Principles of Non-Aqueous Titration &

Application in Pharma Industries

Dr. A. Amsavel M.Sc., B.Ed., Ph.D.

 An Overview
Introduction
Non- Aqueous Titration
Acid - Base Theory
Solvents for NAT
Indicators & Potentiometric End Point
Acid & Base Titration
Pharmacopeia USP <541>
Potentiometric Titration
Precaution To Be Taken
Estimation Of Errors And Elimination Of Errors
 Introduction
Titrimetry / Volumetric Analysis:
Volumetric analysis is performed for Quantitative
determination of assay / content. It is simple and
commonly used technique in Chemical Industries. Analysis
conducted in Aqueous and non-aqueous medium.
◦ Simple and easy
◦ Fast and can be done on site
◦ Less expensive
◦ Estimation of content or Assay of chemical
◦ Precise and Accurate - depends on method & Specificity
 Limitation of Aqueous Titration
Titration in Water medium has limitations:
To determine the substances which are insoluble in
water.
To titrate of week acids or weak bases
To titrate separately for a mixture of acids with
nearer dissociation constants. Similarly a mixture of
bases.
The substances, which are either to weakly acidic or
too weakly basics to give sharp end point in water
The above can be overcome by non-aqueous titration
(NAT). It is easy to perform and get accurate result.
 Non-Aqueous Titration (NAT)

Non Aqueous Titration:

Titration performed in solvent medium which
does not contain water. Substance is dissolved in
a solvent and titrated using acid or base as titrant.
Principle & theory are almost same as Aqueous titration
Reaction is carry out in non-aqueous medium
Extensively used for organic acids and bases, nitrogen
containing compunds

Principle is based on Brønsted-Lowry Theory

 Where to Use NAT
Advantage of NAT:
◦ Titration of week acids or weak bases, by improving
reactivity of low or poor reactive substances
To titrate separately for a mix of acids or bases with
near dissociation constants.
To determine the substances which are insoluble in
water.
Titration of chemicals which shows poor or not
giving sharp end point in aqueous titrations (weakly
acidic or basic substances)
 Advantages of NAT
Organic acids and bases that are insoluble in water can be
tested using appropriate solvents
Very week acid and bases can be analysed in NAT
Principle of NAT is same as aqueous titration.
Mixture of week acids can be tested in single or mixture of
solvents.
Biological ingredients (acidic or basic) can be selectively
titrated using proper solvents. Eg. Nitrogen containing
compounds
Non aqueous titrations are simple and accurate.
Pharmacopeias recommend non-aqueous titration;
Eg. Ephedrine , codeine phosphate, tetracycline, piprazine Anti- histamines etc
 What are Acids & Bases
Acids:
➢Arrhenius acid: Any substance that, when dissolved in
water, increases the concentration of hydronium ion
(H3O+)
➢Bronsted-Lowry acid: A proton donor; conjugate base
➢Lewis acid: An electron acceptor
Bases:
➢Arrhenius base: Any substance that, when dissolved in
water, increases the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH -)
➢Bronsted-Lowery base: A proton acceptor ; conjugate
acid
➢Lewis acid: An electron donor
 Brønsted-Lowry Theory
The conjugate acid of a base is the base plus the attached
proton and the conjugate base of an acid is the acid minus
the proton

B + HA HB+ + A-
Base proton Acid Acid Base Proton
Receiver Proton source Proton source Receiver
 Equilibrium Constant Ka and Kb
The Equilibrium Constant for a Brønsted acid is
represented by Ka, and base is represented by Kb.

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O (l) H3O+(aq) + CH3COO– (aq)

[H3O+][CH3COO–]
Notice that H2O is not Ka = –––––––––––––––––
included in either [CH3COOH]
equilibrium expression.

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

[NH4+] [OH–]
Kb = –––––––––––––
[NH3]
pH of 1M ACOH =2.4
 Solvent Selection for NAT
Solvents, which are used is non-aqueous solvent,
and plays major role in NAT analysis.
Classified as four types:
1. Aprotic solvents: Chemically neutral
2. Protogenic solvents: Acidic nature readily donate
protons.
3. Amphiprotic solvent: Which are slightly ionize
and donate and accept protons.
4. Protophilc solvents: Posses high affinity for
protons.
 Aprotic Solvents
Aprotic Solvents:
◦ Solvents are Chemically Neutral,
◦ Un-reactive under the titration conditions; do not
undergo reactions with acids and bases
◦ They possess low dielectric constants.
◦ Do not cause ionization in solutes and
◦ Aprotic solvents are frequently used to dilute the
reaction mixture and enhance the end point.
Eg. Toluene, carbon tetrachloride , acetonitrile,
benzene, and chlorinated hydrocarbons
 Protogenic Solvents
Protogenic Solvents: ( Protogenic – Proton producing)

Solvents which are more acidic than water.

It is Acidic in nature and readily donate protons.
Also called as Acidic solvents.
Strength / ability to donate protons enhance the strength
of weak bases.
Since more acidic character of solvents , tend to have a
leveling effect on the bases when used.
Eg . Anhydrous Hydrogen fluoride , Sulphuric acid,
Formic acid , acetic acid etc.
 Protophilic Solvents

Protophilic Solvents: (Philic- affinity)

Solvents which are more basic than water.
Solvent react with an acidic solute with the formation of a
solvated proton. It shows the conjugate base of the acid.
It possess a high affinity for protons.
Eg. Liq ammonia, Amine (Ethylenediamine), Ketones, ethers,
dioxane, amines-hydrazine and etc….

Leveling effect: Weak acids are normally used in the

presence of strongly protophilic solvents as their acidic
strengths are then enhanced and then it behave like strong
acids; this is known as the leveling effect.
 Amphiprotic Solvents
Solvents posses both the properties of protophilic
as well as protogenic.
Similar to water, possesses both acidic and basic
properties (donating and accepting of protons).
Which are slightly ionize and donate or accept
protons.
◦ Eg Alcohols (Methanol, Ethanol, etc.) , weak
organic acids ( Acetic acid)
◦ Acetic acid makes weak acid into storing base
 Acetic Acid
Acetic acid slightly ionise and combine both protogenic and
protophilic properties and able to donate and to accept
protons
Acetic acid is slightly ionize and dissociate to produce protons
CH3COOH CH3COO – + H+

But in the presence of perchloric acid, a far stronger acid, it

will accept a proton:
CH3COOH + HClO4 CH3COOH2 + + ClO4 –
The CH3COOH2 + ion can very readily give up its proton to react with
a base, so basic properties of a base is enhanced, so titrations
between weak base and perchloric acid can often be accurately
carried out using Acidic acid .
 Leveling Solvents
In general, strongly protophilic solvents are important to
force equilibrium equation to the right.

CH3COOH + HClO4 CH3COOH2 + + ClO4 –

This effect is so powerful that, in strongly protophillic

solvents, all acids act as of similar strength.
HB B- + H+

Similarly protogenic solvents, which cause all bases ( week

also) to act as they were of similar strength.
Solvents, which act as above (week to strong) , are known
as Levelling Solvents.
 Properties of the Solvents
The choice and Properties of a solvent for the particular
titration is very critical.
▪ The solvent should dissolve the substance to be titrated.
▪ Should not introduce interfering side reactions with either
the substance to be titrated or the titrant.
▪ Should permit a large change in the solvated proton
concentration near the equivalence point.
▪ Should be easily purified or available in pure and
▪ Preferably should be less expensive.

If the solvent is to be used for a differentiating titration it

should be neither strongly acidic nor strongly basic to avoid
"LEVELING" effects.
 Titration Of Bases
The titrant should be a very strong acid.
Eg Perchloric acid in Dioxane
The solvent should not be basic properties
Aprotic solvents, such as benzene, chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride, chlorobenzene, either alone
or mixed with glacial acetic acid may sometimes be
used for titration with acetous perchloric acid
To determine primary , secondary , tertiary amines,
heterocyclic amines
 Titration Of Acids
The titrant should be a solution of a strong base
Solutions of quaternary ammonium hydroxides in organic
solvents, e.g. tetra-butylammonium hydroxide in benzene -
methanol or IPA or triethyl-n-butylammonium hydroxide in
benzene – methanol.
Solution of Sodium or Potassium methoxide in Toluene -
methanol
Solvent (s):
A mixture of benzene and methanol
very weak acids (e.g., many phenols) usually require a more
strongly basic solvent, such as DMF, anhydrous
ethylenediamine or butylamine
To determine week organic acids.
Precaution: Amine may absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
Selection of Solvents for NAT
Acetic acid used for titration of:
Weak bases, Nitrogen containing compounds

Acetonitrile and or with Acetic Acid:

Metal ethanoates

Alcohols (IPA, nBA) :

Soaps and salts of organic acids etc

DMF:
Benzoic acid, amides etc
 Titrants for NAT

Perchloric acid in acetic acid

◦ Amines, amine salts, amino acids, salts of acids
Potassium Methoxide in Toluene-Methanol
◦ Week organic acid
Quaternary ammonium hydroxide in
acetonitrile- pyridine
◦ Acids, enols, imides & sulphonamides
 Endpoint Detection
End point detection is critical for titration, it is to know
the completion of reaction and accurate determination.
1) Visual indicators:
• Observe a colour change or precipitation at the endpoint.
– Reaction progress checked by addition of external or self
indicator
2) Electrochemistry:
• Potentiometry - measure voltage change ( pH electrode)
• Amperometry - measure change in current between
electrodes in solution
• Conductance – measure conductivity changes of solution
Later two used for coloured, turbid & accurate end point
 Improvement of End Point
The end points may often be improved by the addition of aprotic
solvents in order to depress the solvolysis of the neutralisation
product.
Potentiometric titrations are used for coloured solutions and
also for compounds which remain feebly acidic or basic
notwithstanding the levelling effect of the solvent.
Visual indicators may be employed for compounds which behave as
sufficiently strong acids or bases in appropriate non-aqueous
solvents.
The suitability of a visible indicator for a particular titration must be
determined by performing a potentiometric titration and observing
the colour change of the indicator simultaneously.
Temperature of standardization and test shall be same since
coefficients of expansion and dissociation constant may vary
 Indicators for NAT
1. Crystal violet is used as a 0.5% (w/v) solution in
glacial acetic acid. Its colour change is from Violet
through blue, followed by green, then to greenish-
yellow,
2. Methyl red is used as a 0.2% (w/v) solution in
dioxane with a yellow to red colour change.
3. I-Naphthol benzein 0.2% (w/v) solution in acetic
acid gives a yellow to green colour. It gives sharp
end points in Nitromethane containing acetic
anhydride for titrations of weak bases against
perchloric acid.
 Indicators for NAT

4. Oracet blue B is used as a 0.5 % (w/v) solution in

acetic acid and it is superior to crystal violet for
titrations of bases in acetic acid with standard
perchloric acid. The end point : from blue to pink.
5. Thymol blue 0.5 % (w/v) in methanol is used for
titrations of substances acting as acids in
dimethylformamide solution. The end point: change
from yellow to blue
6. Methyl violet 0.2% (w/v) in chlorobenzene, violet to
blue.
 USP Titrimetry <541>
Non-Aqueous Titration
Non-Aqueous titrimetry performed for ,
◦ Acids, acid halides, acid anhydrides, carboxylic acids,
amino acids, enols such as barbiturates and
xanthines, imides, phenols, pyrroles, and
sulfonamides.
◦ Bases, amines, nitrogen-containing heterocyclic
compounds, oxazolines, quaternary ammonium
compounds, alkali salts of organic acids, alkali salts of
weak inorganic acids, and some salts of amines.
 USP Titrimetry <541>

Choice of Titrants:
Basic compound:
A volumetric solution of perchloric acid in glacial acetic
acid is preferred, or perchloric acid in dioxane is used as
required.
Acidic compound:
A volumetric solution of sodium methoxide or Lithium
methoxide in a mixture of methanol and toluene
tetra-n-butylammonium hydroxide and trimethyl
hexadecyla mmonium hydroxide (in benzene-methanol
or isopropyl alcohol),
 USP Titrimetry <541>
Systems for Nonaqueous Titrations
Type of Acidic (for titration of bases Relatively Neutral Basic (for titration of Relatively Neutral (for
Solvent and their salts) (for differential titration acids) differential titration of
of bases) acids)
Solvent # Glacial Acetic Acid Acetonitrile Dimethylformamide Acetone
Acetic Anhydride Alcohols n-Butylamine Acetonitrile
Formic Acid Chloroform Pyridine Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Propionic Acid Benzene Ethylenediamine Methyl Isobutyl Ketone

Sulfuryl Chloride Toluene Morpholine tert-Butyl Alcohol

Chlorobenzene
Ethyl Acetate
Dioxane
Indicator Crystal Violet Methyl Red Thymol Blue Azo Violet
Quinaldine Red Methyl Orange Thymolphthalein Bromothylmol Blue
p-Naphtholbenzein p-Naphthol Azo Violet p-Hydroxyazobenzene
Alphezurine 2-G benzein
o-Nitroaniline Thymol Blue
Malachite Green p-Hydroxy azobenzene
Electrodes Glass–calomel Glass–calomel Antimony–calomel Antimony–calomel
Glass–silver–silver chloride Calomel–silver–silver Antimony–glass Glass–calomel
Mercury–mercuric acetate chloride Antimony–antimony # Glass–platinum#
Platinum–calomel
Glass–calomel
# Relatively neutral solvents of low dielectric constant such as benzene, toluene, chloroform, or dioxane may be used in conjun ction
with any acidic or basic solvent in order to increase the sensitivity of the titration end-points.
## In titrant. reproduced From USP
 Potentiometric Titration
Electrode Systems
Titration Indicating Equation (1) Reference Applicability (2)
Electrode Electrode
Acid-base Glass E = k + 0.0591 Calomel or Titration of acids and bases
pH silver–silver
chloride
Precipiti Silver E = E° + Calomel (with Titration with or of silver involving
metric 0.0591 log potassium nitrate halides or thiocyanate
(silver) [Ag ]+ salt bridge)

Complexo Mercury– E = E° + Calomel Titration of various metals (M),

metric mercury 0.0296(log k′ e.g., Mg , Ca Al , Bi , with EDTA
+2 +2 +3 +3

(II) − pM)
Oxidation- Platinum E = E° + Calomel or Titrations with arsenite, bromine,
Reduction (0.0591/n) × silver–silver cerate, dichromate, nitrite,
log [ox]/[red] chloride exacyonoferrate(III), iodate,
permanganate, thiosulfate

(1) Appropriateform of Nernst equation describing the indicating electrode system: k = glass
electrode constant; k′ = constant derived from Hg–Hg(II)–EDTA equilibrium; M = any metal
undergoing EDTA titration;
[ox] and [red] from the equation,ox + ne ⇄ red.
(2) Listing is representative but not exhaustive. Reproduced From USP
 Pontentiomertic Titration
Potentiometric titration :
The end-point of the titration is determined by
variation of the potential difference between 2
electrodes in the solution to be examined as a
function of the quantity of titrant added.
Determine the volume consumed between the 2
points of inflexion.
Electrode :
Selection of appropriate Electrode is important to
determine the accurate determination
Preferred electrode for acid-base titrations is glass-
calomel or glass- silver-silver chloride electrode ,
unless otherwise specified in Pharmacopeia
Typical Titration Graph
Preparation of 0.1N Perchloric Acid
Preparation of 0.1N Perchloric Acid in Glacial Acetic Acid:
Mix 8.5 ml 70% of perchloric acid with 500 ml of
glacial acetic acid and 21 ml of acetic anhydride,
cool, and add glacial acetic acid to make 1000 ml.
Allow the prepared solution to stand for 1 day for
the excess acetic anhydride to be combined, and
determine the water content 0.02% and 0.5% (if >
0.5%, add acetic anhydride).
 Perchloric Acid Preparation
Perchloric acid (70 to 72%) addition in solvent
contain water is exothermic and may decompose,
handle carefully.
Conversion of acetic anhydride to acetic acid
requires 15-45 min
Allow to cool to room temperature before adding
glacial acetic acid
Avoid adding an excess of acetic anhydride
especially when primary and secondary amines are
to be assayed, because it may react and convert
acetylation .
Standardization of Perchloric Acid

Accurately weigh about 700 mg of potassium biphthalate,

previously crushed lightly and dried at 120° for 2 h, and
dissolve it in 50 mL of glacial acetic acid in a 250-mL flask.
Add 2 drops of crystal violet TS, and titrate with the
perchloric acid solution until the violet color changes to blue-
green.
Standardization: perform potentiometrically as specified
Sample shall be tested the same type of end point
determination (visual or potentiometry) followed for
standardization. % RSD of Triplicate NMT 0.2%
Note: Use benzoic acid as primary standard where required
as specified in USP
Preparation of Tetrabutylammonium hydroxide

Preparation of 0.1 M tetrabutylammonium hydroxide in Toluene-

Methanol.
1. Dissolve 40g of tetrabutylammonium iodide in 30ml of absolute methanol
and 20g of powdered silver oxide.

2. Shake vigorously for 1 hour.

3. Test supernatant liquid for residual iodine, if unreacted iodine is present

add additional 2g of silver oxide & repeat until solution is free from iodine

4. Filter the solution in sintered glass filter and rinse with of 50ml dry
toluene repeat 2 or 3 times.
5. Add washing toluene into filtrate ( step-3) and dilute to 1000ml with
anhydrous Toluene and mix.

6. Stored the solution in a well closed tight container

Precaution: Protect the solution from moisture and carbon dioxide.
 Preparation of Potassium methoxide
Preparation of 0.1M Potassium methoxide in Toluene-Methanol.
1. Take around 50ml Methanol & 50ml Toluene into flask and add
carefully 5.6 gm of potassium metal (freshly cut) and stir to
dissolve completely. Methanol and Toluene should be anhydrous /dry.
2. Add Methanol into the above solution to get the solution clear
and add 50ml Toluene, now solution could be turned hazy.
3. Repeat the addition of Methanol and Toluene until a solution
becomes 1000ml.
4. Ensure that final solution should be clear.
5. Store the above solution in an air tight container.
Note: To prepare sodium methoxide use 2.3gm of sodium metal instead of
potassium.
 Standardization Base Titrants
Standardization of 0.1 M tetrabutylammonium hydroxide:
Accurately weigh 60mg of Benzoic acid in dimethlyformamide
(DMF) 30ml. Add 5 drops of Thymol blue (0.2w/v in methanol).
Titrate the mixture against 0.1 M tetrabutylammonium hydroxide.
Blanket with nitrogen to protect from atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Standardization of 0.1 M Potassium methoxide in toluene-methanol

Accurately weigh 60mg benzoic acid and transfer to reaction vessel
containing 10ml of dimethylformamide (DMF). Added 20 ml DMF
and 3-5 drops of Thymol blue indicator. Titrate the mixture against
0.1M potassium methoxide in toluene-methanol
Instead manual titration, perform potentiometric titration for more
accurate result.
Assay Determination of API (USP)

Typical test method as per UPS of API

Assay: (98.0%– 100.5%)

Dissolve about 150 mg of Pseudoephedrine Sulfate,

accurately weighed, in 50 mL of glacial acetic acid.
Titrate with 0.1 N perchloric acid VS, determining the
endpoint potentiometrically.

Perform a blank determination, and make any

necessary correction. Each mL of 0.1 N perchloric acid is
equivalent to 42.85 mg of (C10H15NO)2 . H2S04.
 Electrolytes for Electrode
Suitable electrolyte is important for accurate result :
Electrolyte shall be filled appropriately. Eg
◦ LiCl saturated in ethanol
◦ KCl saturated in ethanol
◦ TEA-Br on Ethylene glycol

Filling of electrolyte:
◦ Remove the aqueous KCl completely
◦ Rinsing with water if any residual KCl
◦ Rinsing with the non-aqueous solvent to remove water
◦ Fill the electrode with the suitable electrolyte.
Precautions to Minimize the Error
Stirring rate should be adequate. As a general rule, it should be
as high as possible. But avoid the formation of a vortex during
stirring.
If endpoint recognition criteria (ERC) is too small can result in
an incorrect equivalence point
Use the titration parameters “signal drift” and “min./max.
waiting time” to adjust the titration rate.
Sensor is suitable for the titration. If sensors is old or dirty, it
can result in longer response times.
Check that the anti-diffusion tip is functioning correctly.
The titrant should not be stirred directly onto the electrode,
but rather away from it.
Precautions to Minimize the Error
Selection of appropriate Electrode and Electrolyte filled
shall be appropriate.
Burette tip / Diaphragm shall be free from clogging
Titration vassal shall be closed while titration
Avoid expose to atmospheric air, CO2 may interfere
Titration vassal shall not contain water or previous
residue
Sample shall be completely transferred and dissolved
No Air bubbles in the dosing cylinder and/or in the
tubing
Air bubbles in the measuring vessel and/or on the sensor
during photometric titrations
 Blank Correction
Blank correction is usually obtained by residual blank
titration. Repeated in every detail except that the
substance being assayed is omitted.
An appropriate blank correction shall be included in
calculation
Difference between the volume consumed in the
residual blank titration and volume consumed for same
titration
If blank is high or suspected, repeat the analysis
 Calculation
o Normality: Eq.wt/1000ml or meq/mL
o Morality: Mole/1000ml
o V1 N1 = V2N2

o N1 = V2N2/V1

Normality = Wt of sample x 1000 / Eq. Weight x Vol

Wt of sample (mg) = V x N x Eq. weight
Assay = Qty estimated in sample x 100/ weight of
sample
Assay = V x N x Eq. wt x 100/ wt of sample x 1000
 Errors in Titrimetry
Error in methods:
The endpoint method may not show a change exactly
at the equivalence point due to the reactions involved
Titration Error = Volume at endpoint – Volume at
equivalence point
Lower assay: Negative error due endpoint is early
/before equivalency point.
Higher Assay: Positive error due to later endpoint /
after equivalency point
 Error Estimation
Possible Error due to titrant volume or sample weight:
10 ml titre volume = 100 %
◦ If difference is 0.1ml error is 1% or 0.2ml = 2%
5ml titre volume = 100 % difference in 0.1ml = 2% error
25 ml titre volume = 100 % ie difference 0.1ml = 0.4% error

Error can be minimized :

Ensure optimum titre volume is around 25ml for manual titration

Use autotitrator to keep lower dispensing increment. ie burette

with 0.001ml or 0.01ml least count is preferred to reduce the error

Higher weight of sample

 Possible Error in Weighing
Misreading of the balance
• Balance sprit level is not eccentric.
• Not cleaning the surface of the balance first
• Touching the weighed object with moist hands
• Leaving the balance doors open during weighing
• Error due to incorrect calibration of balance
• Not cooling the sample down to near room temperature,
• Not removing a static charge from the sample,
• Excess vibration or air currents nearby equipment,
• Prolonged time sample left on pan adds/loses moisture.
 Prevention of Contamination
What are the Possibility of Contamination by an Analyst;
Contaminate a sample during weighing by placing a
contaminated spatula.
Placing the sample on or into a contaminated holder
during weighing.
Dropping some lint/hair/skin or sneeze into the sample
while weighing.
Opening up a bottle of chemicals near the sample being
weighed.
When performing trace analysis, it is possible for just a
microgram even massive fingerprint!
 Units and Measurements
# Description Unit
1 Molarity Moles of solute/ Liter
millimoles of solute/ milliliter
2 Normality Equivalent weight of solute/ Liter
(mole / Equivalency in liter)
3 Percent w/v Grams of substance in 100ml
Percent w/w Grams of substance in 100gm
4 Parts per million milligram / liter
milligram / kilogram
microgram / ml (or gram)
5 Parts per billion microgram / liter
microgram / kilogram
nanogram / ml (or gram

Unit Conversion to factor

Parts per million % ppm / 10000
ppb ppm*1000
 References
1. USP – General Chapter -Titrimetry <541>
2. European Pharmacopoeia- General Chapter 2.2.20
3. Non-aqueous titration of acids and bases with potentiometric
endpoint indication- Peter Bruttel - Metrohm
4. E. G. Wollish, C. W. Pifer, and Morton. Schmall. -Titration in
Nonaqueous Solvent to Pharmaceuticals- Analytical
Chemistry
5. Vogel's Text Book of Qualitative Inorganic Analysis 6 th Edition
6. Analytical Chemistry A Qualitative & Quantitative Approach-
Deepak Chowrasia & Dr. Nisha Sharma
About Author:
Dr. A. Amsavel, born at Begarahalli, Dharmapuri-District, Tamil Nadu,
India. Completed his M.Sc. in Dept of Analytical Chemistry, University of
Madras. B.Ed. in Annamalai University and Ph.D in Anna University,
Chennai.

Started carrier as Lecturer and worked in various Chemical &

Pharmaceutical Industries for the past 34 years. Presently working as
Assistant Vice President- Quality at Malladi Drugs & Pharmaceuticals Ltd.

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