Some Fixed Theorem on Metric Space and generalised

metric space

Anil Singh

Cluster University of Jammu

1 Introduction

2 Fixed point theorem in Metric Space

3 Fixed point theorem in S-metric space

4 Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem

5 Main Results

6 Bibliography
Introduction

In this chapter we shall give a brief review of metric space, complete

metric spaces, some basic definitions and results from functional analysis
which are needed for the preparation of the subsequent chapters. The first
section deals with some basic definitions and examples of metric space.
Convergence of sequence in metric space are discussed in the second
section. The third section deals with Cauchy sequence in metric space. In
fourth section complete metric space is studied. While fifth section deals
with the concept of contraction. The work in this chapter is taken from
[1], [7], [5] and [4].
Basic definition

The metric is a function that defines a concept of distance between any

two members of the set which are usually called points. The following
definitions and examples are taken from [1] and [5].

Definition
[1] Let X be a non-empty set. Then a function d : X × X → R is said to
be a metric on X if it satisfies the following conditions:
N d(x, y ) ≥ 0 ∀ x, y ∈ X
N d(x, y ) = 0 if and only if x = y .
N d(x, y ) = d(y , x) ∀x, y ∈ X .
N d(x, y ) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y ), ∀x, y , z ∈ X (Triangle inequality).
If d is a metric on X, then the ordered pair (X , d) is called metric space.
Example
1. Let X = R, the set of all real numbers. For any x, y ∈ X , define

d(x, y ) = |x − y |.

Then (X , d) is a metric space, and the metric d is called the usual

metric on R.
2. Let X be any non-empty set. For any x, y ∈ X , define
(
0 if x = y
d(x, y ) = .
1 if x =6 y

Then (X , d) is a metric space. The metric d is called the discrete

metric, and the space (X , d) is called a discrete metric space.
• Complete metric space
Definition
[6] A metric space (X , d) is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence
in X converges to a point in X . In other words, for every Cauchy sequence
{xn } in X , there exists an element x ∈ X such that

lim d(xn , x) = 0.
n→∞

Example
N [6] A set X with the discrete metric forms a complete metric space.
N [5] R is complete.
N [5] Euclidean space Rn is a complete metric space.
N [5] The space l p , 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞ is a complete metric space.
• Incomplete metric space
Definition
[6] A metric space (X , d) is said to be incomplete if there exists at least
one Cauchy sequence in X that does not converge to a point in X . In other
words, there exists a Cauchy sequence {xn } in X such that for any x ∈ X ,

lim d(xn , x) 6= 0.
n→∞

Example
N [5] The space of rational number with the usual metric is incomplete.
N [5] The space of all natural numbers N with the metric
1 1
d(x, y ) = x − y for all x, y ∈ N is not complete.
Definition
[5] Let X be a non-empty set, and T : X → X be a mapping. A point
x̄ ∈ X is said to be a fixed point of T if T (x̄) = x̄.

Example
N Let X = R be a non-empty set, and T : X → X be a mapping defined
by T (x) = x + a for some fixed number a 6= 0. Then T has no fixed point.
N Let X = R, and T : X → X be a mapping defined by T (x) = 12 x. Then
x = 0 is the only fixed point of T .
N Let X = R, and T : X → X be a mapping defined by T (x) = x. Then
T has infinitely many fixed points. In fact, every point of X is a fixed
point of T .
Definition
[5] Let X = (X , d) be a metric space. A mapping T : X → X is called a
contraction on X if there exists a positive real number α < 1 such that
for all x, y ∈ X :
d(Tx, Ty ) ≤ αd(x, y ). (α < 1)

Example
[5] Consider the usual metric d for R2 and the mapping
1
f : R2 → R2 as f (x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R2 where x = (x1 , x2 ). Then f is a
2
contraction on R2 .
Theorem
[5] Banach Contraction Principle
Every contraction mapping on a complete metric space has a unique fixed
point.

OR

Let (X , d) be a complete metric space and T : X → X be a contraction

mapping. Then there exists a unique point x such that T (x) = x.
Remark: [5] If X is not complete in the Banach contraction principle, then
T may not have a fixed point. For example, consider X = (0, 1) and the
mapping T : X → X defined by T (x) = x2 . Then X is not a complete
metric space with the usual metric, and T does not have any fixed points.
In fact, T (0) = 0 ∈
/ X.
• Application of Banach’s Theorem to Differential Equations
Theorem
[5] Let f be a continuous function defined on an open connected set D
and satisfies lipschitz condition in y . Then the differential equation
dy
= f (x, y ) has a unique local solution passing through (x0 , y0 ).
dx
• Application of Banach’s Theorem to Integral Equations
Theorem
Let K be a continuous real valued function on the square [a, b] × [a, b] and
let g be a continuous function on [a, b]. Consider the equation
Z b
f (x) = λ K (x, y )f (y ) dy + g (x) ∀ x ∈ [a, b], (1)
a

where λ is a parameter. It is called the Volterra equation.

Definition
[9] A function ψ : R+ → R+ is said to be upper semicontinuous from
the right if rn ↓ r ≥ 0 implies limn→∞ sup ψ(rn ) ≤ ψ(r ).

In 1969, Boyd and Wong obtained the following generalization of Banach

contraction theorem.
Theorem
[9] Boyd-Wong Theorem : Let (X , d) be a complete metric space and ψ:
[0, ∞) → [0, ∞) be upper semicontinuous from the right such that
0 ≤ ψ(t) < t for all t > 0. If T : X → X satisfies

d(T (x), T (y )) ≤ ψ(d(x, y )) for all x, y ∈ X

then it has a unique fixed point x̃ ∈ X and {T n (x)} converges to x̃ for all
x ∈ X.
Definition
[1] Let X be a metric space. A function ϕ : X → R is called
• Lower semicontinuous at xo ∈ X if:

lim inf ϕ(x) ≥ ϕ(xo )

x→xo

• Upper semicontinuous at xo ∈ X if:

lim sup ϕ(x) ≤ ϕ(xo )

x→xo

In general, ϕ is said to be lower semicontinuous (respectively, upper

semicontinuous) on X if for any sequence {xn } in X such that xn → x, it
implies that lim inf ϕ(xn ) ≥ ϕ(x) (respectively, lim sup ϕ(xn ) ≤ ϕ(x)).
n→∞ n→∞
Example
EXAMPLES OF UPPER AND LOWER SEMICONTINOUS
N Let ϕ : R → R be a function defined by:
(
−1 if x < 0
ϕ(x) =
1 if x ≥ 0.

Then ϕ is upper semicontinuous at xo = 0 but not lower semicontinuous.

N Let ϕ : R → R be a function defined by:
(
−1 if x ≤ 0
ϕ(x) =
1 if x > 0.

Then ϕ is lower semicontinuous at x0 = 0 but not upper semicontinuous.

Theorem
[9] Caristi’s Theorem : Let (X , d) be a complete metric space, and
f : X → X be a mapping (not necessarily continuous). Suppose there
exists a lower semicontinuous function ϕ : X → [0, ∞) such that

d(x, f (x)) ≤ ϕ(x) − ϕ(f (x)) for all x ∈ X (1)

Then f has (at least) a fixed point in X .

Definition
[8] Let X be a nonempty set. An S-metric on X is a function
S : X 3 → [0, ∞) that satisfies the following conditions, for each
x, y , z, a ∈ X ,
(1) S(x, y , z) ≥ 0,
(2) S(x, y , z) = 0 if and only if x = y = z,
(3) S(x, y , z) ≤ S(x, x, a) + S(y , y , a) + S(z, z, a).
The pair (X , S) is called an S-metric space.
Immediate examples of such S-metric spaces are:
1. Let X = Rn and k · k a norm on X , then
S(x, y , z) = ky + z − 2xk + ky − zk is an S-metric on X .
2. Let X = Rn and k · k a norm on X , then
S(x, y , z) = kx − zk + ky − zk is an S-metric on X .
3. Let X be a nonempty set, d is the ordinary metric on X , then
S(x, y , z) = d(x, z) + d(y , z) is an S-metric on X .
Definition
[8] Let (X , S) be an S-metric space. A map F : X → X is said to be a
contraction if there exists a constant 0 ≤ L < 1 such that

S(F (x), F (x), F (y )) ≤ L S(x, x, y ), for all x, y ∈ X .

• A Generalization of Fixed Point Theorems in S-Metric Spaces
Theorem
[8] Let (X , S) be a complete S-metric space, and F : X → X be a
contraction. Then F has a unique fixed point u ∈ X . Furthermore, for any
x ∈ X , we have limn→∞ F n (x) = u with

2Ln
S(F n (x), F n (x), u) ≤ S(x, x, F (x)).
1−L
Example
N [8] Let X = R, then S(x, y , z) = |x − z| + |y − z| is an S-metric on X .
Define a self-map F on X by: F (x) = 21 sin x. We have

1 1
S(Fx, Fx, Fy ) = | (sin x − sin y )| + | (sin x − sin y )|
2 2
1 1
≤ (|x − y | + |x − y |) = S(x, x, y )
2 2
for every x, y ∈ X . Furthermore, for any x ∈ X , we have
limn→∞ F n (x) = 0 with

2Ln 1
S(F n (x), F n (x), 0) ≤ S(x, x, F (x)), L = .
1−L 2
It follows that all conditions of above theorem hold, and there exists
u = 0 ∈ X such that u = Fu.
Next, we present a local version of Banach’s contraction principle.
Theorem
[8] Let (X , S) be a complete S-metric space and let

Bs (x0 , r ) = {x ∈ X : S(x, x, x0 ) < r }, where x0 ∈ X and r > 0.

Suppose that F : Bs (x0 , r ) → X is a contraction with

r2
S(F (x0 ), F (x0 ), x0 ) < (1 − L) .
2
Then F has a unique fixed point in Bs (x0 , r ).
Key Assumptions
N The set X must be closed and bounded. In one dimension, this could be
an interval [a, b], while in higher dimensions, it could be a closed ball,
closed sphere, or a closed and bounded region.
N The function f defined on X must be continuous, meaning that small
changes in the input should lead to small changes in the output.
Intuitive Example
Consider a sheet of rubber with some ink dots on it. You can stretch and
deform the sheet, atleast one dot will end up exactly where it started, even
though the distance between the dots may have changed.

Significance
Brouwer’s Fixed Point Theorem has broad implications and applications in
mathematics, economics, and the sciences. It forms the foundation of
various mathematical theories and algorithms in game theory and the
topology. Additionally, it has applications in fields like economics, physics,
and computer science.
Theorem
[9] Brouwer’s fixed point theorem for [0, 1]:
If f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] is a continuous function, then there exists x ∈ [0, 1]
such that f (x) = x, i.e., x is a fixed point of f (x).

Theorem
[9] Brouwer’s fixed point theorem (for unit disc B 2 ):
If f : B 2 → B 2 is a continuous map, then there exists a point x ∈ B 2 such
that f (x) = x.

Theorem
[9] (Brouwer): Let f : Dn → Dn be a continuous function. Then f has a
fixed point x̄ ∈ Dn .
• Applications of the Brouwer fixed point
A fundamental result that underpins a great deal of mathematics is the
Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT), we have already encountered it in
one-dimension. In the n-dimensional case, the IVT is the following:
Theorem
[2] (Intermediate Value Theorem) Suppose that f : Dn → Rn is continuous
and suppose that when |x| = 1 (x ∈ ∂Dn ), we have

hf (x), xi < 0.

Then there exists an x ∈ Dn such that

f (x) = 0.
• Topological Invariance of Domain and dimension
Theorem
[3] (Invariance of Domain ): Let U be an open subset of Rn and let
f : U → Rn be continuous, injective function. Then f (U) is open.

Theorem
[3] (Invariance of Dimension): If U is an open subset of Rm and V is an
open subset of Rn , and f is a homeomorphism from U to V , then m = n.
Example
The theorem has several real-world illustrations. Here are some examples:
N Given two similar maps of a country of different sizes resting on top of
each other, there always exists a point that represents the same place on
both maps.
N Consider a map of a country. If that map is placed anywhere in that
country, there will always be a point on the map that represents the exact
point in that country.
N Recently, Browder provided an alternative proof using Brouwer’s
fixed-point theorem for his own theorem, which states that for every
continuous mapping f : [0, 1] × X → X , where X is a nonempty, compact,
and convex set in Euclidean space, the set of fixed points of f , namely the
set {(t, x) ∈ [0, 1] × X : f (t, x) = x}, has a connected component whose
projection onto the first coordinate is [0, 1].
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and Applications, Summer Vacation Project, 2019.
[3] A. F. Schirru, A Topological Proof of the Invariance of Dimension
Theorem, 2015.
[4] A. H. Siddiqi and S. Nanda, Functional analysis and applications,
Springer, 2018.
[5] E. Kreyszig, Introductory functional analysis with applications, John
Wiley and Sons, 17 1991.
[6] G. F. Simmons, Introduction to topology and modern analysis, Tokyo,
44 1963.
[7] P. K. Jain, K. Ahmad and O. P. Ahuja, Functional analysis, New Age
International, 1995.
[8] S. Sedghi, Shaban , Shobe, N. , Aliouche, Abdelkrim,A generalization
of fixed point theorems in S-metric spaces, Matematicki Vesnik. 2012.
[9] V. Pata, Fixed Point Theorems and Applications, Springer, 2019.