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DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS
‘Course Outline: Second Semester, 2023/2024 Session
Course Code: SOW223
Course Title: Dynamics of Social Functioning
Lecture Time: Thursdays at 4:00 pm ~ 6:00 pm
LECTURER:
Gafar Femi Olowu; gafar-oloww@email.com golowu@unitag.edu.ng; 08055710668; Rm B208, Faculty
of Arts Building; Office hours: 4:00 ~ 6:00 pm on Tuesdays or by appointment
1ynamics of social functioning isa core area in social work education and training
Course Description:
‘because it includes contents on human development and various theories that explain interactions
between human behaviour and thie socal context. I exposes students to theoretical thinking, aS wel a,
at may be
ir thinking about future clients’ behaviours and the issues th
derstand how aspects of biology,
he wellbeing of individuals,
helping student to organise t
confronted within practice. Moreover, social workers need to un
psychology, sociology affect how people behaves and the implications on
families, and communities.
“The course introduces students to the basic concepts and perspectives of how human behaviour is
acquited, shaped, and maintained or modified through te lifespan. Contents include the knowledge and
understanding of normal and abnormal human behaviour and theories of bio-psycho-social developme*t
ts well as the range of social systems, including group, community and institutional influence. It will
examine individual functioning. within systems of various sizes (including families, groups,
“organisations, and communities). Students will also leam theories of personality and social determinants
Of personality, coping and defence mechanisms ofthe individual for maintaining normality; personality
disorders as adaptive patterns; abnormal behaviour in the Nigerian context, and modification of adaptive
and maladaptive responses.
fanetioning is a core area in social work education and training
1 thinking and helps them to organise their thinking about future
nnfronted with in practice. This course will help develop
dents to compete effectively with their counterparts both
nationally and globally forthe complex experiences of becoming professional social workers who will
meet the needs of the Nigerian society and respond to the global challenges and national/local pathologies
that impinge on social work. Graduates will be able to understand how aspects of biology, psychology
fnd sociology affect how people behave and the implications on the wellbeing of individuals, families,
and communiti
Course Rationale: Dynamics of social
because it exposes students to theoretical
clients’ behaviours and issues that may be co
knowledge and required skills in preparing stu
Course Objectives
“The objectives of this course are to:
1. Explain the concepts and demonstrate an understanding of the major assumptions relating to the study
of social functioning.
Describe the perspectives and theories of humsn behaviour fundamental to understanding the
functioning of humans individually and collectively.
Evaluate the impact of social environments (family, culture, community) on social interaction,
Explain the impact of social functioning on wellbeing.
Appraise the notions of normal and abnormal behaviour.
Demonstrate en understanding of diverse patterns of group formation and functioning. 7. Describe the major types of personality disorders.
8. Distinguish and evaluate diverse social work interventions.
Learning outeomes
At the end of this course, students should be able to:
1. Define social functioning and its key dimensions.
2. Describe at least two perspectives and two theories of human behaviour fundamental to understanding
the functioning of humans; individually and collectively.
3. Evaluate the impact of social environments (family, culture, community) on social interaction,
4. Distinguish between the notions of normal and abnormal behaviour.
5
6.
. Analyse the impact of social functioning on wellbeing.
5. List at least four implications of group formation and functioning on behaviour.
7. Identify atleast two major types of personality disorders.
8. Differentiate the diverse social work interventions.
Lecture Schedule
Weeks | Topics
1 | introduction/Overview
‘Theoretical foundations I
‘Theoretical foundations I
Social development theories
Personality and social functioning
Lifespan and life course approach
First Continuous Assessment
2
3
4
3
6 ‘Motivation and social functioning
7
8
9
Family dynamics and social functioning
10 | Group dynamic and social functioning
Ti | Social support and resilience in social adaptation
12 | Assessment of social functioning
13 _| Social work interventions for promoting social functioning
14 | Second Continuous Assessment
15 | Revision
16 | Examination
17 | Examination
Course requirements and policies: The course is compulsory for all 200 Level students, therefore, all
Students in the 200 Level cohort are expected to register forthe course and to attend classes punctually. If for
any reason, any student would be absent, such a student should notify the course conveners and get permission
ta be away before the class. Students are expected tobe prepared for all classes as they could be an impromptu
clase assessment, Attendance and participation are an essential part of this course. Attendance will be taken
seach class and each student is expected to have at least 65% class attendance to qualify to write the semester
examination. Using personal electronic devices in the classroom during lectures can hinder learning, not only for the
student using the device but also for other students and the lecturer in the class. To this end, all phones should
be off or on silent mode.
Evaluation
Class attendance and active participation 5%
Continuous assessment 1 15%
Continuous assessment 2 20%
Final examination 60%
Reading Text
Udegbe, B., Balogun, S., Osinowo, H. & Sunmola, G. (Eds. (2005). Psychology: Perspectives in human
behaviour. Ibadan, Nigeria: Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan.
Zastrow, CH. & Kirst-Ashman, K.K. (2010). Understanding human behaviour and the social environment.
8th ed. Belmont, CA: Brook/Cole.
Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social
development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
Anderson, S. A. (1999). The family as a system. In S., A., Anderson & R., M., Sabatelli (3rd Edition),
Family Interaction: A Multigenerational Developmental Perspective (pp.3-17). Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.
Karls, J. & Wandrei, K. (Eds). (1994), Person-in-environment: The PIE classification system for social
functioning problems. Washington, DC: NASW Press.
Corey, G., Corey, M.S. & Corey, C. (2010). Groups process and practice (8 ed.). United States:
Brooks/Cole.
Hepworth, D., Rooney, R., Rooney, G., Gottfried, K., Larson, J. (2006).
Theory and skills (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thompson/ Brooks Cole.
t social work practice:
Shulman, L. (2009). The skills of helping individuals, families, groups, and communities (6th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Course Convener (Gafar Femi Olowu) Family
Theories and Dynamics
Family dynamics are the
Patterns of relating or interactions between family members. Each family
system and its dynamics a
re unique, although there are some common patterns. All families have some
Feil and some unhelpful dynamics. Family dynamics often have a strong influence on the way
individuals see themselves, others and the world, and influence their relationships, this behaviours, and
their well-being, An understanding of the impact of family dynamics ona person's self-perception may
help social workers pinpoint and respond to the diving forces behind her or his current necds
Family theory provides a theoretical and therapeu
also useful in understanding and managing in
Problems are related to family issues. A fi
family system, a social worker must look at
tic base for dealing with family-related situations; itis
dividual problems by determining the extent to which such
unily systems approach argues that in order to understand a
the family as a whole, rather than focusing on its members.
People do not exist in a vacuum, They live, play,
anthropologists agree that next to their peculiar tend
characteristics of human beings is that they ate soc
universal and pervasive in the way it shapes hut
‘growing awareness of the crucial impact of fa
systems theory
80 to school, and work with other people. Most
fency to think and use tools, one of the distinguishing
ial creatures. The social group that seems to be most
iman behaviour is the family. For social workers, the
imilies on clients has led to the development of family
Family systems theory searches for the causes of behaviour, not in the individual alone, but in the
interactions among the members of a group, The basic rationale is that all parts of the family are
interrelated. Further, the family has properties of its own that can be known only by looking at the
relationships and interactions among all members.
‘The family systems approach is based on several by
assumptions:
~ Each family is more than a sum of its members
Each family is unique, due to the infinite variations in personal characteristics and cultural and
ideological styles.
A bealthy family has flexibility, consistent structure, and effective exchange of information,
‘The family is an interactional system whose component parts have constantly shifting boundaries
and varying degrees of resistance to change.
— Families must fulfil a variety of functions for each member, both collectively and individually, if
‘each member is to grow and develop.
— Families strive for a sense of balance or homeostasis.
Negative feedback loops are those patterns of interaction that maintain stability or constancy while
minimising change. Negative feedback loops help to maintain homeostasis, Positive feedback loops,
in contrast, are patterns of interaction that facilitate change or movement toward either growth or
dissolution,
~ Families are seen as being goal oriented. The concept of equifinality refers to the ability of the
family system to accomplish the same goals through different routes. ~ The concept of hierarchies describes how families organize themselves into various smaller units or
Subsystems that are comprised by the larger family system. When the members or tasks associated
With each subsystem become blurred with those of other subsystems, families have been viewed as
having difficulties. For example, when a child becomes involved in marital issues, difficulties often
emerge that require intervention,
Boundaries occur at every level of the system and between subsystems. Boundaries influence the
movement of people and the flow of information into and out of the system, Some families have
very open boundaries where members and others are allowed to freely come and go without much
Festriction; in other families, there are tight restrictions on where family members ean go and who
‘may be brought into the family system. Boundaries also regulate the flow of information in a family.
In more closed families, the rules strictly regulate what information may be discussed and with
Whom, In contrast, information may flow more freely in famili
boundaries,
that have more permeable
‘The concept of interdependence is critical in the study of family systems. Individual family members
and the subsystems comprised by the family system are mutually influenced by and are mutually
dependent upon one another. What happens to one family member, or what one family member
does, influences other family members.
Family dynamics significantly impact on a client’s biological, psychological, and social functioning, in
both positive and negative ways. Having a closeknit and supportive family provides emotional support,
ensures economic well-being, and increases overall health. However, the opposite is also true. When
family life is characterized by stress and conflict, well-being can be poor. Social support is one of the
‘main ways that family positively impacts well-being. Social relationships, such as those found in close
families, have been demonstrated to decrease the likelihood of nega
Aisease, disability, mental illness, and death.
fe outcomes, such as chronic
Social support is one of the main ways that family positively impacts well-being. Though good familial
relations and social support serve as protective factors and improve overall well-being and health,
studies have shown that not all familial relations positively impact these areas. Problematic and! non-
supportive familial interactions have a negative impact,
The Family Life Cycle
We can all agree that the family is a source of roles, responsibilities and challenges for families, Just as
an individual can be described in terms of his/her stage in human development life cycle), it is possible
to describe stages that occur throughout the life ofa family unit.
A lifecycle is a series of stages families go through as the structure of the family changes. However, not
every family follows the life cycle in order or description because each family is unique. The emotional
and intellectual stages from childhood to retirement as a member of a family are called the family life
cycle, In each stage, « person will face challenges in family life that allow the building or gaining of new
skills. However, not everyone passes through these stages smoothly. Situations such as severe illness,
financial problems, or the death of a loved one can have an effect. If skills are not learned in one stage,
they can be learned in later stages. Understanding the stages in the lifecycle of a family can help prepare parents and other family members
for the challenges and demands each stage brings.
[SIN
Family Life Cycle
Stage
Emotional Process of
Transition: Key Principles
Second-Order Changes in Family Status
1
Family of Origin
Experience
Required to Proceed Developmentally
a. Maintaining relationships with parents,
siblings, and peers.
. Completing education or training.
©. Developing the foundations of a family
life,
Leaving Home:
‘Accepting emotional and
Single Young Adults
financial responsibilities for
self
a. Differentiation of self in relation to
family of origin
b. Development of intimate peer
relationships
©. Establishment of self, work and
financial independence
Premarriage stage
a. Selecting partners
b. Developing a relationship
©. Deciding to establish own home with
someone
The Joining of
Families through
Marriage: Coupling
‘Commitment to new system
‘&. Formation of marital system
b. Realignment of relationships with
extended families and friends to
include spouse. It entails adjusting
relationships with families of origin
and peers to include partner
Families with Young
Children
‘Accepting new members
into system
a, Adjusting marital system to make
space for children,
Joining in childrearing, financial, and
household tasks.
c. Realignment of relationships with
extended families to include parenting,
and grand-parenting roles
Families with
Adolescents
Increasing flexibility of
family boundaries to include
children’s independence and
grandparent’s frailties.
‘a. Shifting of parent child relationships to
permit adolescents to move in and out
of system.
b. Refocus on midlife marital and career
issues.
c. Beginning shift toward joint caring of
older generation,
Launching Children
‘and Moving On
‘Accepting a multitude of
exits from and entries into
the family system
a. Renegotiating of marital system asa
dyad. Resolving midlife issues.
b. Development of adult-to-adult
relationship with grown children,
Realignment of relationships to include
in-laws and grandchildren,
Dealing with disabilities and death of
parents (grandparents) 8
T Families in Later Accepting the shifting of
Life generational roles
a
Maintaining own and/or couple
functioning and interests in face of
physiological decline,
Exploration of new familial and social
roles.
Support for a more central role of
middle generation.
Making room in the system for the
wisdom and experience of the elderly,
supporting the older generation
without over-functioning for them
Dealing with loss of spouse, siblings,
and other peers and preparation for
own death. Life review and integration
Mastering the skills and milestones of each stage allows successful movement from one stage of
development to the next, [fnot mastered, clients are more likely to have difficulty with relationships and
future transitions, Family life cycle theory suggests that successful transit
ing may also help to prevent
disease and emotional or stress-related disorders. The stress of daily living, coping with a chronic
medical condi
delay the transition to the next phase of life.
n, or other life crises can disrupt the normal life cycle. Ongoing stress or a crisis can Sbeg FUNCTIONING
90Cial functioning connotes social well-being, especially with regard to the
10 meet the role expectations associated with particular status or role. It is
Accomplish the activities necessary for daily living and to fulfil major social roles as
Particular subculture or community. Social functioning draws attention to the match or fit between
the needs, capacities, and activities ofthe individual and the opportunities and demands of his/her
Social environment by looking into the quality of transactions between them
jowards achieving a bottom-line go:
ability of an individ
also the aby lity ©
required by @
The overriding philosophy of social functioning is directed t al
that is threefold:
tioning person, that is, a person who can adequately meet the role
with their statuses and roles;
omotes the optimal social functioning cf the
1. an optimally social func!
expectations associated
2. an environment that supports, sustains, and pri
person;
3. balanced reciprocal interactions
with each one affecting and bein:
between person and environment. All three are interrelated,
3. affected by the others
Social Functioning: As a Goal of Social Work
Social work is an enabling profession that helps with problems of living and human relationships
and with the dysfunctional complexities of various social institutions. Social work assumes
humanity's worth, and takes the postion that people inherently have the potential for dealing
with their problems However, at times and under stressful circumstances, people often need help.
‘though problems can be challenges to greater effort and achievement, they often contribute to
the breataown of socal functioning, Social problems affect social functioning in 9 umber of
aspects of individuals’ lives, including physical and mental health, employment and education,
financial security, housing, recreation and family and community integrity. Social work has the
challenge to understand these problems and to help prevent and reduce them.
answer to the problems of social functioning lies in the
interface and transactions between individuals and their environment. In the social work view,
social functioning relates to fulfilling one's own roles in society in general, to those in the
Jmmediate environment, and to oneself. These functions include meeting one’s own basic needs
and those of one’s dependants and making positive contributions to society. Human needs
include physical aspects (food, shelter, safety, health and protection); personal fulfilment
(education, recreation, mutual caring, and companionship) and an adequate self-concept (self-
confidence, self- esteem, and identity)
Social functioning is enhanced when individuals feel basic satisfied with themselves, their roles in
fife, and their relationships to others. Role performance and the reciprocal interaction between
the individual and his or her fellow human beings are the aspects of social functioning that are
the vital concerns of social work.
Social work theory suggests that the
The focus of social work practice is on the interaction between people and systems in the social
environment. People are dependent on systems for help in obtaining the material, emotional, or
spiritual resources and the services and opportunities they need to realize their aspirations and to
help them cope with their life tasks.
Social workers direct their interventions currently toward restoring client systems’ social
functioning and toward realigning opportunities by reforming social conditions. The intervention
1 and aid of
Social work are indicated when people unaided cannot cope with social abligations and
commit
itments and when Problems interfere with relationships that exist within the family, at
schor
= 01, on the job or in other social groupings. The aim of social work intervention is to improve
enhance social functioning.
‘THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
The Multidimensional Framework or Bio-psychosocial-spiritual: This approach assesses levels
Of functioning within biological, psychological, social, and spiritual dimensions (and how they are
connected) to help understand human behaviour. The assumption is that to understand the
individual's response pattern, the social worker needs to consider all possible facets that make
him/her as a total being. The Biological component includes multiple systems that support the
biological integrity and functioning of the human organism biochemical, cellular, organic,
physiological and nervous systems. These are aspects related to overall health, physical abilities,
weight, diet, lifestyle, medication/substance use, gender, and genetic connections/vulnerabilities.
The Psychological component involves all conscious-mental functions that affect the individuals’
ability to mobilise their internal and external resources to satisfy personal needs and avoid internal
and external threats. These include information processing, motor control, communication,
attitudes and emotions, internal controls and aspirations, social competence, and coping
techniques, all of which are manifested in an individual's behaviour. The Social component refers
to all the social systems within which an individual lives, relates, and is influenced. It consists of all
interpersonal, familial, social support, institutional and socio-cultural systems that influence
his/her behaviour. The Spiritual component refers to activities related to the individual's search
for meanings to life and existence, which involves both transcendence (experience of existence
beyond the physical/psycho-logical) and immanence (discovery of the transcendent in the
physical and psychological world).
The Person In Environment or Person In Situation: This approach is the concept that people
can be heavily influenced by their environment. The person's environment/situation is made up
of both objective (external) and subjective (internal) elements. The external element refers to
variables such as physical characteristics of the environment, geographical location, weather and
climate, natural resources, and socio-political-economic- cultural conditions while the internal
element refers to the perceived situation, as sensed and interpreted in the mind of the individual,
and his thoughts and feelings about the environment, which uniquely define his/her situation. It
highlights the importance of understanding an individual and their behaviour through their
environment, as the environment has significant emotional and psychological impact on the
individual's view of his external environment and reciprocally responds to it based on this view.
Therefore, a person's environment, along with their experiences, will help shape the way they view
the world, how they think, and why they respond the way they do. The Person-In-
Environment/Situation underlines the importance of conceptualising the person in an interactive
context versus seeing him/her in a vacuum, é
The Micro, Mezzo, and Macro Systems: A system is a set of elements that are interrelated to
make a functional whole. If we examine our own live and those of others, we realise, each
individual is involved in multiple systems consisting of families, groups, organisations, and
communities. For our purposes, we will distinguish three basic types of systems ~ Micro, Mezzo,
and Macro approach, which refers to a three-level understanding of contributors to systems
involving and surrounding the individual. Micro:
ee System refers to an individual. Micro-level involves considerations for biological and
i Ogical characteristics of the individual. These could include Personality, mental and
Physical health or pathology, and education levels, as examples
Mezzo: Mezzo system refers to any small group, including family, work groups, and other social
Groups. Sometimes for assessment purposes itis difficult to clearly differentiate between issues
involving a micro system (individual) and a mezzo system (small group) with which the individual
is involved. Mezzo-level formulation takes into account the immediately surrounding networks
and services of an individual. These can include the home and neighbourhood environments,
social networks (including friends, neighbours, and family), and available medical and social
services,
Macro: Macro-level contributors include the largest scale contributors that can impact an
individual through the mezzo level, including economic and political changes and regulations as
well as natural forces, such as earthquakes, tornados, and others. For example, three major types
‘of macro systems impact individual clients: culture, communities, and organisations. All three are
intertwined. Culture is the configuration of shared attitudes, values, goals, spiritual beliefs, social
expectations, arts, technology, and behaviours that characterise a broader society in which people
e. A Community is “a number of people with something in common that connects them in
some way and that distinguishes them from others.” The common feature might be a
neighbourhood where people live, an activity people share such as jobs, or other connections like
ethnic identification. Organisations are structured groups of people who come together to work
toward some mutual goal and perform established work activities that are divided among various
units. Organisations generally have a clearly defined membership in terms of knowing who is in
and who is out.
Ecological Systems
The ecosystems perspective of social functioning holds that all things living or non-living can be
regarded as a system and all systems have properties that are capable of being studied; and
change occurs because of the transactions between systems or between parts of a system. In
social work, the most elemental social unit is the person. The interaction between social units
which demonstrates functionally interdependent, and reciprocal relationships creates a social
organisation which itself has functional and reciprocal relationships with its social environment.
All individuals and social organizations have some type of functional and reciprocal relationship
with the social environment; thus systems are interactive. In essence, this view states that human
development cannot be isolated from, but must be taken within the context of the individual's
relationship with the environment. Each individual's environment is unique, and that the person's
development is profoundly affected by events occurring in his environment which is conceived as
a set of nested structures, each inside the nest. This perspective characterizes the nature of
felationships between systems as transactional and reciprocal between entities, or between their
elements, in which each change or otherwise influences. the other over time. Bronfenbrenner
identified 5 systems every person is a part of, and which subsequently have implications on their
behaviour and social functioning. Namely:
1. Microsystem is that which directly surrounds the individual and that the individual interacts
with directly and most intimately. This can include home, work, school, and relationships within
this system, including family friends, and caregivers. Mesosystem describes th
pects
@ following level, where each specific microsystem intercon”
and
with er
ees indirectly impacts the individual. For example, the work system
conree pie may either positively or negatively influence the home system.
chanee Tees a sytem level in which the individual is affected but unable to effect
eat can include an individual's company going out of business and losing their job
oe includes a higher level still, in which the cultural, political, and economic
Ir rent can be understood, all of which can affect the individual.
Finally, the chronosystem describes dynamic and timing-dependent events, including how!
historical events might impact an individual’ life.
The Role Perspective
Individuals are connected to social systems through the roles they play in them. Roles are at the
same time an element of the individual and an element of the social system. They represent the
joint boundary between the two, the point at which person meets environment. Roles are
acquired, maintained, and changed through a series of transactions between individuals and social
systems. A person's role in any situation is defined in three ways: from the perspective of the
expectations of others for people in that role (prescribed role), the expectations of the person
taking the role (perceived role), and that person's actual behaviours (enacted role).
McCall and Simmons (1966) in their book Identities and Interactions: An Examination of Human
Associations in Everyday Life, describe ive overlapping transactions that affect the person's role:
Recruitment - processes by which the individual's participation in a social system is determined
by deciding criteria for membership in statuses and roles; may be aseriptive (by birth),
conscriptive (by lav), or achieved (by merit)
Socialisation ~ processes through which individual participation is defined and refined as
individuals learn to function as system members, such as processes by which people become
aware of the expectations of others and lean the attitudes, knowledge, and abilities necessary to
comply with those expectations;
Interaction - processes through which participation in the system is implemented that allow
members to influence one another and shape and reshape social systems;
Innovation — processes through which a person's participation in a system is altered or changed,
which may be externally imposed (as in changes in the physical environment force system
members to rethink the ways they relate to their environment), or internally planned (es in
conditions within a society force new laws into being);
Social control - processes in which a person's participation in a system is limited or constrained.
This may be implemented through positive (rewards) or negative (punishments) means.
Consequently, an assessment of afy individual should focus on the roles they occupy and the role
transactions in which they are involved. These are essential considerations in analysing the
problems and needs of individuals in relation to the role transactions in which they are involved. Biological Dimensions
Biological theorists contend that the brain functions and changes in structure and/or functions, genetic
traits, the nervous system and hormones can affect behaviour. For instance, Edward Wilson in his book
“Sociobiology: The new synthesis” assume that the behaviour of individuals is influenced by genes;
though not rigidly determined by them, and any behaviour emerges through the interaction between the
genes and environment, It assumes that, just as the natural selection has shaped physiological
istics, so too has the social behaviour evolved through the process of natural selection
ccharact
Key Assumptions of the Biological Approach
= The brain and the mind are identical
~ Brain physiology can affect behaviour
Biochemical imbalances can affect behaviour
~ Behaviour can be inherited, because behaviour is significantly determined by genetic,
~ Behaviour emerges through the interaction between the natural/physiological triggers i.e. genes and
the environment
Evolution and the Genetic Basis of Behaviour
Charles Darwin's book on the “Origin of Species (1859) described the process of Natural Selection, He
contends that characteristics that are not suited to species’ environment will die out as it struggles to
survive, and with time will evolve over generations so that only adaptive characteristics remain in future
offsprings.
Genes are the genetic information carried by DNA in chromosomes, found within a cell’s nucleus, they
are passed on through generations of a species if individuals survive and successfully reproduce. Genes
are what we inherit from our parents which can give rise to physiological functions that contribute to
physical and behavioural characteristics. In line with Darwin's theory of evolution, genetics theorists
assume that large component of social behaviour is related to unlearned genetic/heredity causes. To
thom social behaviour is thought to be caused by instincts. Essentially, behavioural genetics is the study
of how both genetics and the environment contribute to individual variations in human behaviour. The
assumption is that one’s genes do not automatically lead to a behaviour but can be a building block
(predisposition) towards that behaviour.
Effects of Brain Physiology and Neurochemistry
Interactions between regions of the brain help to control different functions, which biological theorist
assume to be significant in determining our actions. For instance, the occipital lobe is involved heavily
in processing sight, along with the frontal lobe, which is thought to be involved in control of attention.
ectrical impulses enable an important means of internal communication that directs our behaviour,
these electrical impulses travel around the brain and to/from the body via the Nervous System. Impulses
are transmitted between the Nerves at Synapses, junctions where neurotransmitters are released that
inhibit or excite other Neurons to achieve different responses. Similarly, Neurochemical imbalances in
the brain are often associated with abnormal behaviour, for instance, evidence suggests that imbalance if
Dopamine (a neurochemical linked with the brain’s natural pleasure system) are associated with mood
disorders such as depression.
Allso, the Endocrine system is a slower-acting communication system that regulates the circulation of
Hormones, released by glands into the bloodstream. For example, Cortisol and Adrenaline are key
hormones that facilitate the fight-or-light response, a key evolutionary survival mechanism whereby the
blood primes itself for imminent danger (e.g. increasing heart rate, initiating sweating to cool down,
dilation of pupils, sharpening sense of hearing). Psychodynamic Theories
‘These theories argue that to some extent our behaviours are motivated by inner forces about which
viduals have litle awareness and over which they have no control. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian
physician propounded the psychoanalytic theory. His theory is based on two forms of observations. He
studied maladaptive behaviours of his patients and also expression of humour and slips of tongue etc; He
{ried to explain the concept of instinet or drive which is known as urges. He argued that much of our
behaviour is motivated by the unconscious, a part of the personality. Freud viewed that personalities of
people develop through conflict between their primary drives (sex and aggression) and social pressures;
and early childhood experiences are extremely important in the development of personality. He has
categorized the structure of personality into two: a) Topographical aspects of mind; and b) Dynamic
aspects of mind.
‘The Topographical aspects of mind, Freud has divided the structure of mind into three levels:
1) the conscious,
2) the preconscious or the subconscious and
3) the unconscious,
‘The conscious mind consists of all the things of which a person is aware at any given moment. In other
Words, it refers to the experience or awareness of an object at the present moment. Freud compared the
hhuman mind to an iceberg and viewed that only one-tenth part of the mind deals with conscious
experience,
‘The segment of the mind where the readily recallable is to be located is called by Freud the preconscious
or subconscious. The subconscious is the storehouse of surface memories and are readily retrieved
‘though are not conscious at the moment. The subconscious process is weak and when it gets some force
from the outside, it comes to the conscious level.
Freud emphasized the unconscious mental process which is about 9/10 part of the mind. He believed that
the unconscious part of the mind is the important determining factor in human behaviour and
Personality. It is the level of mind where thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept
that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness.
Dynamic Aspect of Mind:
Freud in his theory of personality described that personality consist of three separate but interacting
components: the id, the ego and the superego. According to Freud, the dynamic aspects of ‘selP refer to
the process through which conflicts arising in the instincts are resolved.
1. The id: The primitive part of the personality is id. It is derived fom the Latin word which means it
Itis the raw, unorganised, and innate part of personality. It is representative of the unconscious and
the storehouse of instinctual desires. The Id is completely amoral part of the personality that exists at
birth which contains all the basic biological drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational
impulses. Those drives are fuelled by Psychic energy which Freud termed as the libido. The id is
guided by the pleasure principle in which the goal is the immediate reduction of tension and the
‘maximization of satisfaction. The pleasure principle can be stated as “ifit feels good, do it”
The ego: It begins to develop soon after birth. The ego comes from the Latin word for ‘I?
‘mostly conscious and is far more rational, logical, and cunning than the id. The ego is the ‘e
of personality. The ego maintains balance between the desire of the id and the realities of the
objective, outside world. It is guided by the realty principle. Therefore, the ego satisfied the
demands of the id and reduce libido only in ways that will not lead to negative consequences,
Sometimes ego decides to deny the id to satisfy its desires because the consequences would be
painful,
which is
xecutive” 3. The superego: The final part of personality is called the superego. The superego is derived from the
Latin word which means over the self. It develops in childhood as the child leamns rights and wrongs
of society and modelled by parents, teachers, and other significant individuals. The superego is
guided by the moral principle. There are two parts to the superego: the ego ideal and the conscience.
‘The ego ideal isthe sum total of all the behaviours which the child has learned about from parents
and others of the society. The conscience is another part of the superego that makes people feel pride
when they do the right thing and guilt, when 1
they do the wrong thing, The superego works at both
conscious and unconscious level.
According to Sigmund Freud, both the id and the superego are unrealistic. They do not consider the
practical realities imposed by the society. As a result, the ego acts as a mediator between the demands of
the id and the superego, When the ego is pressurized with anxiety by id and superego, it uses a number
of defence mechanisms to release the anxiety and save the personality from disintegration. The use of
defence mechanisms is a common phenomenon and used normally by everyone. The defence
mechanisms function in the unconscious level. Much of the work on development of defence
mechanisms was done by his daughter, Anna Freud. Defence mechanisms are a means of distancing
transforming or falsifying a person's reality which reduce anxiety and allow the individual to cope with
\hatever he/she is facing, defence mechanisms can be healthy or unhealthy depending on the situations
and the way the person uses them.
‘Types of defence Mechanisms
There are different types of defence mechanisms which are used by different persons at different
spheres. A person can use a number of different mechanisms even for a similar type of situation. All
defence mechanisms do not help, some are maladaptive and can lead to total loss of individual from the
reality. The defence mechanisms are classified into successful and unsuccessful defence mechanisms.
These defence mechanisms are described below:
1. Sublimation: It is considered as the most complete and successful of all defence mechanisms. It is
the transformation of sexual and aggressive urges into creative work into socially acceptable
directions. Thus, it is the form of channeling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into socially
acceptable behaviour. For example, a person who is very aggressive becomes a professional boxer.
2. Denial: It is a type of defence mechanism in which the person refuses to acknowledge a threatening
situation. Iti the most primitive form of defence mechanism. For example, a person who isa drug
addict denies being a drug addict.
3. Regression: It isa form of defence mechanism in which a person falls back on child like pattems of
Fesponding in reaction to stressful situation. It refers to a state where an adult behaves like a child,
For example, a six-year-old baby starts wetting his bed after his parents bring home anew baby.
Repression: It isa primary defence mechanism, and it isa direct method of dealing with anxiety
Repression is a defence mechanism in which the person refuses to consciously remember
threatening or unacceptable event, instead putting those events in to the unconscious mind. For
example, a person who was sexually abused as a child cannot be able to remember the incident
because bad memory has got repressed inside.
5. Projection: The literal meaning of projection is “throwing out. I is commonly used by everyone.
Projection is a form of defence mechanisms by which one transfers the blame of his own
shortcomings, mistakes and misdeeds to others and attributes to others his own unacceptable
thoughts. For example, a lady is attributed to her friend's husband but denies this and believes the
friend’s husband is attracted to her.
6. Rational is the invention of unconsciously acceptable motives by the ego to cover up those
"unconscious motives which it cannot accept. In other words, it refers to the substitution of a socially
3 approved motive for a socially: dis
approved one, In this
lable excuses for a unacceptable behay
tw charity may consider himself to be
con
type of defence mechanism, a person inven’
‘our. For example, a person who gives a fot of donations
4 very generous but in fact he is motivated by guilty
2
3
+h a person forms an opposite emotional of
1s. Reaction formation is the development of behaviour which
is opposite tothe unconscious desires of the person For example, a person is very angry but overtly
hhe may state that he is not angry by showing smiles,
Displacement: Displacement is commonly found in dreams of normal adults
sedirecting feelings froma threatening target toa less threatening one. In this defence
Aischarge of an unconscious impulse by shifting from one origina object to a substitute takes place
For example, a child may be angry with his mother, he may not express his anger towards his mother
due to socal restriction but may do so by breaking his doll into pieces.
9. Wentification: Wis a mechanism which is very often used by normal people. In this defence
'mechatnism a person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety. For example, a student
‘may identify himself with a bachelor professor whose qualities he may like.
It implies that
mechanism the
10. Compensation: Compensation is also called as substitution, In this defence mechanism a person
makes up for inferiorties in one area by becoming superior in another area. In the process of
| ‘compensation, a person tries to maintain balance of his weaknesses by overemphasising strengths in
other areas. For example, a person who is nota good player, he may put all his energi
sto become a
good academician,
Besides the above-mentioned defence mechanisms there are some other mechanisms like isolation,
fantasy, fixation, ete. people use to overcome their unpleasant experiences. When the ego of the
individual is threatened, the various defence mechanisms are used to resolve conflict and the person
‘would have able to maintain a balanced personality. However, excessive use of defence mechanism is
dangerous for the ego. Defence mechanisms are generally learned by the person during childhood.
Psychosexual Stages
igmund Freud further theorised that people’s personality develops through a series of five
Psychosexual stages. According to him failure to resolve conflicts at a particular stage can result in
fixation and development of dysfunctional behaviour pattems (personality), He proposed that
experiences and difficulties during a particular childhood stage may predict specific characteristics in the
adult personality. The process of personality development ofthe child is divided into the following five
overlapping stages:
1, Oral Stage (birth to 12-18 months): a) Oral sucking; and b) Oral biting
Anal Stage ~ (12-18 months to 03 years): a) Anal Explosive; and b) Anal Retentive
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 5 ~ 6 years)
4, Latency Stage ($ ~ 6 years to adolescence)
5. Genital Stage (Adolescence to adulthood)
Freud believed that personality is formed in first three stages which includes first few years of life, as
children deal with conflicts between their biological, sexually related urges and the pressures of the
society. At each stage there is a change in the main source of gratification, Also, each stage is
characterised by a typical pleasure gaining behaviour as well as a conilict due to the social pressures. In
the first stage of psychosexual development, the mouth is erogenous zone (the primary site of deriving
gratification or some form of sexual pleasure). If there is frustration at oral stage, it may result in verbal
hostility. The second stage of psychosexual development which begins from 12 months and continued
up to 2-3 years, during this period the area of getting pleasure changes from mouth to the anus and the
4
Rtn hit gets pleasure by retaining and controlling f
3 years. During this stage the sex enctpy is loc
also negotiate the important hurdle of petson,
process of identification, Oedipus complex is
mother and sense of rivalry with father, In co
the father and sense of ri
centers the latency,
feces and urine. The phallic stage begins at abou
alised in the genital organs. In this stage the child must
ality development, the OcdipalE:tectra conflict through the
traditionally used to describe a boy's attraction towards the
fa ntrast, Electra complex describes a girl's attraction towards
alty with mother, After the resolution of Oedipal/Eectea conflict the child
¢ Stage of psychosexual development which lass until puberty
interest becomes dormant, The last stage is the genital stage which extends unti
sexual instinct starts to develop with the aim of reprodu
unresolved conflicts or issues or if a child doesnt receive stage appropriate parenting and nur
during this stage, it can lead to problems such as sex
relationships, or problematic,
4m this period, the sexual
death. At this stage the
ion. According to Freud, if individuals have
0 pr wal dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy
antisocial and/or dysfunctional behaviour or emotional problems,
Psychosocial Theory
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, it is a lifespan theory that described the impact
of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and
‘elationships played a role in the human development, behaviours and personalities. Erikson’s theory
‘was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle. This principle suggests that people grow in a
sequence that occurs over time and in the context of a larger community. Erikson proposed an 8-stage
theory with each stage involves a “crisis” in personality ~ that is important at that time and will remain
an issue to some degree throughout the rest of life. In each stage there is the balancing of a postive
tendency and a corresponding negative one. Initiative vs. guilt is a conflict children face between their
‘urge to form and carry out goals. When they fail to reach their goals, they feel guilty. The sense of right
and wrong morality emerges as a result of identification with the parents Children can resolve this crisis,
to acquire the virtue of purpose. Erikson defines it as the courage to envisage and pursue valued goals
Children can then develop into adults who combine spontaneous enjoyment of life with a sense of
responsibility. Those who cannot resolve this crisis may become repressed.
yehosocial Stages
Age Developmental Crisis Successful dealing | Unsuccessful
Crisis (Outcome) | dealing with erisis
Dirth to I-year- | Trust versus Mistrust Hope Ifbabies needs are
old Babies leam to trust or mistrust | Ifbabies" needs are | not met, they learn
thers based on whether or not | met, they lear to trust | not to trust.
their needs-such as food and people and expect life
comfort-are met tobe pleasant.
110 3-year-old | Autonomy versus Shame/Doubt | Will Thtoddlers™
Toddlers realize that they can | If toddlers are attempts at being
direct their own behaviour. successful in directing | independent are
their own behaviour, | blocked, they leam
they leam to be self-doubt and
independent shame for being
unsuccessful.
30 S-year-old | Tnitiative versus Guilt Purpose Ifpre-sehoolers fail
Pre-schoolers are challenged to | If pre-schoolers succeed | in taking
control their own behaviour, such | in taking responsibility, | responsibility, they
theirexuberance | they feel capable and | feel irresponsible,
‘when they are ina restaurant. | develop initiative anxious and guilty.
Sto [2-year-old | Industry versus Inferiority | Confidence Tehildren fail to
When children succeed in When children succeed | develop new
earning new skills and obtaining _| at learning new skills, _| ability, they feel new knowledge, they develop a
sense of industry, a feeling of
industry, a feeling of competence
arising from their work and effort,
they develop a sense of
industry, a feeling of
‘competence and self
esteem arising from
their work and effort.
Incompetent,
inadequate, and
inferior.
12 to 18-year-old
Adolescence
Identity versus Role Confusion
Adolescents are faced with
deciding who or what they want
to be in terms of occupation,
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviour
patterns,
Fidelity
‘Adolescents who
succeed in defining
who they are and find a
role for themselves
develop a strong sense
of identity.
‘Adolescents who
fail to define their
identity become
confused and,
withdraw or want
to inconspicuously
180 40-year-old
Early Adulthood
Intimacy versus Isolation
The task facing those in early
adulthood is to be able to share
who they are with another person
ina close, committed
relationship.
Love
People who succeed in
this task will have
intimate relationships.
blend in the crowd.
Adults who fail at
this task will be
isolated from other
people and may
suffer from
Joneliness.
40 t0 65-year-old
Middle
Adulthood
e,
productive, and nurturant of the
next generation,
Care
Adults who sueceed in
this challenge will be
creative, productive,
and nurturant, thereby
benefiting themselves,
their family,
community, country,
and future generations.
‘Adults who fail
will be passive, and
self-centred, feel
that they have done
nothing for the next
generation, and feel
that the world is no
better off for their
From 65 years to
death
Late Adulthood
Ego Integrity versus Despair
The issue is whether a person wil
reach wisdom, spiritual
tranquillity, sense of wholeness,
and acceptance of his or her life.
‘Wisdom
Elderly people who
succeed in addressing
this issue will enjoy life
and not fear death.
being alive,
Elderly people who
fail wil feel that
their life is empty
and will fear death, v
+ 4BNORMAL BEHAVOUR
+ Do you think any of these behaviours are abnormal?
Believing you have a “lucky” pen or seat in an exam?
Being unable to eat, sleep, or study for days after the breakup of a relationship?
Breaking into a cold sweat at the thought of meeting someone?
Refusing to eat solid food for days to stay thin?
Thorough handwashing after riding a bus?
Believing government agents monitor your phone calls?
Believing you have drink 6-pack alcohol daily to be sociable?
VVVVVVY
Behaviour can be defined as an expressed course of action produced by organisms in response to stimulus
from a given situation. In this case, it could simply be considered as what human beings do. Thus, the
fundamental explanation of behavioural activity must begin with a stimulus and end with a response,
Stimulus: Any change in the biotic and abiotic environments capable of causing a reaction or response
in a living organism, e.g., temperature, pressure, radiation, gravity ete., or activities of other organisms
within the immediate environment,
‘Components of Behaviour
1, Nature/Innate: Biological ~ Genes determined behaviour
2. Nurture/Learned: Experience and learning determine behaviour
‘What is Normal? and What is Abnormal?
Normal behaviour is seen as good, natural, regular or routine, and most significantly, social accepted.
‘Abnormal behaviour departs from some norm and harms the affected individual or others. It is any kind
of activity that is seen as bad, uncommon or defect in mental state and/or mental illness.
Clinically (according to DSM IV), it is any significant behavioural or psychological syndrome or pattern
that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress (e.g., a painful symptom) or
disability (.e, impairment in one or more important areas of functioning) or with a significantly
increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom.
Marie Jahoda in her book /deal Mental Health (1958) suggested 6 criteria when establishing abnormality
by identifying the characteristics of people who are ‘normal’ or have ideal mental health.
Efficient self-perception
Realistic self-esteem and acceptance
Voluntary control of behaviour
True perception of the world
Sustaining relationships and giving affection
Self-direction and productivity.
ayeene
Causes of Abnormality
‘Three dimensions of the causes of abnormality:
1. Biological
2. Psychological
3. Sociocultural
Social scientists use the term BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL to characterize the interactions among these three
dimensions. The assumptions are that people are born with a predisposition (or "diathesis") that pl
i : aces
them at risk for developing a psychological disorder if exposed to certain extremely rest life
experiences.
1. Biological Causes - Possible biological causes - Genetics
~ Disturbances in physical functioning
~ Medical conditions (e.g,, thyroid problem)
- Brain damage
~ Ingestion of substances
~ Environmental stimuli (e.g., drugs, toxins)
2. Psychological Causes
+ Possible psychological causes
- Troubling life experiences
~ _ Interpersonal - between people (e.g., antagonism, arguments)
- _ Intrapsychic - within thoughts and feelings (e.g., irrational interpretations)
3. Sociocultural
- Sociopolitical influences — different experiences affect what is abnormal
- Culture, social norms, values, ete.
- Beliefs, taboos, etc.
= Structures, religion, polity, laws, ete.
- Relationships, social networks, ties, ete.
- Groups, like family, peers, club, community, ete.
= Social conditioning, labelling, stereotypes, bias, discrimination, stigmatisation, ostracization, ete
Characteristics of Abnormal Behaviour
Dysfuncti
on
Deviance
(violation
of social
norms)
Abnorma
Disabil 1 Dangeroune
ity zap Behavio < ss
ur
Disability: refers to when the person experiences an impaired condition that limits the ability to engage
in activities of daily living (e.g., can no longer maintain minimum standards of hygiene, pay bills) or
participate in social events (e.g., attending social events), work or school. Impairment ean also interfere
with the ability to perform important life roles (c.g., student, caregiver or parent).
Dysfunction: includes disturbances in a person's thinking, emotional regulation, or behaviour that
reflects significant dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying
mental functioning. In other words, dysfunction refers to a breakdown in cognition, emotion, and/or
behaviour, For instance, an individual experiencing the delusion that he is an omnipotent deity has a
breakdown in cognition because his thought processes are not consistent with reality. An individual who
ie unable to experience pleasure has a breakdown in emotion. Finally, an individual who is unable to leave her home and attend work due to fear of having a panic attack is exhibiting a breakdown in
behaviour.
Distress: can take the form of psychological or physical pain, or both at the same time. Simply put,
distress refers to suffering. Alone though, distress is not sufficient enough to describe behaviour as
abnormal. Think about it- the loss ofa loved one causes even the most “normally” functioning individual
pain and suffering. An athlete who experiences a career ending injury would display distress as well
Suffering is part of life and cannot be avoided.
Deviant: a closer examination of the word abnormal shows that it indicates a move away from what is
normal, typical, or average. Deviance refers to behaviour that violates social norms or cultural
expectations because culture determines what is normal. A person is said to be deviant when he or she
fails to follow the stated and unstated rules of society, called social norms. As you might expect there is
a lot of cultural variation in acceptable behaviour and what is a deviant behaviour is not necessarily
negative. For example, in Nigeria, public displays of affection cause a second look by most people
because expressions of love were restricted to the privacy of one’s own house or bedroom. Similarly,
crying is generally seen as a weakness for males but if the behaviour occurs in the context of a tragedy.
then it is appropriate and understandable. As we know, without obedience and compliance with social
norms and to a Tule of law, our social lives would be far more chaotic. Thus, obeying and conforming to
social rules is vital for creating and maintaining a community. However, communities evolve and change,
thus rules and norms often need to similarly evolve.
Dangerousness: refers to when behaviour represents a threat to the safety of the person or the safety of
others. Individuals expressing suicidal intent, those experiencing acute paranoid ideation combined with
aggressive impulses (e.g., wanting to harm people who are perceived as being out to get them), and many
individuals with antisocial personality disorder may be considered dangerous.
From the above, we can argue that:
= Abnormal behaviour may not be qualitatively different from “normal” behaviour
= Many of us will exhibit similar symptoms
~ Behaviours are only problematic when they harm or interfere with your daily functioning
= Diagnosing behaviour as abnormal may lead to further entrenchment
Models of Normal and Abnormal Behaviour
1. Biological or Medical Model: Considers abnormal behaviour as organic pathology. It is based on
the assumptions that genetics, the brain, neuro-anatomical and related biochemical imbalances are all
physiological entities that mediates psychological processes. Thus, abnormal behaviours are mental
illnesses associated with disturbance in thoughts, perceptions and psychomotor activities, and hence
can be treated with medication and/or surgery. The normal are the ones free from these disturbances.
A diagnosis of mental ‘illness’ implies that a person is in no way responsible for the abnormality of
functioning and as such is not to blame. The concept of ‘no blame’ is generally thought to be more
humane and likely to elicit a much more sympathetic response from others.
2. Behavioural Model: Consider behaviour that is adaptive as normal, w! i
abnormal. Abnormal behaviour is considered as a set of faulty behaviours scqued though Teaming,
That means, abnormal behaviour is acquired from one’s environment. The behavioural model
overcomes the ethical issues raised by the medical model of labelling someone as ‘ill’ or ‘abnormal’
Instead, the model concentrates on behaviour and whether itis ‘adaptive’ or ‘maladaptive’. The model
also allows individual and cata siferences to be taken into account. Provided the behaviour is
resenting no problems to the individual or to other i
presenting no problems tothe people, then there is no need to regard the
3, Psychodynamic Model: Emphasises that abnormal behaviour is based on the principl :
‘emotions and thoughts from experiences in the past (usually in infancy and childhood), Sal weet Vv
of these repression, individuals adopt maladaptive copying strategies that present themselves in
abnormal behaviour. According to this model, the individual suffering from repressed thoughts and
emotion is believed to be cured when they can admit that which is curently being repressed, THe
main cure for illnesses under this model is free association where the patient is free to speak while
the psychiatrist notes down and tries to interpret where the trouble areas are. This model can be
successful, especially where the patient feels uncomfortable to speak freely and about issues that are
relevant to a cure.
Cognitive Model: Focuses on the cognitive distortions or the dysfunetions in the thoughts processes
tnd the cognitive deficiencies, particularly the absence of sufficient thinking and planning. Thus,
sietional and negative thinking causes/determine abnormal behaviour. It emphasises the need 10
valuate internal mental processes such as perception, attention, memory, and problem solving. When
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