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Smart_Sense_Lab_Presentation_Template
Smart_Sense_Lab_Presentation_Template
Presented
by
Anil Singh
Supervised
by
Dr. Shallu Sharma
School of Science
Cluster University of Jammu
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 1 / 28
1 Introduction
5 Main Results
6 Bibliography
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 2 / 28
Prelimnaries
Introduction
In this chapter we shall give a brief review of metric space, complete
metric spaces, some basic definitions and results from functional analysis
which are needed for the preparation of the subsequent chapters. The first
section deals with some basic definitions and examples of metric space.
Convergence of sequence in metric space are discussed in the second
section. The third section deals with Cauchy sequence in metric space. In
fourth section complete metric space is studied. While fifth section deals
with the concept of contraction. The work in this chapter is taken from
[1], [7], [5] and [4].
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 3 / 28
Basic definition
Definition
[1] Let X be a non-empty set. Then a function d : X × X → R is said to
be a metric on X if it satisfies the following conditions:
▲ d(x, y ) ≥ 0 ∀ x, y ∈ X
▲ d(x, y ) = 0 if and only if x = y .
▲ d(x, y ) = d(y , x) ∀x, y ∈ X .
▲ d(x, y ) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y ), ∀x, y , z ∈ X (Triangle inequality).
If d is a metric on X, then the ordered pair (X , d) is called metric space.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 4 / 28
Example
1 Let X = R, the set of all real numbers. For any x, y ∈ X , define
d(x, y ) = |x − y |.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 5 / 28
Complete metric space
Definition
[6] A metric space (X , d) is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence
in X converges to a point in X . In other words, for every Cauchy sequence
{xn } in X , there exists an element x ∈ X such that
lim d(xn , x) = 0.
n→∞
Example
▲ [6] A set X with the discrete metric forms a complete metric space.
▲ [5] R is complete.
▲ [5] Euclidean space Rn is a complete metric space.
▲ [5] The space l p , 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞ is a complete metric space.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 6 / 28
Incomplete metric space
Definition
[6] A metric space (X , d) is said to be incomplete if there exists at least
one Cauchy sequence in X that does not converge to a point in X . In other
words, there exists a Cauchy sequence {xn } in X such that for any x ∈ X ,
lim d(xn , x) ̸= 0.
n→∞
Example
▲ [5] The space of rational number with the usual metric is incomplete.
▲ [5] The space of all natural numbers N with the metric
1 1
d(x, y ) = x − y for all x, y ∈ N is not complete.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 7 / 28
Fixed Point
Definition
[5] Let X be a non-empty set, and T : X → X be a mapping. A point
x̄ ∈ X is said to be a fixed point of T if T (x̄) = x̄.
Example
▲ Let X = R be a non-empty set, and T : X → X be a mapping defined
by T (x) = x + a for some fixed number a ̸= 0. Then T has no fixed point.
▲ Let X = R, and T : X → X be a mapping defined by T (x) = 12 x. Then
x = 0 is the only fixed point of T .
▲ Let X = R, and T : X → X be a mapping defined by T (x) = x. Then
T has infinitely many fixed points. In fact, every point of X is a fixed
point of T .
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 8 / 28
Contraction
Definition
[5] Let X = (X , d) be a metric space. A mapping T : X → X is called a
contraction on X if there exists a positive real number α < 1 such that
for all x, y ∈ X :
d(Tx, Ty ) ≤ αd(x, y ). (α < 1)
Example
[5] Consider the usual metric d for R2 and the mapping
1
f : R2 → R2 as f (x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R2 where x = (x1 , x2 ). Then f is a
2
contraction on R2 .
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 9 / 28
Banach Contraction Principle
Theorem
Every contraction mapping on a complete metric space has a unique fixed
point.
OR
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 10 / 28
Application of Banach’s Theorem to Differential Equations
Theorem
[5] Let f be a continuous function defined on an open connected set D
and satisfies lipschitz condition in y . Then the differential equation
dy
= f (x, y ) has a unique local solution passing through (x0 , y0 ).
dx
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 11 / 28
Application of Banach’s Theorem to Integral Equations
Theorem
Let K be a continuous real valued function on the square [a, b] × [a, b] and
let g be a continuous function on [a, b]. Consider the equation
Z b
f (x) = λ K (x, y )f (y ) dy + g (x) ∀ x ∈ [a, b], (1)
a
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 12 / 28
Extension of Banach Contraction Principle
Definition
[9] A function ψ : R+ → R+ is said to be upper semicontinuous from
the right if rn ↓ r ≥ 0 implies limn→∞ sup ψ(rn ) ≤ ψ(r ).
then it has a unique fixed point x̃ ∈ X and {T n (x)} converges to x̃ for all
x ∈ X.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 13 / 28
Upper and Lower Semicontinuous
Definition
[1] Let X be a metric space. A function φ : X → R is called
• Lower semicontinuous at xo ∈ X if:
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 14 / 28
Examples of Upper and Lower semicontinuous
▲ Let φ : R → R be a function defined by:
(
−1 if x < 0
φ(x) =
1 if x ≥ 0.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 15 / 28
Caristi’s Fixed point Theorem
Theorem
[9] Let (X , d) be a complete metric space, and f : X → X be a mapping
(not necessarily continuous). Suppose there exists a lower semicontinuous
function φ : X → [0, ∞) such that
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 16 / 28
S-metric space
Definition
[8] Let X be a nonempty set. An S-metric on X is a function
S : X 3 → [0, ∞) that satisfies the following conditions, for each
x, y , z, a ∈ X ,
▲ S(x, y , z) ≥ 0,
▲ S(x, y , z) = 0 if and only if x = y = z,
▲ S(x, y , z) ≤ S(x, x, a) + S(y , y , a) + S(z, z, a).
The pair (X , S) is called an S-metric space.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 17 / 28
Examples of S-metric space
Immediate examples of such S-metric spaces are:
1 Let X = Rn and ∥ · ∥ a norm on X , then
S(x, y , z) = ∥y + z − 2x∥ + ∥y − z∥ is an S-metric on X .
2 Let X = Rn and ∥ · ∥ a norm on X , then
S(x, y , z) = ∥x − z∥ + ∥y − z∥ is an S-metric on X .
3 Let X be a nonempty set, d is the ordinary metric on X , then
S(x, y , z) = d(x, z) + d(y , z) is an S-metric on X .
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 18 / 28
Definition
[8] Let (X , S) be an S-metric space. A map F : X → X is said to be a
contraction if there exists a constant 0 ≤ L < 1 such that
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 19 / 28
A Generalization of Fixed Point Theorems in S-Metric
Spaces
Theorem
[8] Let (X , S) be a complete S-metric space, and F : X → X be a
contraction. Then F has a unique fixed point u ∈ X . Furthermore, for any
x ∈ X , we have limn→∞ F n (x) = u with
2Ln
S(F n (x), F n (x), u) ≤ S(x, x, F (x)).
1−L
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 20 / 28
Example
▲ [8] Let X = R, then S(x, y , z) = |x − z| + |y − z| is an S-metric on X .
Define a self-map F on X by: F (x) = 21 sin x. We have
1 1
S(Fx, Fx, Fy ) = | (sin x − sin y )| + | (sin x − sin y )|
2 2
1 1
≤ (|x − y | + |x − y |) = S(x, x, y )
2 2
for every x, y ∈ X . Furthermore, for any x ∈ X , we have
limn→∞ F n (x) = 0 with
2Ln 1
S(F n (x), F n (x), 0) ≤ S(x, x, F (x)), L = .
1−L 2
It follows that all conditions of above theorem hold, and there exists
u = 0 ∈ X such that u = Fu.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 21 / 28
Next, we present a local version of Banach’s contraction principle.
Theorem
[8] Let (X , S) be a complete S-metric space and let
r2
S(F (x0 ), F (x0 ), x0 ) < (1 − L) .
2
Then F has a unique fixed point in Bs (x0 , r ).
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 22 / 28
Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem
Key Assumptions
▲ The set X must be closed and bounded. In one dimension, this could be
an interval [a, b], while in higher dimensions, it could be a closed ball,
closed sphere, or a closed and bounded region.
▲ The function f defined on X must be continuous, meaning that small
changes in the input should lead to small changes in the output.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 23 / 28
Intuitive Example
Consider a sheet of rubber with some ink dots on it. You can stretch and
deform the sheet, atleast one dot will end up exactly where it started, even
though the distance between the dots may have changed.
Significance
Brouwer’s Fixed Point Theorem has broad implications and applications in
mathematics, economics, and the sciences. It forms the foundation of
various mathematical theories and algorithms in game theory and the
topology. Additionally, it has applications in fields like economics, physics,
and computer science.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 24 / 28
Main Results
Theorem
[9] Brouwer’s fixed point theorem for [0, 1]:
If f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] is a continuous function, then there exists x ∈ [0, 1]
such that f (x) = x, i.e., x is a fixed point of f (x).
Theorem
[9] Brouwer’s fixed point theorem (for unit disc B 2 ):
If f : B 2 → B 2 is a continuous map, then there exists a point x ∈ B 2 such
that f (x) = x.
Theorem
[9] (Brouwer): Let f : Dn → Dn be a continuous function. Then f has a
fixed point x̄ ∈ Dn .
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 25 / 28
Applications of the Brouwer fixed point
⟨f (x), x⟩ < 0.
f (x) = 0.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 26 / 28
Topological Invariance of Domain and dimension
Theorem
[3] (Invariance of Domain ): Let U be an open subset of Rn and let
f : U → Rn be continuous, injective function. Then f (U) is open.
Theorem
[3] (Invariance of Dimension): If U is an open subset of Rm and V is an
open subset of Rn , and f is a homeomorphism from U to V , then m = n.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 27 / 28
Example
The theorem has several real-world illustrations. Here are some examples:
▲ Given two similar maps of a country of different sizes resting on top of
each other, there always exists a point that represents the same place on
both maps.
▲ Consider a map of a country. If that map is placed anywhere in that
country, there will always be a point on the map that represents the exact
point in that country.
▲ Recently, Browder provided an alternative proof using Brouwer’s
fixed-point theorem for his own theorem, which states that for every
continuous mapping f : [0, 1] × X → X , where X is a nonempty, compact,
and convex set in Euclidean space, the set of fixed points of f , namely the
set {(t, x) ∈ [0, 1] × X : f (t, x) = x}, has a connected component whose
projection onto the first coordinate is [0, 1].
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 28 / 28
Q. Ansari, Metric Spaces Including Fixed Point Theory and Set-valued
Maps, Alpha Science, 2010.
N. M. Eagles, Point Set Topology, the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem
and Applications, Summer Vacation Project, 2019.
A. F. Schirru, A Topological Proof of the Invariance of Dimension
Theorem, 2015.
A. H. Siddiqi and S. Nanda, Functional analysis and applications,
Springer, 2018.
E. Kreyszig, Introductory functional analysis with applications, John
Wiley and Sons, 17 1991.
G. F. Simmons, Introduction to topology and modern analysis, Tokyo,
44 1963.
P. K. Jain, K. Ahmad and O. P. Ahuja, Functional analysis, New Age
International, 1995.
S. Sedghi, Shaban , Shobe, N. , Aliouche, Abdelkrim,A generalization
of fixed point theorems in S-metric spaces, Matematicki Vesnik. 2012.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 28 / 28
V. Pata, Fixed Point Theorems and Applications, Springer, 2019.
Title
Presented by Anil Singh Supervised by Dr. Shallu Sharma (CLUJ) 28 / 28