Em Notes

Electromagnetics
Dr Yerriswamy T
KLE Institute of Technology 2 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Chapter 1 Electrostatics
1.1 Coulomb’s Electrostatic Force Law

✿ Solve any problem in which forces between static charges are to be evaluated
✿ determine electric field that is associated with any charge distribution
Definition 1.1
Force between two very small objects separated in a vacuum or free space by a distance, which
is large compared to their size, is proportional to the charge on each and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. i.e.,
Q1 Q2
F=k Coombs (C) (1.1)
R2
Where, Q1 and Q2 are the positive or negative charges, R is the separation and k is proportionality
constant or Coulombs constant and is
1
k= (1.2)
4πεo
where, εo = 8.854 × 10−12 F/ m. Substituting in 1.1
Q1 Q2
F= Coombs (C) (1.3)
4πεo R2
In order to write the vector forms of F, we need the additional fact that the force acts along the line
joining the two charges and is repulsive if the charges are alike in sign or attractive if they are of opposite
sign
As shown in Fig.(1.1) let the vector r1 locate Q1 , whereas, r2 locate Q2 . then R12 = r2 − r1 represents
the directed line segment from Q1 to Q2 . The vector F2 is the force on Q2 and is shown for the case
where Q1 and Q2 have the same sign. The vector form of Coulomb’s law is
Figure 1.1. Vector Representation
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 3 KLE Institute of Technology

1.2. ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS
Q1 Q2
F2 = a12 (1.4)
4πεo R212
where, a12 is the unit vector in the direction R12 or
R12 R12 r2 − r1
a12 = = = (1.5)
|R12 | R12 |r2 − r1 |
For, R21 = r1 − r2 , and Q1 and Q2 have opposite sign. We can see that R21 = −R12 and
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
F1 = a21 = − a12 = −F2 (1.6)
4πεo R212 4πεo R212
1.2 Electric Field Intensity
If we now consider one charge fixed in position, say Q1 , and move a second charge slowly around, we
note that there exists everywhere a force on this second charge; in other words, this second charge is
displaying the existence of a force field that is associated with charge, Q1 . Call this second charge a
test charge Qt . The force on it is given by Coulomb’s law
Q1 Qt
Ft = a1t (1.7)
4πεo R21t
Writing this force as a force per unit charge gives the electric field intensity, E1 arising from Q1 :
Ft Q1
E1 = = a1t (1.8)
Qt 4πεo R21t
E1 is interpreted as the vector force, arising from charge Q1 , that acts on a unit positive test charge.
More generally, we write the defining expression:
Ft
E1 = (1.9)
Qt
in which E, a vector function, is the electric field intensity evaluated at the test charge location that
arises from all other charges in the vicinity—meaning the electric field arising from the test charge itself
is not included in E.
The units of E would be in force per unit charge (newtons per coulomb). Again anticipating a new
dimensional quantity, the volt (V), having the label of joules per coulomb (J/C), or newton-meters per
coulomb (N · m/C), we measure electric field intensity in the practical units of volts per meter (V/m).
Now, we dispense with most of the subscripts in (1.8), reserving the right to use them again any time
there is a possibility of misunderstanding. The electric field of a single point charge becomes:
Q
E= aR (1.10)
4πεo R2

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS 1.2. ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
In a spherical coordinate system:

Q
E= ar (1.11)
4πεo r 2
Where r is the radius.

In rectangular coordinate system:
Q r − r′
E(r) = (1.12)
4πεo |r − r′ |2 |r − r′ |
Some point r′ where Q is located and general field point r where we find filed.
Further, the sum of the forces on Qt caused by Q1 at r1 and Q2 at r2
Q1 Q2
E(r) = a +
2 1
a2 (1.13)
4πεo |r − r1 | 4πεo |r − r2 |2
In general, for n point charges
M
X Qm
E(r) = 2
am (1.14)
m=1 4πεo |r − rm |

1.3. FIELD ARISING FROM A CONTINUOUS VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONCHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS
1.3 Field arising from a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution
Let ρ denote volume charge density C/ m2 . The small amount of charge ΔQ in a small volume Δ is
ΔQ = ρ Δ
we may define ρ mathematically by using a limiting process
ΔQ
ρ = lim
Δ→0 Δ
The total charge within some finite volume is
ˆ
Q= ρ + d
o
Note that; the differential volume of

✿ cylindrical coordinates
d = ρ dρ dϕ dz
✿ rectangular coordinates
d = d dy dz
✿ spherical coordinates
d = r 2 snθ dθ dϕ dr

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS 1.4. FIELD OF A LINE CHARGE
1.4 Field of a Line Charge
Figure 1.2. Line Charge
Now consider a filament like distribution of volume charge density, such as charged conductor of a
very small radius, we find it convenient to treat charge as a line charge of density ρL C/m .
We assume a straight-line charge extending along the z-axis in a cylindrical coordinate system from
−∞ to ∞ as shown in Fig.1.2
We desire the electric field intensity E at any and every point resulting from a uniform line charge
density ρL . Symmetry should always be considered first in order to determine two specific factors:
1. with which coordinates the field does not vary, and
2. which components of the field are not present
Referring to Fig.1.2:
✿ Field does not vary wrt ϕ, z and only varies with ρ.
✿ Eϕ is zero, but not Eρ and Ez .
✿ the contribution to Ez by elements of charge that are equal distances above and below the point at
which we are determining the field will cancel.
We therefore have found that we have only an Eρ component and it varies only with ρ. Now to find
this component. We choose a point P(0, y, 0) on the y-axis at which to determine the field.
Incremental field at ρ due to the incremental charge
dQ = ρL dz ′
we have:
ρL dz ′ (r − r′ )
dE = (1.15)
4πεo |r − r′ |3

1.4. FIELD OF A LINE CHARGE CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS
where;
r = yay = ρaρ
r′ = z ′ az
r − r′ = ρaρ − z ′ az
ρL dz ′ (ρaρ − z ′ az )
dE = (1.16)
4πεo (ρ2 + z ′2 )3/ 2
Because only component is Eρ
ρL dz ′ ρ
dEρ = (1.17)
4πεo (ρ2 + z ′2 )3/ 2
and
ˆ ∞ ρL ρ
Eρ = dz ′ (1.18)
−∞ 4πεo (ρ2 + z ′2 )3/ 2
Substitute
z ′ = ρ tn()
 = rctn(z ′ / ρ)
dz ′ = ρ sec2 ()d
in Eq.1.18
ˆ
ρL ρ ∞ ρ sec2 ()
Eρ = d
4πεo −∞ (ρ2 + ρ2 tn2 ())3/ 2
ˆ
ρL ρ ∞ ρ sec2 ()
= d
4πεo −∞ (ρ2 sec2 ())3/ 2
ˆ ∞
ρL ρ 1 1
= d
4πεo −∞ ρ2 sec()
ˆ ∞
ρL ρ 1 1
= d
4πεo ρ2 −∞ sec()
ρL ρ 1
= 2
[sin()] ∞ −∞
4πεo ρ
ρL ∞
= sin(rctn(z ′ / ρ)) −∞
4πεo ρ
 ∞
z′
ρL
= r ρ 
′
4πεo ρ z
1 + ( ρ )2
−∞

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS 1.4. FIELD OF A LINE CHARGE
ρL
=
2πεo ρ
Finally,
ρL
E= aρ
2πεo ρ
we note that the field fall off inversely with the distance to the charged line, as compared with the
point charge, where the field decreases with the square of the distance.

1.5. FIELD OF A SHEET OF CHARGE CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS
1.5 Field of a Sheet of Charge
Figure 1.3. An Infinite Sheet of Charge
Let us place a sheet of charge in the yz plane and again consider symmetry Fig.(1.3). We see first
that the field cannot vary with y or with z, and then we see that the y and z components arising from
differential elements of charge symmetrically located with respect to the point at which we evaluate the
field will cancel. Hence only E is present, and this component is a function of x alone.
Let us use the field of the infinite line charge, by dividing the infinite sheet into differential-width strips.
′
One such strip is shown in Fig.(1.3). The line charge density, or charge per unit length, q is ρL = ρs dy ,
and the distance from this line charge to our general point P on the x axis is R = (2 + y ′2 ). The
contribution to E at P from this differential-width strip is then
ρs dy ′ ρs  dy ′
dE = cos(θ) = (1.19)
2πε0 2 + y ′2
Æ
2πε0 (2 + y ′2 )
Then;
ˆ ∞
ρs ∞  dy ′ ρs y′ ρs

E = = tn−1 = (1.20)
2πε0 −∞ 2 + y ′2 2πε0  −∞ 2ε0
If the point P were chosen on the negative x axis, then
ρs
E = − (1.21)
2ε0
for the field is always directed away from the positive charge. This difficulty in sign is usually over-
come by specifying a unit vector aN , which is normal to the sheet and directed outward, or away from
it. Then
ρs
E=− aN (1.22)
2ε0

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS 1.5. FIELD OF A SHEET OF CHARGE
If a second infinite sheet of charge, having a negative charge density −ρs , is located in the plane
 = , we may find the total field by adding the contribution of each sheet. In the region  > ,
ρs
E+ = a
2ε0
ρs
E− = − a
2ε0
E = E+ + E− = 0
and for  < 0
ρs
E+ = − a
2ε0
ρs
E− = a
2ε0
E = E+ + E− = 0
and when 0 <  < 
ρs
E+ = a
2ε0
ρs
E− = a
2ε0
ρs
E = E+ + E− = a
ε0
This is an important practical answer, for it is the field between the parallel plates of an air capacitor,
provided the linear dimensions of the plates are very much greater than their separation and provided
also that we are considering a point well removed from the edges. The field outside the capacitor, while
not zero, as we found for the preceding ideal case, is usually negligible.

1.6. ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS
Figure 1.4. Illustration of Electric Flux.
1.6 Electric Flux Density

Definition 1.2
the electric flux of E through a surface S, is a measure of the “number of electric field lines” passing
through S.
Definition 1.3
Electric flux density, measured in coulombs per square meter (sometimes described as “lines per
square meter,” for each line is due to one coulomb), is given the letter D
The electric flux density D is a vector field and is a member of the “flux density” class of vector fields,
as opposed to the “force fields” class, which includes the electric field intensity E. The direction of D at
a point is the direction of the flux lines at that point, and the magnitude is given by the number of flux
lines crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by the surface area.
Referring again to Fig. 1.4, the electric flux density is in the radial direction and has a value of
Q
D|r= = ar inner sphere (1.23)
4π2
Q
D|r=b = ar outer sphere (1.24)
4πb2
and at a radial distance r , where  ≤ r ≤ b,
Q
D= ar (1.25)
4πr 2
If we now let the inner sphere become smaller and smaller, while still retaining a charge of Q, it
becomes a point charge in the limit, but the electric flux density at a point r meters from the point
charge is still given by Eq.1.25
Further recall that the radial electric field intensity of a point charge in free space,

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS 1.6. ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY
Q
E= ar (1.26)
4πε0 r 2
Therefore, comparing Eq.1.25 and Eq.1.26, in free space
D = ε0 E (1.27)
Although Eq.1.26 is applicable only to a vacuum, it is not restricted solely to the field of a point charge.
For a general volume charge distribution in free space,
ˆ
ρ d
E= aR (1.28)
o 4πε0 R2
Where this field relationship was developed from the field of a single point charge. In a similar man-
ner,
ˆ
ρ d
D= aR (1.29)
o 4πR2

1.7. EXERCISES CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS
1.7 Exercises
Exercise 1.1
Find the force exerted on Q2 by Q1 , when Q1 = 3 × 10−4 is located at M(1, 2, 3) and Q2 =
−1 × 10−4 is located at N(2, 0, 5).
Solution
R12 = r2 − r1
= (2a + 0ay + 5az ) − (1a + 2ay + 3az )
= (2 − 1)a + (0 − 2)ay + (5 − 3)az
= a − 2ay + 2az
r q
|R12 | = R12 = A2 + A2y + A2z = 12 + (−2)2 + 22 = 3
R12 1
a12 = = a − 2ay + 2az
R12 3
Q1 Q2 3 × 10−4 × −1 × 10−4 a − 2ay + 2az

F2 = a12 =
4πεo R212 4π × εo = 8.854 × 10−12 × 32 3
F2 = −10a + 20ay − 20az N
Exercise 1.2
Point charges of 1nc and −2nc are located at (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) respectively in free space.
Determine the vector force acting on each charge.
Solution
R12 = r2 − r1
= (1a + 1ay + 1az ) − (0a + 0ay + 0az )
= a + ay + az
Æ p
|R12 | = R12 = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3
R12 1
a12 = = p a + ay + az
R12 3
Q1 Q2 1 × 10−9 × −2 × 10−9 a − 2ay + 2az

F12 = a12 = p 2 p = 3.45(a +ay +az )N
4πεo R212 4π × εo = 8.854 × 10−12 × 3 3
F21 = −F12 = −3.45(a + ay + az ) N

CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS 1.7. EXERCISES
Exercise 1.3
Point charge of 50nc each are located at A(1, 0, 0), B(−1, 0, 0), C(0, 1, 0) and D(0, −1, 0) in
free space. find the total force on the charge at A
Solution
RCA = rA − rC
= (1a + 0ay + 0az ) − (0a + 1ay + 0az )
= a − ay
Æ p
|RCA | = RCA = 12 + 12 = 2
RDA = rA − rD
= (1a + 0ay + 0az ) − (0a − 1ay + 0az )
= a + ay
Æ p
|RDA | = RDA = 12 + 12 = 2
RBA = rA − rB
= (1a + 0ay + 0az ) − (−1a + 0ay + 0az )
= 2a
p
|RBA | = RBA = 22 = 2
Q1 Q2 RCA RDA RBA

F= + +
4πεo |RCA |3 |RDA |3
|RBA |3
(50 × 10−9 )2 a + ay a + ay 2a

= p 3 + p 3 + 23
4π × εo = 8.854 × 10−12 2 2
= 2.6469 × 10−06 a N
Exercise 1.4
Find E at P(1, 1, 1) caused by four identical 3nC charges located at P1 (1, 1, 0), P2 (−1, 1, 0),
P3 (−1, −1, 0) and P(1, −1, 0)

Solution
r = 1a + 1ay + 1az

= a + ay + az
r1 = 1a + 1ay + 0az
= a + ay
r2 = −1a + 1ay + 0az
= −a + ay
r3 = −1a + −1ay + 0az
= −a − ay
r4 = 1a + −1ay + 0az
= a − ay
r − r1 = (a + ay + az ) − (a + ay )
= az
r − r2 = (a + ay + az ) − (−a + ay )
= 2a + az
r − r3 = (a + ay + az ) − (−a − ay )
= 2a + 2ay + az
r − r4 = (a + ay + az ) − (a − ay )
= 2ay + az
(1.30)
|r − r1 | = 1
p
|r − r2 | = 5
|r − r3 | = 3
p
|r − r4 | = 5
(1.31)
Using Eq.(1.14)
3 × 10−9 1 2a + az 1 2a + 2ay + az 1 2ay + az

E(r) = az + p + + p
4π8.854 × 10−12 5 5 9 3 5 5
E(r) = 6.82a + 6.82ay + 32.8az V/ m

Exercise 1.5
A charge of −0.3μC is located at A(25, −30, 15) in cm, and a second charge 0.5μC is at
B(−10, 8, 12) in cm. Find E at
1. the origin
2. P(15, 20, 50)cm (Students ASSIGNMENT)
Solution
Part a):
All values in cm are converted to m
r=0
rA = 0.25a − 0.30ay + 0.15az
rA = −0.10a + 0.08ay + 0.12az
r − rA = −0.25a + 0.30ay − 0.15az

r − rB = 0.10a − 0.08ay − 0.12az
q
|r − rA | = (−0.25)+ (0.30)2 + (−0.15)2 = 0.4183
q
|r − rB | = (0.10)+ (−0.08)2 + (−0.12)2 = 0.1755
QA r − rA QB r − rB
E= +
4πε0 |r − rA |3 4πε0 |r − rB |3
−0.3 × 10−6 −0.25a + 0.30ay − 0.15az

EA =
4π × 8.854 × 10−12 0.41833
0.5 × 10−6 0.10a − 0.08ay − 0.12az

EB =
4π × 8.854 × 10−12 0.17553
E = EA + EB = 92.3a − 77.6ay − 94.2az kV/ m
Exercise 1.6
Let a point charge Q1 = 25 nC be located at P1 (4, −2, 7) and a charge Q2 = 60 nC be at
P2 (−3, 4, −2) .
1. If ε = ε0 , find E at P3 (1, 2, 3).
2. At what point on the y axis is E = 0?

Solution
part a):
r3 = a + 2ay + 3az
r1 = 4a − 2ay + 7az
r2 = −3a + 4ay − 2az
r3 − r1 = a + 2ay + 3az − (4a − 2ay + 7az )

= a + 2ay + 3az − 4a + 2ay − 7az )
= −3a + 4ay − 4az
r3 − r2 = a + 2ay + 3az − (−3a + 4ay − 2az )
= a + 2ay + 3az + 3a − 4ay + 2az )
= 4a − 2ay + 5az
q p p
|r3 − r1 | = (−3)2 + (4)2 + (−4)2 = 9 + 16 + 16 = 41
q p p
|r3 − r2 | = (4)2 + (−2)2 + (5)2 = 16 + 4 + 25 = 45
Therefore:
Q1 r3 − r1 Q2 r3 − r2
E= +
4πε0 |r3 − r1 |3 4πε0 |r3 − r2 |3
25 × 10−9 −3a + 4ay − 4az 60 × 10−9 4a − 2ay + 5az

E= +
4πε0 (41)3/ 2 4πε0 (45)(3/ 2)
E = 4.58a − 0.15ay + 5.51az V/ m

——————
Part b): At what point on the y axis is E = 0? means that P3 = (0, y, 0)
r3 = 0a + yay + 0az

r1 = 4a − 2ay + 7az
r2 = −3a + 4ay − 2az
r3 − r1 = 0a + yay + 0az − (4a − 2ay + 7az )

= 0a + yay + 0az − 4a + 2ay − 7az )
= −4a + (y + 2)ay − 7az
r3 − r2 = 0a + yay + 0az − (−3a + 4ay − 2az )

= 0a + yay + 0az + 3a − 4ay + 2az )

= 3a + (y − 4)ay + 3az
q q q
|r3 − r1 | = (−4)2 + (y + 2)2 + (−7)2
= 16 + (y + + 49 = 65 + (y + 2)22)2
q q q
|r3 − r2 | = (3)2 + (y − 4)2 + (2)2 = 9 + (y − 4)2 + 4 = 13 + (y − 4)2
25 × 10−9 −4a + (y + 2)ay − 7az 60 × 10−9 3a + (y − 4)ay + 3az

E= 3 + 3
4πε0 4πε0
Æ Æ
65 + (y + 2) 2 13 + (y − 4)2
Considering only the x component
25 × 10−9 −4 60 × 10−9 3
E= −12 Æ 3 + −12 Æ 3
4π × 8.854 × 10 65 + (y + 2)2 4π × 8.854 × 10 13 + (y − 4)2
 
10−9 25 × (−4) 60 × 3
E =  3 + Æ 3 
4π × 8.854 × 10−12
Æ
65 + (y + 2)2 13 + (y − 4)2
Equating to 0, and simplifying
1616.4 898
3/ 2 = 3/ 2
13 + (y − 4)2 65 + (y + 2)2
3/ 2
1616.4 13 + (y − 4)2
= 3/ 2
898 65 + (y + 2)2
3/ 2
13 + (y − 4)2

1616.4
=
898 65 + (y + 2)2
1616.4 2/ 3 13 + (y − 4)2

=
898 65 + (y + 2)2
13 + (y − 4)2
1.47 =
65 + (y + 2)2
13 + y 2 + 16 − 8y
1.47 =
65 + y 2 + 4 − 4y
y 2 − 8y + 29
1.47 =
y 2 + 4y + 69
1.47y 2 + 5.88y + 101.13 − y 2 + 8y − 29 = 0
0.47y 2 + 13.88y + 72.43 = 0

Æ
−13.88 ± (13.88)2 − 4(0.47)(72.43)
y=
2(0.47)
p
−13.88 ± 192.65 − 136.16
y=
0.94
p
−13.88 ± 56.49
y=
0.94
−13.88 ± 7.51
y=
0.94
−13.88 + 7.51 −13.88 − 7.51
y= ,
0.94 0.94
y = −6.77, −22.75
Exercise 1.7
Two point charges of equal magnitude q are positioned at z = ±d/ 2.
1. Find the electric field everywhere on the z axis
2. find the electric field everywhere on the x axis
3. repeat parts (a) and (b) if the charge at z = −d/ 2 is −q instead of +q (ASSIGNMENT)
Solution
a) Everywhere on the z axis

r = zaz
d

r1 = − az
2
d

r − r1 = z + az
2
v
2
d d
u
|r − r1 | = z+ = z+
t
2 2
d

r2 = az
2
d

r − r2 = z − az
2
v
2
d d
u
|r − r2 | = = z−
t
z−
2 2
q1 r − r1 q2 r − r2
E= +
4πε0 |r − r1 |3 4πε0 |r − r2 |3

Note q1 = q2 = q
q r − r1 r − r2

E= +
4πε0 |r − r1 |3 |r − r2 |3
 
d
q z+ 2 z − d2
E=  3 + 3  az V/ m
4πε0 z+ 2d
z − d2
 
q 1 1
E=  2 + 2  az V/ m
4πε0 z+ 2d
z − d2
b) Everywhere on the x axis
r = a
d

r1 = az
2
d

r2 = az
2
d

r − r1 = a − az
2
d

r − r2 = a + az
2
v
2
d
u
|r − r1 | = +
t
2
2
v
2
d
u
|r − r2 | = +
t
2
2
 
q a − d2 az a + d2 az 
E= 
3/ 2 + 3/ 2  az

4πε0

2 2

2 + d2 2 + d2
 
 a − d2 az + a + d2 az 
q
E=  
4πε0 
2 3/ 2 
2 + d2
q  a
E= 2 3/ 2
2πε0  + d2
2

Exercise 1.8
A 2 μC point charge is located at A(4, 3, 5) in free space. Find Eρ , Eϕ , Ez at P(8, 12, 2).
aρ aϕ az
a cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0
ay sin ϕ cos ϕ 0
az 0 0 1
Table 1.1. Dot Product Table
Solution
r = 8a + 12ay + 2az

r’ = 4a + 3ay + 5az
r − r’ = (8 − 4)a + (12 − 3)ay + (2 − 5)az

= 4a + 9ay − 3az
q p
|r − r’| = 42 + 92 + (−3)2 = 16 + 81 + 9 = 10.29
Q r − r′
E= (1.32)
4πεo |r − r′ |2 |r − r′ |
2 × 10−6 4a + 9ay − 3az

E= = 65.99a + 148.48ay − 49.49az
4π8.854 × 10−12 10.293
At P(8, 12, 2), q Æ
ρ =  + y = 82 + 122 = 14.42
2 2
,
y 12
ϕ = tn−1 = tn−1 = 56.3o
 8
, and
z=z=2
Reffering to Table 1.1
Eρ = EP aρ = (65.99a + 148.48ay − 49.49az ) · aρ

= 65.99a · aρ + 148.48ay · aρ − 49.49az · aρ
= 65.99 cos ϕ + 148.48 sin ϕ
= 65.99 cos 56.3o + 148.48 sin 56.3o

= 160.14 V/ m
Eϕ = EP aϕ = (65.99a + 148.48ay − 49.49az ) · aϕ

= 65.99a · aϕ + 148.48ay · aϕ − 49.49az · aϕ
= 65.99 cos ϕ + 148.48 sin ϕ
= −65.99 sin 56.3o + 148.48 cos 56.3o
= 27.48 V/ m
Eϕ = EP az = (65.99a + 148.48ay − 49.49az ) · az

= 65.99a · az + 148.48ay · az − 49.49az · az
= −49.49 V/ m
Exercise 1.9
Calculate the total charage within the indicated volume 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 0.1, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π 2 ≤ z ≤ 4
ρ = ρ2 z 2 sn0.6ϕ
Solution
ˆ 0.1 ˆ π ˆ 4
Q= ρ2 z 2 sin 0.6ϕ ρ dz dϕ dρ
0 0 2
ˆ 0.1 ˆ π ˆ 4
3
= ρ dρ sin 0.6ϕ dϕ z 2 dz
0 0 2
4 0.1 π 3 4

ρ − cos 0.6ϕ z
=
4 0 0.6 0 3 2
4 cos 0.6(π) − (− cos 0.6(0)) 43 − 23

0.1 −
=
4 0.6 3
1.309 56

= 2.5−5
0.6 3
−5
= 2.5 (2.18) (18.66)

= 1.01 × 10−3 C
Exercise 1.10
Calculate the total charage within the universe
e−2r
ρ =
r2

Solution
Assuming perfect sphere the limits are 0 ≤ r ≤ ∞, o ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π, and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
ˆ 2π ˆ π ˆ ∞ e−2r
Q= r 2 snθ dr dθ dϕ
0 0 0 r2
ˆ 2π ˆ π ˆ ∞
= dϕ snθ dθ e2r dr
0 0 0
−2r
∞
e
= [ϕ] 2π
0
[−cosθ] π0 −
2 0
e−2∞ e−2×0

= (2π) (−cosπ − (− cos 0)) − − (− )
2 2
= (2π) (2) (0.5)
= 2π
Exercise 1.11
A uniform volume charge density of 0.2μC/ m3 is present throughout the spherical shell extending
from r = 3 cm to r = 5 cm. If ρ = 0 elsewhere, find
1. the total charge present throughout the shell, and
2. r1 if half the total charge is located in the region 3cm < r < r1.
Solution
a)
ˆ 2π ˆ π ˆ 0.05
Q= 0.2 × 10−6 r 2 snθ dr dθ dϕ
0 0 0.03
ˆ 2π ˆ π ˆ 0.05
−6
= 0.2 × 10 dϕ snθ dθ r 2 dr
0 0 0.03
3 0.05

r
= 0.2 × 10−6 [ϕ] 2π
0
[−cosθ] π0 −
3 0.03
0.053 0.033

= 0.2 × 10−6 (2π) (−cosπ − (− cos 0)) − )
3 3
= 0.2 × 10−6 (2π) (2) 3.26 × 10−5 = 82.10

pC
b)
r 1
r3

41.05 × 10−12 = 0.2 × 10−6 [ϕ] 2π
0
[−cosθ] π0 −
3 0.03
r13 0.033

= 0.2 × 10−6 (2π) (2) − )
3 3
r1 = (3 × 2.16 × 10−5 )1/ 3 = 0.04 m

Exercise 1.12
Infinite uniform line charges of 5 nC/m lie along the (positive and negative) x and y axes in free
space. Find E at: (a) PA (0, 0, 4); (b) PB (0, 3, 4).
Figure 1.5. Line of Charge along x-axis
Figure 1.6. Line of Charge along y-axis

Figure 1.7. Line of Charge along x-axis
Figure 1.8. Line of Charge along y-axis

Solution
r − r’
In Eq. 1.4 replace ρ = rds = R = |r − r’|, and aρ = aR =
|r − r’|
Therefore,
ρL ρL ρL r − r’ ρL r − r’ ρL R

E= aρ = aR = = =
2πεo ρ 2πεo R 2πεo |r − r’| |r − r’| 2πεo |r − r’|2 2πεo R
a)
Referring to Fig.1.5 and Fig.1.6, the total is
E = E + Ey = 22.469 az + 22.469 az = 45 az V/ m (1.33)
——————
b) Referring to Fig.1.7 and Fig.1.8, the total is
E = E + Ey = 22.469 az + (10.785 ay + 14.38 az ) = 10.785 ay + 36.9 az V/ m (1.34)
Exercise 1.13
A uniform line charge of 16 ηC/ m is located along the line defined by y = −2, z = 5. If ε = ε0 .
Find E at P(1, 2, 3)
Solution
r = 1a + 2ay + 3az

r’ = 1a − 2ay + 5az
r − r’ = 4ay − 2az
p
|r − r’| = 20
16 × 10−9

ρL r − r’ 4ay − 2az

E= = p 2 = 57.52ay − 28.76az V/ m
2πεo |r − r’|2 2π × 8.854 × 10−12 20
Exercise 1.14
Given the surface charge density, ρs = 2μC/ m in the region ρ < 0.2m, z = 0. Find E at PA (ρ =
0, z = 0.5)
Solution
r = zaz
r’ = ρaρ

r − r’ = zaz − ρaρ
q
|r − r’| = z 2 + ρ2
note that ρ = 0 at PA
ˆ 2π ˆ 0.2
ρs zρ
EP = 3/ 2 dρ dϕ
4πε0 0 0 z 2 + ρ2

Chapter 2 Gauss’s Law and Divergence
2.1 Gauss’s Law

Definition 2.1
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that
surface.
Figure 2.1. The electric flux density DS at P arising from charge Q. The total flux passing through ΔS is DS · ΔS
Let us imagine a distribution of charge, shown as a cloud of point charges in Fig. 2.1, surrounded by
a closed surface of any shape. The closed surface may be the surface of some real material, but more
generally it is any closed surface we wish to visualize.
If the total charge is Q, then Q coulombs of electric flux will pass through the enclosing surface. At
every point on the surface, the electric-flux-density vector D will have some value DS , where the subscript
S merely reminds us that D must be evaluated at the surface, and DS will in general vary in magnitude
and direction from one point on the surface to another.
We must now consider the nature of an incremental element of the surface. An incremental element
of area ΔS is very nearly a portion of a plane surface, and the complete description of this surface
element requires not only a statement of its magnitude ΔS but also of its orientation in space. In other
words, the incremental surface element is a vector quantity. The only unique direction that may be
associated with ΔS is the direction of the normal to that plane which is tangent to the surface at the
point in question.
At any point P, consider an incremental element of surface ΔS and let DS make an angle θ with ΔS,
as shown in Fig. 2.1. The flux crossing ΔS is then the product of the normal component of DS and ΔS,
ΔΨ = flux crossing ΔS = DS,norm ΔS = DS cos θΔS = DS Δ · S

The total flux passing through the closed surface is obtained by adding the differential contributions
crossing each surface element ΔS, We then have the mathematical formulation of Gauss’s law,

2.2. APPLIATION OF GAUSS’S LAW: SOME SYMMETRICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER 2. GAUSS’S LAW
ˆ ˛
ΔΨ = dΨ = DS · dS = Charge Enclosed = Q
S
The charge enclosed might be several point charges, in which case
X
Q= Qn
or a line charge
ˆ
Q= ρdL
or a surface charge
ˆ
Q= ρs dS
S
or a volume charge
ˆ
Q= ρ d
o
The last form is usually used, and we should agree now that it represents any or all of the other
forms. With this understanding, Gauss’s law may be written in terms of the charge distribution as
˛ ˆ
DS · dS = ρ d
S o
a mathematical statement meaning simply that the total electric flux through any closed surface is equal
to the charge enclosed.
2.2 Appliation of Gauss’s Law: Some Symmetrical Charge Distribution
Gauss’s Law:
˛
Q= DS · dS
S
2.2.1 Charge Distribution with Spherical Symmetry

Let us again consider a point charge Q at the origin of a spherical coordinate system and decide on a
suitable closed surface which meet the two requirements
1. DS is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed surface, so that DS · dS becomes either
DS dS or zero, respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for which DS dS is not zero, DS = constant.
The surface in question is a spherical surface centered at the origin and of any radius r. DS is every-
where normal to the surface; DS has the same value at all points on the surface.
˛ ˛ ˛
Q = DS · dS = Ds dS = Ds dS = DS 4πr 2
S sph sph

CHAPTER 2. GAUSS’S LAW AND DIVERGENCE2.2. APPLIATION OF GAUSS’S LAW: SOME SYMMETRICAL CHAR
note that ˛
dS = Are of a sphere = 4πr 2
sph
and hence,
Q
DS =
4πr 2
Because r may have any value and because DS is directed radially outward,
Q
D= ar
4πr 2
2.2.2 Charge Distribution with Cylindrical Symmetry

Let us reconsider the uniform line charge distribution ρL lying along the z axis and extending from −∞
to ∞
From our previous discussion of the uniform line charge, it is evident that only the radial component
of D is present, or
D = D ρ aρ
Applying Gauss Law,
˛ ˛ ˆ L ˆ 2π
Q= Dρ · dS = Dρ dS = Dρ ρdϕdz = Dρ 2 π ρ L
cy cy 0 0
or
Q
Dρ =
2πρL
In terms of the charge density ρL , the total charge enclosed is
Q = ρL L
Therefore,
ρL
Dρ =
2πρ
or
ρL
Eρ =
2περ
Now, let us consider, a right circular cylinder of length L and radius ρ, where  < ρ < b, is necessarily
chosen as the Gaussian surface, and we have
Q = DS 2 π ρ L
The total charge on a length L of the inner conductor is
ˆ L ˆ 2π
Q= ρS dϕdz = 2πρL
0 0

2.3. APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW: DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME ELEMENTCHAPTER 2. GAUSS’S LAW AND DIVER
Therefore,
ρS
DS =
ρ
or
ρS
D= aρ <ρ<b
ρ
This result might be expressed in terms of charge per unit length because the inner conductor has
2ϕρS coulombs on a meter length, and hence, letting ρL = 2πρS ,
ρL
D= aρ
2πρ
and the solution has a form identical with that of the infinite line charge.
2.3 Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element
Figure 2.2. Differential Sized Gaussian Surface.
Let us consider any point P, shown in Fig. 2.2, located by a rectangular coordinate system. The value
of D at the point P may be expressed in rectangular components,
D0 = D0 a + Dy0 ay + Dz0 az

.
We choose as our closed surface the small rectangular box, centered at P, having sides of lengths
Δ Δy, and Δz, and apply Gauss’s law,
˛
Q = DS · dS
S
In order to evaluate the integral over the closed surface, the integral must be broken up into six
integrals, one over each face,

CHAPTER 2. GAUSS’S LAW AND DIVERGENCE2.3. APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW: DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME EL
˛ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
DS · dS = + + + + +
S ƒ ront bck eƒ t rght top bottom
ˆ
= Dƒ ront ΔSƒ ront = Dƒ ront ΔyΔza = D,ƒ ront ΔyΔz
ƒ ront
where we have only to approximate the value of D at this front face. The front face is at a distance
of Δz/ 2 from P, and hence
Δ
D,ƒ ront = D0 + × rate of change of D with 
2
Δ ∂D
D,ƒ ront = D0 +
2 ∂
We now have;
ˆ
Δ ∂D

= D0 + ΔyΔz
ƒ ront 2 ∂
Consider now,
ˆ
= Dbck ΔSbck = Dbck (−ΔyΔz)a = −D,bck ΔyΔz
bck
Δ ∂D
D,bck = D0 −
2 ∂
We now have;
ˆ
Δ ∂D

= −D0 + ΔyΔz
bck 2 ∂
Combining
ˆ ˆ
∂D
+ = ΔΔyΔz
ƒ ront bck ∂
Similarly,
ˆ ˆ
∂Dy
+ = ΔΔyΔz
rght eƒ t ∂y
and
ˆ ˆ
∂Dz
+ = c
top bottom ∂z
and these results may be collected to yield
˛
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

D · dS = + + ΔΔyΔz
S ∂ ∂y ∂z
or
˛
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

D · dS = Q = + + Δ
S ∂ ∂y ∂z

2.4. DIVERGENCE AND MAXWELL’S FIRST EQUATION CHAPTER 2. GAUSS’S LAW AND DIVERGENCE
2.4 Divergence and Maxwell’s First Equation
Recall
¸
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz D · dS Q

+ + = lim = lim = ρ (2.1)
∂ ∂y ∂z Δ→0 Δ Δ→0 Δ
˛
The methods of the previous section could have been used on any vector A to find A · dS for a
small closed surface, leading to
¸
∂A ∂Ay ∂Az A · dS

+ + = lim
∂ ∂y ∂z Δ→0 Δ
where A could represent velocity, temperature gradient, force, or any other vector field.
This operation is called divergence. The divergence of A is defined as
¸
A · dS
Divergence of A = divA = lim (2.2)
Δ→0 Δ
Definition 2.2
The divergence of the vector flux density A is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface per
unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero.
From Eq. 2.2, we can also write
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

div D = + + Rectangular Coordinates (2.3)
∂ ∂y ∂z
Similarly
1 ∂ 1 ∂Dϕ ∂Dz
div D = (ρDρ ) + + Cylindrical Coordinates (2.4)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
and
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dϕ
div D = (r 2 Dr ) + (sin θ Dθ ) + Spherical Coordinates (2.5)
r 2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
Combining Eq.2.1 and Eq.2.3
div D = ρ (2.6)
This is the first of Maxwell’s four equations as they apply to electrostatics and steady magnetic fields,
and it states that the electric flux per unit volume leaving a vanishing small volume unit is exactly equal
to the volume charge density there.

CHAPTER 2. GAUSS’S LAW AND DIVERGENCE2.5. THE VECTOR OPERATOR ∇ AND THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM
This equation is aptly called the point form of Gauss’s law. Gauss’s law relates the flux leaving
any closed surface to the charge enclosed, and Maxwell’s first equation makes an identical statement
on a per-unit-volume basis for a vanishing small volume, or at a point. Because the divergence may
be expressed as the sum of three partial derivatives, Maxwell’s first equation is also described as the
differential-equation form of Gauss’s law, and conversely, Gauss’s law is recognized as the integral
form of Maxwell’s first equation.
2.5 The Vector Operator ∇ and the Divergence Theorem
If we remind ourselves again that divergence is an operation on a vector yielding a scalar result, just as
the dot product of two vectors gives a scalar result, it seems possible that we can find something that
may be dotted formally with D to yield the scalar
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

+ +
∂ ∂y ∂z
Let us define the del operator ∇ as a vector operator,
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= a + ay + az
∂ ∂y ∂z
Consider ∇ · D, signifying
∂ ∂ ∂

∇·D= a + ay + az · D  a + D y ay + D z az

∂ ∂y ∂z
or
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

∇·D= + +
∂ ∂y ∂z
Theorem 2.1
˛ ˆ
DS · dS = ∇ · Dd
S o
The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to the integral
of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by the closed surface.
The theorem can be visualized as

2.5. THE VECTOR OPERATOR ∇ AND THE DIVERGENCE THEOREMCHAPTER 2. GAUSS’S LAW AND DIVERGENC
Figure 2.3. The divergence theorem states that the total flux crossing the closed surface is equal to the integral
of the divergence of the flux density throughout the enclosed volume. The volume is shown here in cross section.
Exercise 2.1
Given a 60μC point charge located at the origin, find the total electric flux passing through:
π π
(a) that portion of the sphere r = 26 cm bounded by 0 < θ < and 0 < ϕ <
2 2
(b) the closed surface defined by ρ = 26 cm and z = ±26 cm
(c) the plane z = 26 cm.
Solution
a)
Electric Flux for the given 1/ 8 of the sphere is
Q 60 × 10−6
ψ= = = 7.5μC
8 8
b)
Electric flux for the given cylinder is
ψ = Q = 60μC
c)
Because only the flux lines pass in half through the plane
Q 60 × 10−6
ψ= = = 30μC
2 2
Exercise 2.2
Calculate D in rectangular coordinates at point P(2, −3, 6) produced by:
(a) a point charge QA = 55 mC at Q(−2, 3, −6);
(b) a uniform line charge ρLB = 20 mC/ m on the x axis;
(c) a uniform surface charge density ρSC = 120 μC/ m2 on the plane z = −5m.

Solution
a)
r = 2a − 3ay + 6az
r’ = −2a + 3ay − 6az
r − r’ = 4a − 6ay + 12az
q
|r − r’| = (4)4 + (−6)2 + (12)2 = 14
Q r − r’
D = ε0 E =
4π |r − r’|3
55 × 10−3 4a − 6ay + 12az
=
4π 143
= 6.38a − 9.57ay + 19.14az μC/ m2
b)
Given uniform line charge ρLB = 20 mC/ m on the x axis,
r = 2a − 3ay + 6az

r’ = a + 0ay + 0az
r − r’ = (2 − )a − 3ay + 6az
Since the infinite line charge density is along x axis, the electric field E at point P is having only y
and z components present. Canceling x component due to symmetry,
r − r’ = −3ay + 6az
q
|r − r’| = (−3)2 + (6)2 = 6.7
ρLB r − r’
D = ε0 E =
2π |r − r’|2
20 × 10−3 −3ay + 6az
=
2π 6.72
= −212.72a7 + 425.45az μC/ m2
c)
Recall that
ρs
Ds = ε0 E =
aR
2
The infinite surface change density is an infinite x-y plane located at z = –5 and the charge is spread
on that plane,
ρs 120 × 10−6
Ds = az = az = 60az μC/ m2
2 2

Exercise 2.3
Given the electric flux density, D = 0.3r 2 ar ηC/ m2 in free space:
(a) find E at point P(r = 2, θ = 25o , ϕ = 90o ).
(b) find the total charge within the sphere r = 3
(c) find the total electric flux leaving the sphere r = 4
Solution
a)
D 0.3 × r 2 ar 0.3 × 10−9 × 22 ar

E= = = = 135.53ar V/ m
ε0 8.854 × 10−12 8.854 × 10−12
b)
˛ ˆ 2π ˆ π
Q= DS · dS = Ds r 2 sin θ dθdϕ
0 0
ˆ 2π ˆ π
−9 4
= 0.3 × 10 × r ar sin θ dθdϕ
0 0
= 0.3 × 10−9 × r 4 [− cos θ] π0 [ϕ] 2π
0
= 0.3 × 10−9 × 4π × r 4
When, r = 3
Q = 0.3 × 10−9 × 4π × 34 = 305 × 10−9 ηC
c) When r = 4
Q = 0.3 × 10−9 × 4π × 44 = 965.09 × 10−9 ηC
Exercise 2.4
Calculate the total electric flux leaving the cubical surface formed by the six planes , y, z = ±5
if the charge distribution is:
1
(a) two point charges, 0.1 μC at (1, −2, 3) and μC at (−1, 2, −2)
7
(b) a uniform line charge of π μC/ m at  = −2, y = 3
(c) a uniform surface charge of 0.1μC/ m2 on the plane y = 3.
Solution
Given cubical surface formed by the six planes , y, z = ±5
a)
ψ = Q1 + Q2 = 0.1 × 10−6 + 0.14 × 10−6 = 0.24 μC
b)
ψ = ρL × Length = π × 10−6 × 10 = 31.4 μC
c)
ψ = ρS × Are

Figure 2.4. Area of the surface mentioned
Referring to Fig.2.4
ψ = ρS × Are = 0.1 × 10−6 × 105.4 = 10.54 μC/ m2
Exercise 2.5
A point charge of 0.25 μC is located at r = 0, and uniform surface charge densities are located
as follows: 2 mC/ m2 at r = 1 cm, and −0.6 mC/ m2 at r = 1.8 cm. Calculate D at:
(a) r = 0.5 cm;
(b) r = 1.5 cm;
(c) r = 2.5 cm.
(d) What uniform surface charge density should be established at r = 3 cm to cause D = 0 at
r = 3.5 cm?
Solution
Recall
Q
D= ar
4πr 2
a)

Figure 2.5. Exercise Figure
Referring to Fig.2.5, note r = 0.5 cm or r = 0.5 × 10−2 m, which is less than r1 hence
Q 0.25 × 10−6
D= ar = = 795.77 μC
4πr 2 4π(0.5 × 10−2 )2
b)
Referring to Fig.2.5, note r = 1.5 cm or r = 1.5 × 10−2 m, which is greater than r1 and which is
less than r2 , hence
Q1 = ρS × A = ρS × 4πr12 = 2 × 10−3 × 4π(1 × 10−2 )2 = 2.51 μC
Q + Q1 0.25 × 10−6 + 2.51 × 10−6

D= = = 976.15 μC
4πr 2 4π(1.5 × 10−2 )2
c)
Referring to Fig.2.5, note r = 2.5 cm or r = 2.5 × 10−2 m, which is greater than r1 and r2 , hence
Q2 = ρS × A = ρS × 4πr22 = −0.6 × 10−3 × 4π(1.8 × 10−2 )2 = −2.44 μC
Q + Q1 + Q2 0.25 × 10−6 + 2.51 × 10−6 − 2.44 × 10−6

D= = = 40.74 μC
4πr 2 4π(2.5 × 10−2 )2
d)
STUDENT ASSIGNMENT
Exercise 2.6
Find an approximate value for the total charge enclosed in an incremental volume of 10−9 m3

located at the origin, if
D = e− sin ya − e− cos yay + 2zaz C/ m2.
Solution
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

Charge enclosed in Δ = + + × Δ
∂ ∂y ∂z
∂D ∂e− sin y
= = −e− sin y
∂ ∂
∂Dy ∂(−e− cos y)

= = e− sin y
∂y ∂y
∂Dz ∂2z
= =2
∂z ∂z
Therefore,
Charge enclosed = 2 × 10−9 = 2 ηC
Exercise 2.7
In free space, let
D = 8yz 4 a + 42 z 4 ay + 162 yz 3 az pC/ m2
.
(a) Find the total electric flux passing through the rectangular surface z = 2, 0 <  < 2, 1 < y <
3, in the az direction.
(b) Find E at P(2, −1, 3).
(c) Find an approximate value for the total charge contained in an incremental sphere located at
P(2, −1, 3) and having a volume of 10−12 m3 .
Solution
a)
˛
ψ= D · dS
ˆ 3ˆ 2
= 8yz 4 a + 42 z 4 ay + 162 yz 3 az · dS

1 0
ˆ 3ˆ 2
= 8yz 4 a + 42 z 4 ay + 162 yz 3 az · ddyaz

1 0
ˆ 3ˆ 2
= 8yz 4 ddya · az + 42 z 4 ay ddy · az + 162 yz 3 ddyaz · az
1 0
ˆ 3ˆ 2
= 162 yz 3 ddy
1 0

2 3
3 y2

= 16z 3
3 0 2 1
8

3
= 16z (4)
3
= 170.66z 3
= 170.66 z 3 z=2 = 1365.33 pC
b)
D
E=
ε0
8yz 4 a + 42 z 4 ay + 162 yz 3 az × 10−12

=
ε0 =2,y=−1,z=3
(8)(2)(−1)(3)4 a + (4)(2)2 (3)4 ay + (16)(2)2 (−1)(3)3 az × 10−12

=
8.854 × 10−12
−1296a + 1296ay − 1728az × 10−12

=
8.854 × 10−12
= −146.37a + 146.37ay − 195.16az V/ m
c)
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

Q= + + × Δ
∂ ∂y ∂z
∂D ∂
= 8yz 4 = 8yz 4 =2,y=−1,z=3 = (8)(−1)(34 ) = −648
∂ ∂
∂Dy ∂
= 42 z 4 = 0
∂y ∂y
∂Dz ∂
= 162 yz 3 = 162 y3z 2 =2,y=−1,z=3 = (16)(22 )(−1)(3)(32 ) = −1728
∂z ∂z
Therefore,
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

Q= + + × Δ
∂ ∂y ∂z
= ((−648 + 0 − 1728) × 10−12 ) × 10−12
= −2.376 × 10−21 C

Exercise 2.8
Find div D at the origin if
D = e− sin ya − e− cos yay + 2zaz
Solution
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

Q= + + × Δ
∂ ∂y ∂z
∂D ∂
= e− sin y = −e− sin y =0,y=0,z=0 = (−e0 )(sn(0)) = 0
∂ ∂
∂Dy ∂
= e− cos y = −e− sin y =0,y=0,z=0 = (−e0 )(sn(0)) = 0
∂y ∂y
∂Dz ∂
= 2z = 2
∂z ∂z
Therefore,
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

Q= + + × Δ
∂ ∂y ∂z
=2
Exercise 2.9
In each of the following parts, find a numerical value for div D at the point specified:
(a) D = (2yz − y 2 )a + (2 z − 2y)ay + 2 yaz C/ m2 at P(2, 3, −1)
(b) D = 2ρz 2 sn2 ϕaρ + ρz 2 sn2ϕaϕ + 2ρ2 zsn2 ϕaz C/ m2 at PB (ρ = 2, ϕ = 110o , z = −1)
(c) D = 2r sin θcosϕar + r cos θ cos ϕaθ − r sin ϕaϕ C/ m2 at PC (r = 1.5, θ = 30o , ϕ =
50o ).
Solution
a)
∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz

div D = + +
∂ ∂y ∂z
∂
(2yz − y 2 ) = 2yz
∂
∂
(2 z − 2y) = −2
∂y
∂
(2 y) = 0
∂z
div D = 2yz − 2|=2,y=3,z=−1 = (2)(3)(−1) − (2)(2) = −10

b)
1 ∂ 1 ∂Dϕ ∂Dz
div D = (ρDρ ) + +
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
1 ∂ 1 ∂
(ρDρ ) = (ρ(2ρz 2 sn2 ϕ))
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ
1
= (4ρz 2 sn2 ϕ)
ρ
= 4z 2 sn2 ϕ
1 ∂Dϕ 1 ∂
= ρz 2 sin 2ϕ
ρ ∂ϕ ρ ∂ϕ
1
= ρz 2 cos 2ϕ
ρ
= z 2 cos 2ϕ
∂Dz ∂
= 2ρ2 z sin2 ϕ
∂z ∂z
= 2ρ2 sin2 ϕ
div D = 4z 2 sn2 ϕ + z 2 cos 2ϕ + 2ρ2 sin2 ϕ

ρ=2, ϕ=1100 , z=−1
= (4)((−1)2 )(sn2 (110o )) + ((−1)2 )(cos 2(110o )) + (2)(22 )(sin2 (110o ))

1 − cos 2(1102 ) 1 − cos 2(1102 )

= (4)(1) + (2)(−0.766) + (2)(4)
2 2
= (4)(1)(0.883) + (2)(−0.766) + (2)(4)(0.883)
= 3.532 − 1.532 + 7.064
= 9.064
c)
STUDENT ASSIGNMENT
1 ∂ 2
1 ∂ 1 ∂(ρz 2 sn2ϕ))
div D = (r Dr ) + (sin θ Dθ ) +
r 2 ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ

Exercise 2.10
Determine an expression for the volume charge density associated with each D field:
(a)
4y 22 22 y
D= a + ay − az
z z z2
(b)
D = z sin ϕaρ + z cos ϕaϕ + ρ sin ϕaz
(c)
D = sin θ sin ϕar + cos θ sin ϕaθ + cos ϕaϕ
Solution
Hint: The volume charge density ρ is equal to div D.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENT
Exercise 2.11
5z 2

An electric field in free space is E = az V/m. Find the total charge contained within a cube,
ε0
centered at the origin, of 4-m side length, in which all sides are parallel to coordinate axes (and
therefore each side intersects an axis at ±2).
Solution
Recall that from the divergence theorem
˛ ˆ
Q = D · dS = ∇ · Dd
o
Or ˆ
Q
= ∇ · Ed
ε0 o
5z 2

∂ ∂ 10z
∇·E= Ez = =
∂z ∂z ε0 ε0
ˆ ˆ 2 ˆ 2ˆ 2
10z
∇ · Ed = ddydz
o −2 −2 −2 ε0
ˆ ˆ 2 ˆ 2 ˆ 2 10z
∇ · Ed = ddydz
o −2 −2 −2 ε0
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ 2
10z 2

2 10z 2 2 10z
∇ · Ed = dz ddy = (4)(4) = 0
o −2 ε0 −2 −2 ε0 2ε0 −2
Exercise 2.12
Evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the field D = 2ya + 2 ay C/ m2 , and the
rectangular parellelepiped formed by the planes x = 0 and 1, y = 0 and 2, and z = 0 and 3.

Figure 2.6. Enter Caption
Solution
Referring to Fig.2.6,
˛ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
D · dS = + + +
S ƒ ront bck eƒ t rght
ˆ 3ˆ 2 ˆ 3ˆ 2
= (D)=0 · −dydza + (D)=1 · dydza +
0 0 0 0
ˆ 3ˆ 1 ˆ 3ˆ 1
(D)y=0 · −ddzay + (D)y=2 · ddzay
0 0 0 0
ˆ 3ˆ 2 ˆ 3ˆ 2
= −(D )=0 dydz + (D )=1 dydz
0 0 0 0
ˆ 3ˆ 1 ˆ 3ˆ 1
− (Dy )y=0 ddz + (Dy )y=2 ddz
0 0 0 0
Note that
However, (D )=0 = 0 and (Dy )y=0 = (Dy )y=2 , which leaves
˛ ˆ 3ˆ 2 ˆ 3ˆ 2
D · dS = (D )=1 dydz = 2y dy dz = 12
S 0 0 0 0
Now,
∂ ∂
∇·D= (2y) + (2 ) = 2y
∂ ∂y
ˆ ˆ 3ˆ 2ˆ 1
∇ · Dd = 2yddydz = 12
o 0 0 0
hence evaluated

Chapter 3 Energy and Potential
3.1 Energy Expended in Moving a Point Charge in an Electric Field
The electric field intensity was defined as the force on a unit test charge at that point at which we wish
to find the value of this vector field. If we attempt to move the test charge against the electric field,
we have to exert a force equal and opposite to that exerted by the field, and this requires us to expend
energy or do work. If we wish to move the charge in the direction of the field, our energy expenditure
turns out to be negative; we do not do the work, the field does.
Suppose we wish to move a charge Q a distance dL in an electric field E. The force on Q arising
from the electric field is
FE = QE (3.1)
where the subscript reminds us that this force arises from the field.
The component of this force in the direction dL which we must overcome is
FE = QE · aL (3.2)
where aL is a unit vector in the direction of dL.

The force that we must apply is equal and opposite to the force associated with the field,
Fpp = − QE · aL (3.3)
the differential work done by an external source moving charge Q is
dW = − QE · dL (3.4)
the work required to move the charge a finite distance must be determined by integrating,
ˆ ƒ n
W=−Q E · dL (3.5)
nt
3.2 Line Integral
The integral expression for the work done in moving a point charge Q from one position to another is an
example of a line integral, which in vector-analysis notation always takes the form of the integral along
some prescribed path of the dot product of a vector field and a differential vector path length dL.
Procedure of Integration: choose a path, break it up into a large number of very small segments,
multiply the component of the field along each segment by the length of the segment, and then add the

3.2. LINE INTEGRAL CHAPTER 3. ENERGY AND POTENTIAL
Figure 3.1. A graphical interpretation of a line integral in a uniform field. The line integral of E between points B and
A is independent of the path selected, even in a nonuniform field; this result is not, in general, true for time-varying
fields.
results for all the segments. This is a summation, of course, and the integral is obtained exactly only
when the number of segments becomes infinite.
This procedure is indicated in Fig. 3.1, where a path has been chosen from an initial position B to a
final position A, and a uniform electric field is selected for simplicity. The path is divided into six seg-
ments, ΔL1, ΔL2, . . . , ΔL6, and the components of E along each segment are denoted by EL1 , EL2 , . . . , EL 6.
The work involved in moving a charge Q from B to A is then approximately
W = −Q (EL1 ΔL1 + EL2 ΔL2 + . . . + EL6 ΔL6 ) (3.6)
or, using vector notation,
W = −Q (E1 · ΔL1 + E2 · ΔL2 + . . . + E6 · ΔL6 ) (3.7)
and because we have assumed a uniform field,
E1 = E2 = . . . = E6 = E
W = −QE · (ΔL1 + ΔL2 + . . . + ΔL6 ) (3.8)
Vectors add by the parallelogram law, and the sum is just the vector directed from the initial point B
to the final point A, LBA . Therefore
W = −QE · LBA (3.9)
the uniform field can be obtained rapidly now from the integral expression
ˆ A
W=−Q E · dL (3.10)
B
as applied to a uniform field

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY AND POTENTIAL 3.2. LINE INTEGRAL
Figure 3.2. A Circular Path
3.2.1 Work done near an infinite line charge

The electric field is
ρL
E=
aρ
2πε0 ρ
Considering the circular path shown in Fig. 3.2, the differential element dL is
dL = ρ1 dϕaϕ
the work is ˆ ƒ n ρL

W = −Q aρ · ρ1 dϕaϕ (3.11)
n 2πε0 ρ1
rearranging
ˆ ƒ n ρL
W = −Q dϕaρ · aϕ = 0 (3.12)
n 2πε0
We will now carry the charge from ρ =  to ρ = b along a radial path, as shown in Fig. 3.3. Here
dL = dρaρ
ˆ ƒ n ˆ b
ρL ρL
W = −Q aρ · dρaρ = −Q dρ (3.13)
n 2πε0 ρ  2πε0 ρ
or
QρL b
W=− ln (3.14)
2πε0 
Because b is larger than , ln(b/ ) is positive, and the work done is negative, indicating that the
external source that is moving the charge receives energy.
NOTE:
The expressions for dL in our three coordinate systems use the differential lengths
dL = d a + dy ay + dz az

Figure 3.3. A radial path along which a charge of Q is carried in the field of an infinite line charge
dL = dρ aρ + ρ dϕ aϕ + dz az
dL = dr ar + r dθ aθ + r sin θ dϕ aϕ
Exercise 3.1
Given the nonuniform field
E = ya + ay + 2az
determine the work expended in carrying 2 C from B(1, 0, 1) to A(0.8, 0.6, 1) along the
(a) shorter arc of the circle
2 + y 2 = 1, z=1
(b) straight-line path from B to A.
Solution
ˆ A
W=−Q E · dL
B
ˆ A
=−2 ya + ay + 2az · da + dyay + dzaz

B
ˆ 0.8 ˆ 0.6 ˆ 1
= −2 yd − 2 dy − 4 dz
1 0 1
a)
Using the given arc
ˆ 0.8 Æ ˆ 0.6 q
= −2 1− 2 d − 2 1 − y 2 dy − 0
1 0
1h Æ i0.8 1h q i0.6
= −2 ×  1 − 2 + sin−1  −2× y 1 − y 2 + sin−1 
2 1 2 0

CHAPTER 3. ENERGY AND POTENTIAL 3.2. LINE INTEGRAL
= −(0.48 + 0.927 − 0 − 1.571) − (0.48 + 0.644 − 0 − 0)

= −0.96 J
b)
Any two of the following three equations for planes passing through the line are sufficient to define
the line:
yA − yB
y − yB = ( − B )
A − B
zA − zB
z − zB = (y − yB )
yA − yB
A − B
 − B = (z − zB )
zA − zB
from first two equations
y = −3( − 1)
and
z=1
Thus
ˆ 0.8 ˆ 0.6 ˆ 1
 = −2 yd − 2 dy − 4 dz
1 0 1
ˆ 0.8 ˆ 0.6 y
= −2 −3( − 1)d − 2 1− dy
1 0 3
= −0.96 J
Exercise 3.2
Calculate the work done in moving a 4-C charge from B(1, 0, 0) to A(0, 2, 0) along the path y =
2 − 2, z = 0 in the field E =
(a) 5a V/ m
(b) 5a V/ m
(c) 5a + 5yay V/ m
Solution
a)
ˆ A
 = −Q E · dL
B

ˆ 0
= −4 5a · d a + dy ay + dz az
1
ˆ 0
= −20 d = 20J
1
b) STUDENT ASSIGNMENT
c)
ˆ A
 = −Q E · dL
B
ˆ 0ˆ 2
= −4 5a + 5yaY · d a + dy ay + dz az
1 0
ˆ 0 ˆ 2
= −20 d +
ydy
1 0
 
2 0 2 2
 y
= −20  + 
2 1 2 0
= −20 [−0.5 + 2]
= −20(1.5)
= −30 J

Chapter 4 Current
4.1 Current and Current Density
Electric charges in motion constitute a current. The unit of current is the ampere (A), defined as a rate
of movement of charge passing a given reference point (or crossing a given reference plane) of one
coulomb per second. Current is symbolized by , and therefore
dQ
= (4.1)
dt
Current density, measured in amperes per square meter (A/ m2 ), more useful. Current density is a
vector represented by J.
The increment of current Δ crossing an incremental surface ΔS normal to the current density is
Δ = JN ΔS (4.2)
and in the case where the current density is not perpendicular to the surface, J
Δ = J · ΔS (4.3)
Total current is obtained by integrating,

ˆ
= J · dS (4.4)
S
Current density may be related to the velocity of volume charge density at a point. Consider the
element of charge
ΔQ = ρ Δ = ρ ΔSΔL
, as shown in Fig. 4.1(a).
Figure 4.1. An increment of charge

4.2. CONTINUITY OF CURRENT CHAPTER 4. CURRENT
To simplify the explanation, assume that the charge element is oriented with its edges parallel to the
coordinate axes and that it has only an  component of velocity.
In the time interval Δt, the element of charge has moved a distance Δt, as indicated in Fig. 4.1(b).We
have therefore moved a charge
ΔA = ρ ΔSΔ
through a reference plane perpendicular to the direction of motion in a time increment Δt , and the
resulting current is
ΔQ Δ
Δ = = ρ ΔS (4.5)
Δt Δt
As we take the limit with respect to time, we have
Δ = ρ ΔS (4.6)
In terms of current density
J = ρ  (4.7)
In general
J = ρ v (4.8)
This last result shows clearly that a charge in motion constitutes a current. We call this type of
current a convection current, and J or ρ v is the convection current density.
4.2 Continuity of Current
Continuity equation: The current through the closed surface is

˛
dQ
= J · dS = − (4.9)
S dt
using the divergence theorem to change the surface integral into a volume integral:
˛ ˆ
J · dS = ∇ · J d (4.10)
S o
We next represent the enclosed charge Q by the volume integral of the charge density,
ˆ ˆ
d
∇ · J d = − ρ d (4.11)
o dt o

CHAPTER 4. CURRENT 4.2. CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
ˆ ˆ
d
∇ · J d = − ρ d (4.12)
o o dt
from which we have our point form of the continuity equation,
d
∇·J=− ρ d (4.13)
dt
Exercise 4.1
Given the current vector density J = 10ρ2 zaρ − 4ρ cos2 ϕaϕ mA/ m2
(a) find the current density at P(ρ = 3, ϕ = 30o , z = 2)
(b) determine the total current flowing outward through the circular band ρ = 3, 0 < ϕ < 2π, 2 <
z < 2.8.
Solution
a)
J|ρ=3,ϕ=30o ,z=2 = (10)(32 )(2)aρ − (4)(3)(cos2 30o )aϕ

= (10)(9)(2)aρ − (4)(3)(0.73)aϕ
= 180aρ − 8.76aϕ
b)
˛
= J · dS
˛S
= J · ρdϕdzaρ
˛S
= (10ρ2 zaρ − 4ρ cos2 ϕaϕ ) · (ρdϕdzaρ )
S
ˆ 2π ˆ 2.8
2
= (10)(3) (3) dϕ zdz
0 2
2.8
z2

= 270 [ϕ] 2π
0 2 2
= 3255.52 mA = 3.25A

4.2. CONTINUITY OF CURRENT CHAPTER 4. CURRENT

Chapter 5 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equation
From the Gauss Law;
∇·D
and
D = εE
and
E = −∇V
Therefore,
∇ · D = ∇ · εE = ∇ · −ε∇V = ρ
or
ρ
∇ · ∇V = − (5.1)
ε
Eq. 5.1, is Poisson’s Equation.

Note that, in rectangular coordinate system
∂A ∂Ay ∂Az

∇·A= + +
∂ ∂y ∂z
and
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = a + ay + az
∂ ∂y ∂z
Therefore
∂V ∂V ∂V

∇ · ∇V = ∇ · a + ay + az
∂ ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂V ∂ ∂V ∂ ∂V

= + +
∂ ∂ ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
= + +
∂2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∇ · ∇ is referred as ∇2
So,
2
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V ρ
∇ V= + + =−
∂2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ε

5.1. SOLUTION OF LAPLACE’S EQUATION CHAPTER 5. POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATION
If ρ = 0, indicating zero volume charge density, but allowing point charges, line charge, and surface
charge density to exist at singular locations as sources of the field, then
∇2 V = 0 (5.2)
Eq. 5.2, is Laplace’s Equation.

In different coordinate system;
2
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇ V= + + Rectangular Coordinate (5.3)
∂2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂2 V ∂2 V

1 ∂ ∂V 1

∇2 V = ρ + + Cylindrical Coordinate (5.4)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ2 ∂ϕ2 ∂z 2
1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂2 V

2 2
∇ V= r + sin θ + Spherical Coordinate (5.5)
r 2 ∂r ∂r r 2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r 2 sin θ ∂ϕ2
5.1 Solution of Laplace’s Equation
Several methods have been developed for solving Laplace’s equation. The simplest method is that of
direct integration.
The method of direct integration is applicable only to problems that are “onedimensional,” or in which
the potential field is a function of only one of the three coordinates.
Let us assume that V is a function only of 
∂2 V
=0
∂2
and the partial derivative may be replaced by an ordinary derivative, since V is not a function of y or
z,
d2 V
=0
d2
We integrate twice, obtaining
dV
=A
d
and
V = A + B
where A and B are constants of integration. These constants can be determined only from the
boundary conditions.
Example 5.1
Parallel Plate Capacitor Start with the potential function, find the capacitance of a parallel-plate
capacitor of plate area S, plate separation d, and potential difference V0 between plates.
Solution:

CHAPTER 5. POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATION 5.1. SOLUTION OF LAPLACE’S EQUATION
Take, V = 0 at  = 0,
B=0
Now take,  = V0 at  = d, then
V0 = Ad
Or
V0
A=
d
Therefore,
Vd
 V=
d
The necessary steps are these, after the choice of boundary conditions has been made:
1. Given V, use E = −∇V to find E.
2. Use D = εE to find D.
3. Evaluate D at either capacitor plate, D = DS = DN aN .
4. Recognize that ρS = DN .
ˆ
5. Find Q by a surface integration over the capacitor plate, Q = ρS dS.
S
∂ ∂ V0 V0
E = −∇V = − Va = − a = − a
∂ ∂ d d
V0
D = εEa = −ε a
d
aN = a
V0
DN = −ε = ρs
d
ˆ ˆ
V0 V0 S
Q= ρS dS = −ε dS = −ε
S S d d
and capacitance is
|Q| S
C= = −ε
V0 d
Example 5.2
Cylindrical Capacitor or coaxial cable capacitor
We shall discuss the Example 5.1 in cylindrical coordinate system, we assume variation with re-
spect to ρ only.
Laplace’s equation becomes
1 ∂ ∂V

ρ =0
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
multiply both side by ρ to get

∂ ∂V

ρ =0
∂ρ ∂ρ
integrating once
∂V
ρ =A
∂ρ
∂V A
= (5.6)
∂ρ ρ
Integrating again
V = A ln ρ + B
Apply the conditions; V = 0 at ρ = b, b > ,
0 = A ln b + B
B = −A ln b
Apply the conditions; V= V0 at ρ = ,
V0 = A ln  + B
= A ln  − A ln b
= A(ln  − ln b)
A
= 
ln b
or
V0
A= 
ln b
Substituting A and B is V
V = A ln ρ + B
V0
=  ln ρ − A ln b
ln b
V0 V0
=  ln ρ −  ln b
ln b
ln b
ρ
ln b
= V0 
ln b

Rearranging;  
b
ln ρ
V = V0  
b
ln 
E = −∇V aρ
∂V
=− aρ
∂ρ
Using Eq. 5.6 aρ
A
=− aρ
ρ
1 V0
= aρ
ρ ln b

DNρ= = εE
1 V0
=ε aρ
 ln b

ˆ
Q= ρS dS
S
ˆ
εV0
= dS
S  ln b
εV0
= 2πL
 ln b
|Q|
C=
V0
2πεL
=
ln b
Example 5.3
Two infinite radial planes with an interior angle Now assume that V is a function only of ϕ in
cylindrical coordinates. We might look at the physical problem first for a change and see that
equipotential surfaces are given by ϕ = constant. These are radial planes. Boundary conditions
might be
V = 0 at ϕ = 0 and
V = V0 at ϕ = α, leading to the physical problem shown in Fig. 5.1

Figure 5.1. Two infinite radial planes with an interior angle α . An infinitesimal insulating gap exists at ρ = 0. The
potential field may be found by applying Laplace’s equation in cylindrical coordinates.
The Laplace equation becomes

1 ∂2 V
=0
ρ2 ∂ϕ2
We exclude ρ = 0
∂2 V
=0
∂ϕ2
The solution is
V = Aϕ + B
Applying the boundary condition;
B=0
V0
A=
α
ϕ
V = V0
α
E = −∇Vaϕ
1 ∂ ϕ
= V 0 aϕ
ρ ∂ϕ α
V0
=− aϕ
ρα

D = εE
εV0
=− aϕ
ρα
εV0
DN(ϕ=α) = − = ρs
ρα
ˆ
Q= ρs dS
S
ˆ
εV0
=− dρdz
ρα
S
ˆ Lˆ b
εV0
=− dρdz
0  ρα
εV0
=− [ln ρ] b [z] L0
α
εV0 L 
=− ln b>
α b
|Q|
C=
V0
εL 
= ln
α b
Example 5.4
Canonical Capacitance
In spherical coordinates we now restrict the potential function to V = V(θ), obtaining
1 d dV

sin θ =0
r 2 sin θ dθ dθ
d dV

sin θ =0
dθ dθ
Integrating
dV
sin θ =A
dθ
or
dV A
= (5.7)
dθ sin θ
Integrating again

Figure 5.2. Canonical Capacitance example
θ

V = A ln tn +B
2
The boundary condition, as illustrated in Fig.5.2
π
V = 0 at θ =
2
and
π
V = V0 at θ = α, α <
2
B=0 (5.8)
V0
A= (5.9)
ln tn α2

ln tn 2θ
V = V0
ln tn α2

E = ∇V
1 ∂V
=− at het
r ∂θ
sngEq.5.7

1 A
=−
r sin θ
sngEq.5.9
V0
=−
r sin θ ln tn α2

Evaluating θ = α
−εV0
DN = = ρS
r sin α ln tn α2
ˆ
Q= ρS dS
S
ˆ ∞ ˆ 2π
−εV0
= r sin αdπdr
0 r sin α ln tn α2
0
ˆ ∞ ˆ 2π
−εV0
= dπdr
ln tn α2 0 0

ˆ ∞
−2πεV0
= dr
ln tn α2 0

physical conical surface extends only from r = 0 to, say, r = r1 . The approximate capacitance is
|Q|
C=
V0
2πεr1
=
ln tn α2

Exercise 5.1
Calculate numerical values for V and ρV at point P in free space if:
4yz
1. V = , at P(1, 2, 3)
2 + 1
π
2. V = 5ρ2 cos 2ϕ, at P(ρ = 3, ϕ = , z = 2)
3
2 cos ϕ
3. V = , at P(r = 0.5, θ = 45o , ϕ = 60o )
r2
Solution
a)

4yz (4)(2)(3) 24
VatP=(1,2,3) = = = = 12V
2 + 1 12 + 1 2
ρ = −ε∇2 V
∂V ∂V ∂V
∇V = a + ay + az
∂ ∂y ∂z
∂V ∂ 4yz −2 4yz

= =
∂ ∂ 2 + 1 2 + 1 2 + 1
∂V ∂ 4yz 4z
= =
∂y ∂y 2 + 1 2 + 1
∂V ∂ 4yz 4y
= =
∂z ∂z 2 + 1 2 + 1
−8yz 4z 4y
∇V = a +
2 
ay + az
(2 + 1) 2 + 1 2 + 1
2
∂2 V ∂2 V ∂2 V
∇ V= a + ay + az
∂2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂ ∂V ∂ ∂V ∂ ∂V
= a + ay + az
∂ ∂ ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
∂ −8yz ∂ 4z ∂ 4y
= a  + a y + az
∂ (2 + 1)2 ∂y 2 + 1 ∂z 2 + 1
−8yz(−32 + 1)
= +0+0
(2 + 1)3
(−8)(2)(3)(−2) 96
∇2 Vat P(1,2,3) = = = 12
(2)3 8
Finally;
ρ = −ε∇2 V = 8.854 × 10−12 × 12 = 106.248 × 10−12 C

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Electromagnetics

1.1 Coulomb’s Electrostatic Force Law

where, εo = 8.854 × 10−12 F/ m. Substituting in 1.1

Figure 1.1. Vector Representation

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where, a12 is the unit vector in the direction R12 or

1.2 Electric Field Intensity

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In a spherical coordinate system:

Where r is the radius.

In general, for n point charges

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1.3 Field arising from a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution

we may deﬁne ρ mathematically by using a limiting process

Note that; the differential volume of

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1.4 Field of a Line Charge

Figure 1.2. Line Charge

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Because only component is Eρ

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1.5 Field of a Sheet of Charge

Figure 1.3. An Inﬁnite Sheet of Charge

If the point P were chosen on the negative x axis, then

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Figure 1.4. Illustration of Electric Flux.

1.6 Electric Flux Density

and at a radial distance r , where  ≤ r ≤ b,

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Therefore, comparing Eq.1.25 and Eq.1.26, in free space

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Q1 Q2 3 × 10−4 × −1 × 10−4 a − 2ay + 2az

F2 = −10a + 20ay − 20az N

Q1 Q2 1 × 10−9 × −2 × 10−9 a − 2ay + 2az

F21 = −F12 = −3.45(a + ay + az ) N

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Q1 Q2 RCA RDA RBA

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r = 1a + 1ay + 1az

3 × 10−9 1 2a + az 1 2a + 2ay + az 1 2ay + az

E(r) = 6.82a + 6.82ay + 32.8az V/ m

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r − rA = −0.25a + 0.30ay − 0.15az

−0.3 × 10−6 −0.25a + 0.30ay − 0.15az

0.5 × 10−6 0.10a − 0.08ay − 0.12az

E = EA + EB = 92.3a − 77.6ay − 94.2az kV/ m

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r3 − r1 = a + 2ay + 3az − (4a − 2ay + 7az )

25 × 10−9 −3a + 4ay − 4az 60 × 10−9 4a − 2ay + 5az

E = 4.58a − 0.15ay + 5.51az V/ m

r3 = 0a + yay + 0az

r3 − r1 = 0a + yay + 0az − (4a − 2ay + 7az )

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= 0a + yay + 0az + 3a − 4ay + 2az )

25 × 10−9 −4a + (y + 2)ay − 7az 60 × 10−9 3a + (y − 4)ay + 3az

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a) Everywhere on the z axis

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Table 1.1. Dot Product Table

r = 8a + 12ay + 2az

r − r’ = (8 − 4)a + (12 − 3)ay + (2 − 5)az