar amp 20y sian yruodeap oy, 41 +3) pur s(L +419") 6 | ‘1 =2) ame Aayy sinogyien ag (Cd pox 2009 | (awsuowspreussea ve pa wooo v azeys 1 sxe P ke (Cd pod agp go SiN0gYBLOW souy se pawasaidas hunwo2wu0y@ 9'¢- . A psn. IN 2 wo 1 “fr (ado 5 prousp so smogieu xp poy “CU —') 1 uo pasog say “Se Se = se yoo x re 63) CL) ET 4) soa Jo 15 24 ‘58 sNOUVadO ONISS300N4 ZO¥RI TLIOIC nisez00ud aovm HID!1% DIGITAL MAGE PROCESSING DIGITAL WAGE PROCESSING OPERATIONS 87 ih marked pixels p and g. @ ty, However, since its calculation a roe fora (p) 5 The tt mpahs 1-2-1 -2 1. There Dai ‘ofp ue pue suoves om savensnyt €1'¢ mig ‘ped posojo w axey pu [egors are HL “suupuosye Tuy, 39 01 oat 42th sjoxid ayy fuoure suey Sf aioy) soxaioyye auesaid om sap “L Suoiias BuunoguBioN zed ooo, reosoy oniseag0¥d Z0vNI WLI91aDIGITAL MAGE PROCESSING OPERATIONS ot 90 DIGITAL MAGE PROCESSING process yields ze )-3.15() show t ion of a cons is no ice between the frames, the subtr any difference it indicates the change. Figures 3 rn the images. In addition, 1 increases or decreases, respe s of image adi ly. Ths s covered in Section 3.2.1.2. The practical ate double exposure, Double exposure is the technique of superimposing an image woe the res his gives a scenario equivalent to exposing to.Wo pictures. This is illustrated in Figs 3 2. To increase the brightness of an Change detection+051 OS +08 002-+002) SSL+SL SS4sI Shes og aunssy z teu afew! =€ ae {se seus) vogesace uojswp ew 20: @ aes {aft jo uoneardau ay, yseur B se past te aitaxa 03 pasn suosiezodo worstarp pur uoneaydnynus xp mous (@)LLE-(QLI'E SOmBE © — GNOILYHS4O oNIss300M4 JO¥R TLIDI | | | ‘STL $4 papiatp sf afew yeaiSuo om oH yay} UE YRS SMOYS (ELIE aMNBEA “oHINpaL seIIUO “E ‘quauodutoo aouey20yat pue aouvutuin Jo uorreedag “7 ‘uon20%9p 28404 “| ‘smollo} Sb az8 uoystasp PU Jo Su 09 Bt y 2:54" nd ag oste Ue 2d wep wo. Fe ‘aoupq{ “saquinu quo andino 249 51 (C5 =F way se powugpind 99 ue ops a6ouy sseniuo2 pool us Sugjnsas (g2'T x a8ewH uopelaco uoReDyMR|NUJO WASH STE BL niss300u4 30¥mI T181094 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING DIGITAL WAGE PROCESSING OPERATIONS 95 sages A and B. Find A+ B,A~B,AXB, the image ation 6 | 1B? 230 1 TP3]*]7 2, s[s[ols s[7[olt 7 Be ‘Subtraction: 4 6 3[s[ol|7 -s0 3.180 7 49 47 e[tf2 if3[s[7 gaffe] S948 15-558 75-155 |=|-40 40 Solution ‘The given images are 4x 4 and 8 grey level (O~ 7) images. As the grey levels are O— 7, 200-200 50-50 150-75 eo any value above 7 is reduced to 7. Since the da type is ni, vals Bes than Ore rest 0 3[a[a ooo aveeE s-|00 0 00 75 be observed that he mods ofthe difernce resus ina ifn Mulpicoion: 1X30 3x150 7x 125 50 450 ae 3]2}0}0 BRAS] SHAS 15x58 S155 225 825 s{4}olo 200% 200 50x50 150% 75) |so000 2500 Tel] the datatype is uni8, values erate than 255 ae reset to 255, 77 [0/6 AxB= 1 7h Division: Alb a Arithmetic operations ean be o ive use. For example,the image averaging process can be used to remove noise. Noise is a random fluctuation of pixel values, which affects the quality of the image. A noisy image can be considered as an image ‘where fly) is the input image and g(x, mages can be taken and averaged as mage. Several instances of noisy the output image, and te parameter led blending rai, which determines the inuence of each image onthe resultant image: se joqqen na igey, ur wang st sored LON. Lon rboyrray yeee wwogezado yox axnjo unsay gr Bid sioevodo YONX PUE WOK ANI OoIFE WIN EAEEL ‘€ alge, ut uaaid st sroresedo YONX pue YOX a4 JO 91ge MN onnyon F°rE voyeiado Susfiauv se pasn 2q We> YO °Z ‘soouu on Jo soyesodo woyun ay se p2sn StO “TL ‘smoroy s8 axe sxre1ad0 YON pur YO 24 SuonET|de wonsead 4 siresdo CON PIE HORN PARE A Fe ome, ‘€€a]QH], ut uoads st srowado YON pue YO 2M JO 91gE HAN HL, wonrso veze 46 snouvaauo oN'ss390Ud BOY WLIDIG few guy 1 28euj04 afew (q) rateu 24 (P} 7 98ew YO T a¥eus jo 4n52u 6) ‘YO PUEANY au JOSUNSOY STE By & @ PRreWsr'e somnits jen ued yseur om pur jour P 24 UED 0000 OODT anfEA yo AseUEE ays 8 2430] YO PLE CINY aif Jo sioayo oq sMoys sow! gy. ‘seu sg J0 wHs0q tp jo wonendwog, esodo CINWN Pu® CINW 210 Jo 9}qE HT aH, ounwany zee LON aIBOTUOAUT “y YONAIO YONXAAIONA “€ 1 aNvNaNY ta post Sjapum 21 ou Wsy pa quia 988 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING DIGITAL INAGE PROCESSING OPERATIONS 99 lvI ov1 foRf=| ivi lv ovi ovt ivi (i ~ Nor Not(f)=|-1 = Difference yaytdy process for se ‘Ss the scaling transforms Fig. 2.21 Result of transation by 50 unitssme. ip Buope uowzayay (Q) aBew euu0 (e) vonesado oH Zee BS fer) lela q want st syxv-« np Buoye wonsoyas oq ‘SqEIEUTS soar(t plete aq uoni st sixe-x og Buoye uowaayx UL “08T £4 woneIOL se poquosop osye s1 wonsayeyTuespenb aysoddo ox ut st 199fGo axp yng ‘709/90 [eu 2e(go parao|ar a, "suosteduo9 Sunyeut 40y pu 29pI0 pasisap tryosn s1 wopesado sty. “possonas are sjoxtd op gory wt aut te suinyau wonauny ay, our auejd © ut yoafgo ax Jo donnogoraqp Saqwa19 UORDUTY SAL onnadovomayatsosouny PETE és snoluvaado onissaoo¥e oynt anna Beas pur wees 009 sno2uaFowoy a4 s90p (0 ‘0 ‘0) sm, 0222-1oW ag pynoys yuo oo yse2] 3 Sa}EUypI009 snosusFouIOY onISs300%4 J0¥RITWLIDIG402 OIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING DIGITAL MAGE PROCESSING OPERATIONS 103, ‘The reflection about y= ~x is given as me cao ‘This can be represented as F” = RA. The parameter Bis the angle of rotation with respect tis assumed that the object rotation is about the origin. The value of can be positive or negative. A positive angle represents counter clockwise angle represents clockwise rotation. The rotation ofan image is show '3.23(b). In the homogeneous coordinate system, rotation ean be represented as f ‘The reflection operation is illustrated in Figs 3.22(a) and 3.22(b). In the homogeneous ‘coordinate system, the matrices for reflection can be given as 10 0 100 “10 0 Ryau=]0 1 Of Reay=]0 1 Ol: Rage=] 0-1 0 o1 oo 1 001 i) 4100 oot Similarly the reflection along a line can be given as Shearing can be done using the fol tion and can be represented in the mati form as vaxtay yey | 1 a 0) (where a= shy) “ oo1 { Fig.3.23 Rotation (a) Original image (b) Result of rotation by 45° | 3.2.3.6 Affine transform The yay bx { ; 1 0) (where b=sh,) | 001 where sh, and sh, are shear factors inthe x and y directions, respectively, 3.235 Rotation ‘An image can be rotated by various degrees such as 90°, 180°, or 270°. In the mate form, itis given asfre 0) (roo ot srmf=lo 1 dum] -mys \ | loo rJloo t sb 643 ‘past abaya wonedsoit ay pawns. s SHU "¢ OL : Lo A saz ol= 07'2Ix]o cov a omen ous 930, st 4 90 SBoU amp EuNEIOY (9) a a f 00) fiz sleteax|o 1 0} S10) S01 sNoLvH3do ONISs300¥4 JOVI THIOIG ‘sun o¢ Kq wonsoup-« wt ses 00g sxx noge Bugout tx Sb A Buys pao yoy wUO}Eg sp sve ae gs po suogdo Ba 1uoyiod eter Buyaoytoy 249 “opdutex9 404, sao) wucysuen 249 Jo uBis mp BursUeyD Ky pourergo ag weD uoneIO1 op wUOJsUEN asI9AG a) eo jong 30 2S19Ul 2M] “UoRsOd pur HO} yeuugysuen asians Jo 2sodind 2x, onowsosuon asienyy ETE 0 =%4 pu “ys = “p= yg = 104 £991 =% uy poutoyiad st eas eruozt.0y pu 2° % pur 'g = ‘0 ‘os02= 19 uss=tygus—= 9 ‘9s09 = ay vos wt w'0=%9 ‘92% '9 = lopur‘s= lg puns =" a1oy uogemis Bs! uoneueysuEN = "pur “qe 'o + =o arayy nononys omy st woneysuexy,suoneuosten ire swasoxdas worenbo aif ay, “suoneuuosuen je Suyuasaudas Jo fess yoeduuoo © st wuoysuen use UL, We she) ‘wu xine uy passasdy9 s SHH, wissz00u 30¥M TIBI ab106 DIGITAL MAGE PROCESSING (6) Performing mieoring about x-axis +4 () Perform shear in nection by 30 unis, . 5h, 0) (1 30°0) 1 ol-[o 1.0 o loon (i 00 ing=|0 1 0|x (2.2.4 =[62 2 1" loot Shear, tt 3.23.8 3DTransforms Some medical images such as computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images are three-dimensional images. To apply translation, rotation, and scaling on 3D nsformations are logical extensions of 2D transformations. These are summarized and described as follows: 000 & 010 6 O01 & coor ‘Translation = Rotation along 2-axig cos 0-0 o 10 o 0 a DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING OPERATIONS 107 Rotation along x-axis foo 9 oO 0 cos sind 0 Fos=\ 9 sind cos 0 oo ot Rotation along y-axis cos 0 sind 0 ajo too | sind 0 cos 0 0 0 01 ‘Compactly, these ean be-represented as ¥\ eel? yl Similarly, the reflection transform matrices ean be given as (io 0 0 ref jot oo Heston yin |5 9-1 0 ooo 4) 1000 ne jo 100 eMectiOnwe|5 9 1 0 oo ot fae 0) ae jo 108 Meet) 9 9 1 0 0001 - “The shear matrices forthe shear quat ‘aand b can be given as 1000) 0 Shear, = 1 >‘10 oIGITAL MAGE PROCESSING 5. Set Operations [An image can be visualized as a set. For example, the following binary image (Fig, 3.25) can be visualized as a sot A, where A = {(0, 0) (0, 2), 2, 2)}. The coordinates’ values represent the value of 1. Set operators can then be applied to the set to got the resultant, which is image analysis, Fig.3.25 Sample binary image The complement of set 4 can be defined asthe se of pixels that does not belong tothe set. A= eee} ‘The reflection ofthe st is defined as A={c=-aaed} ‘The union of wo sets, 4-und B, can be represented as AUB= {el(ce Av (Ce B)} he pixel c belongs to.A, B, or both The intersection of two sets is given as AM B= felce A)A(ce B)}. The pixel ngs to A,B, or bot, ference can be expressed as A~B=(cilee A) (ce B)} s based on set theory, to accomplish various ig small holes present inthe image, and removing. ng the shapes ofthe objects that are present in the images. The theory of mathematial morp theory. One ean vis binary object as a sét, Set theory c sample set. Morphological operators often take a binary image and a mask known as ‘where x and y correspond are added and the union are based on Minkowski algebra DIGITAL AGE PROCESSING OPERATIONS — 111 Example 3.7” Consider the following binary mage. Show the resulis ofthe operations “The image F canbe written as F={(0,2,(1,2)2, D220 followed by the Peas oy 2.26. 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Therefore, the entropy is H= ~ [1/2 log is sufficient to store the intensity ofthe pixel Example 38 Calculate the entropy forthe symbols given in Table 3.6 Table 3.6 Symbols and their probabilty ‘Smmbos 1 203 4S 830.1 +0.110g50.1) =~ (-05288 - 0.5211 0.3322 0.3322 -0332) =2, Example 39" Calculate the entropy ofthe givenimage SSS EE statato ofots[7 i[3[ste} Solution The formula for computing the eniony is Enirpy = —$p, ts p, ‘The prot DIGITAL WAGE PROCESSING OPERATIONS — 115, =~ {0375-025 0.48 -0375,-0375 -0375-0.25 025-0375) == (-3075} py of he image is 3.075. ss ofthe image, as a function ofp ). Entropy can also be used t0 cha texture of the images. 2380) @ ) Fig. 327 Surface plot () Original image (b) Surace plot tal operations The brightness and contrast can be defined as