SCIENCE

REVIEWER

KOBI N’ ANDREY PRODUCTIONS

DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
• Digestion
the process where in food is broken down into
smaller molecules that the body cells can utilize.

• It is composed of different organs cooperating for

food digestion

• It takes 3 – 4 hours to digest food

THREE MAIN
FUNCTIONS OF
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
• 1. Ingestion of food
• 2. Breakdown of food for cell
absorption
• 3. Eliminating undigested materials
TYPES OF
DIGESTIVE
ORGANS
• 1. Accessory Organs
Assist in food digestion
(Salivary glands, Liver,
Gallbladder, Pancreas)

• 2. Alimentary Canal
Contains organs where food
passes through (Mouth,
Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach,
Small and Large intestines,
Rectum, Anus)
TYPES OF
DIGESTION
• 1. Chemical
Involves the action of enzymes
and other chemical substances
in the body

• 2. Mechanical – involves the

cutting, crushing or grinding
of food using the teeth
(Mastication)
 THE ORAL
CAVITY
• This is where digestion starts
• Ingestion is the process from which
the body take in the food through the
mouth for digestion, absorption and
elimination.
• The mouth is the first portion of the
digestive tract or alimentary canal
• Teeth - Breaks down food into smaller
pieces
THE PROCESS
• Initial chemical digestion depends on an accessory organ -
the salivary gland. Chemical digestion involves enzymatic
action, which is accomplished through the saliva.
SALIVARY GLANDS
• 1. Parotid gland – lies in front of ear;
empties saliva near the second upper molar
• 2. Sublingual gland – lies under the floor
of the mouth; empties saliva by numerous
sublingual ducts
• 3. Submandibular gland – lies deep in the
the mouth; empties saliva on either side of
the lingual frenulum (small fold under the
tongue)
PHARYNX AND
ESOPHAGUS
• The bolus is the end product
of the food that has been
chewed, partially digested,
and lubricated by the saliva.
• A flap called epiglottis closes
the air openings when food is
swallowed. It prevents the
bolus from entering trachea
and ensures food the
esophagus.
PHARYNX AND ESOPHAGUS
• Pharynx
-or ‘throat’
-located at the posterior mouth
- a common passageway for digestion and respiration
• Esophagus
- is the muscular tube that conveys food from the pharynx to the stomach.
• Peristalsis
-a wave-like contraction that begins in the middle portion of the esophagus facilitates
the movement of the bolus down the different organs of digestion.
THE STOMACH
• The bolus passes through the stomach after leaving the
esophagus. The stomach is a highly muscularized J-shaped
sac that stores food and continues the digestion.
• Hydrochloric acid, Pepsinogen and mucus
- important materials in the digestive process- secreted by
gastric glands- gastric juices
• Pepsin
-a protein-digestive enzyme formed in the presence of
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Chyme
- a semi-fluid consistency from the churning action of the
stomach changes of the bolus.
THE SMALL
INTESTINE
• Long, coiled tube that fills the abdomen

• 3 Regions are:
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum

• It is considered the organ of complete digestion and

absorption because its intestinal glands secrete the
final enzymes for the digestion.

• It is also in this organ that the final products of the

digestive process are absorbed for transportation to
the different parts of the body.
LARGE
INTESTINE
• “colon” which is next to the small intestine

• The site where undigested materials are

transported and where water absorption happens

• 3 regions are:

• 1. Ascending colon
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon

• Caecum
-A blind corner in the ascending colon that bears
the worm-like appendix.
RECTUM
• The site of feces formation and temporary storage
of undigested food

• It serves as a warehouse for the undigested

residue or feces.

• Anus
-‘anal canal’, the end part of the rectum that serves
as the exit point for fecal materials
DIFFERENT
ACCESSORY
ORGANS OF
DIGESTION
• Are the glands that secrete chemical
substances into the organs of digestion.
• These organs by nature are “exocrine
glands”, meaning they have ducts and
openings that connect to the different
organs of digestion.
• Aside from the salivary, gastric, and
intestinal glands, the liver and pancreas
play very vital roles in the digestive
process.
DIFFERENT ACCESSORY
ORGANS OF DIGESTION

• Liver
is the largest internal organ in the digestive system.
secretes bile to process and purify the blood containing newly absorbed nutrients that are coming from the small
intestine

• Gall bladder
where bile is stored.
It neutralizes the acidity of the chyme and to change fat-rich foods into an emulsion

• Pancreas
Is the large, elongated, and yellowish gland that lies posterior to the stomach.
function as endocrine and exocrine glands
secretes digestive enzymes directly to duodenum (amylopsin, trypsin, and steapsin)
SOME COMMON DIGESTIVE
DISORDERS
• 1. Dental caries
Tooth decay or cavity. Characterized by demineralization and destruction of the
different tooth layers (enamel, dentin, cementum)
• 2. Heartburn
Characterized by burning sensation in chest. Caused by reflux of acid from stomach to
esophagus
• 3. Gastric ulcer
Caused by H. pylori. The Caustic effects of acid and pepsin reach the walls of the
stomach and cause lesions.
SOME COMMON DIGESTIVE
DISORDERS
• 4. Appendicitis
inflammation of appendix. Result of obstruction of the inside space of the appendix.
Appendix then accumulates mucus and swells.
• 5. Diarrhea
Characterized by having three or more loose liquid bowel movements per day.
CELL DIVISION
• All cells are derived from pre existing cells
• New cells are produced for growth and to replace damaged or old cells
• Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, & animals)

• Keeping Cells Identical

The instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA, so each new cell must
get a complete set of the DNA molecules
DNA
R E P L I C AT I O N
• DNA must be copied or replicated before cell
division

• Each new cell will then have an identical copy of

the DNA
PROKARYOTIC
CHROMOSOMES
• The DNA of prokaryotes (bacteria) is one, circular
chromosome attached to the inside of the cell
membrane
EUKARYOTIC
CHROMOSOMES

• All eukaryotic cells store genetic information in

chromosomes
• Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50
chromosomes in their body cells
• Human body cells have 46 chromosomes or 23
identical pairs
• Each chromosome is composed of a single, tightly
coiled DNA molecule
• Chromosomes can’t be seen when cells aren’t
dividing and are called chromatin
C O M PA C T I N G D N A
INTO CHROMOSOMES
• DNA is tightly coiled around proteins called histones

• Chromosomes in Dividing Cells

Duplicated chromosomes are called chromatids & are held
together by the centromere
KARYOTYPE
• A picture of the chromosomes from a human cell
arranged in pairs by size

• First 22 pairs are called autosomes

• Last pair are the sex chromosomes

• XX female or XY male

• In gender the y chromosome decides

TYPES OF CELL REPRODUCTION
• Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to make 2 new, identical daughter
cells
• Mitosis & binary fission are examples of asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg & sperm) joining to make a new cell
(zygote) that is NOT identical to the original cells
• Meiosis is an example
CELL DIVISION
IN Parent cell

PROKARYOTES
• Prokaryotes such as bacteria divide into 2 identical Chromosome
cells by the process of binary fission Doubles
• Single chromosome makes a copy of itself

• Cell wall forms between the chromosomes

dividing the cell Cell Splits

2 Identical Daughter Cells

FIVE PHASES
OF THE CELL
CYCLE
• G1- primary growth phase

• S – synthesis; DNA replicated

• G2- secondary growth phase collectively these 3

stages are called interphase

• M - mitosis

• C - cytokinesis
INTERPHASE
• G1 stage
1st growth stage after cell division
Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles
Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities

• S stage
Synthesis stage
DNA is copied or replicated

• G2 Stage
2nd Growth Stage
Occurs after DNA has been copied
All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g.
centrioles)
Both organelles & proteins are synthesized
MITOSIS
• Division of the nucleus
• Also called karyokinesis
• Only occurs in eukaryotes
• Has four stages
Prophase
• Doesn’t occur in some cells such as brain Metaphase Anaphase
cells Telophase

• 4 Mitotic Stages
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
PROPHASE
• Early Prophase
Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible
chromosomes
Early Prophase
Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or
centrioles (animal)

• Late Prophase
Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken down
Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly visible
Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the
centromere of each chromosome Spindle finishes
forming between the poles of the cell Late Prophase
SPINDLE FIBERS
• The mitotic spindle form from the microtubules in
plants and centrioles in animal cells

• Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell to the

opposite pole

• Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to the

centromere of the chromosome to which they
attach

• Asters are short fibers radiating from centrioles

M E TA P H A S E
• Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move
to the center of the cell

• Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator

Equator of the cell
ANAPHASE
• Occurs rapidly

• Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the

cell by kinetochore fibers
TELOPHASE
• Sister chromatids at opposite poles
• Spindle disassembles
• Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister
chromatids
• Nucleolus reappears
• CYTOKINESIS occurs
• Chromosomes reappear as chromatin
CYTOKINESIS
• Means division of the cytoplasm

• Division of cell into two, identical halves called

daughter cells

• In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to

divide cell

• In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split cell

DAUGHTER CELLS
OF MITOSIS
• Have the same number of chromosomes as each other
and as the parent cell from which they were formed

• Identical to each other, but smaller than parent cell

• Must grow in size to become mature cells (G1 of

Interphase)

• Chromosome number the same, but cells smaller than

parent cell

• What is the 2n or diploid number?

2
EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION
• Used for growth and repair
• Produce two new cells identical to the original cell
• Cells are diploid (2n)
UNCONTROLLED
MITOSIS
• If mitosis is not controlled, unlimited cell division occurs
causing cancerous tumors
• Oncogenes are special proteins that increase the chance that
a normal cell develops into a tumor