Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10

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Travel Behaviour and Society

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Mode choice among university students to school in Danang, Vietnam T

a b,⁎ a a
Duy Quy Nguyen-Phuoc , Richard Amoh-Gyimah , Anh Thi Phuong Tran , Cao Tho Phan
a
Faculty of Bridge and Road Engineering, University of Science and Technology, The University of Danang, Viet Nam
b
Monash University Victoria, 3800, Australia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Understanding student’s travel patterns and attitude toward public transport service is very important to policy
Mode choice makers as well as public transport operators. This study aims to examine the travel mode choice of university
Conditional logit students in a developing country where motorcycles have been dominating traffic systems. With the data col-
Traffic congestion lected from over 500 students in six universities in Danang, Vietnam, a conditional logit regression model was
Vietnam
developed to explore individual and alternative specific variables influencing the mode choice for trips to school.
Danang
Key findings show that characteristic of students such as age, gender and income have a significant impact on
Motorcycles
their mode choice decision. Travel time from home to school is found to have a strongly negative effect on the
choice of walking as a means of travelling to school. It is also found that students who are using motorcycles to
schools are willing to switch to public transport if an efficient and reliable public transport system is available.

1. Introduction educational establishments per 1000 resident population have a higher

In developing countries, the number of motorcycles and other two-
wheel vehicles have increased rapidly over the last ten years (Akaateba
et al., 2014). The increase in the use of motorized two-wheel vehicles
leads to the high rate of road fatalities and injuries among users (WHO,
2015). According to Hsu et al. (2003), in developing countries, ha-
zardous situation, which is caused by motorcycles, at places where
there is mixed traffic flow is much more significant. Also, motorcycles
often weave in and out between queuing vehicles to get to the front
during traffic congestion. Hence, traffic becomes more hazardous due to
the interruption caused by motorcycles (Leong and Mohd Sadullah,
2007).
Road traffic injury is a leading cause of death among those aged
15–29 years (WHO, 2015). The majority of people in this age group are
students in universities and colleges. They are often involved in road
traffic crashes as they rush through heavy traffic to and from school
(Chalya et al., 2012; Solagberu et al., 2006). Student travel activities
can also directly impact on the level of congestion in adjacent streets
which have direct influence on universities and neighbouring commu-
nities (Danaf et al., 2014). Additionally, universities represent en-
vironments that are more liveable and friendly to alternative travel
modes and have a higher density than other environments (Khattak
et al., 2011). Commuting students are said to be the single largest im-
pact that a university has on the environment (Tolley, 1996). Students
therefore form an important part of shaping the transport requirements
of any city. Cities with high population of university students and
usage of public transport, motorcycle, bicycle and walking compared to
the use of private vehicle (Santos et al., 2013). Thus, the travel activ-
ities of students and the university’s environmental management are
very important and should not be underestimated (Shannon et al.,
2006).
According to Khattak et al. (2011), although students comprise a
considerable proportion of a region’s population, their travel behaviour
is not well understood or underrepresented. Therefore, investigating
university students’ travel behaviour can reveal fundamental and va-
luable information about the relationship between campus environment
and student's travel demand, which is quite important to develop
transportation policies (Zhan et al., 2016).
Over the last decade, enrollment at the tertiary education in
Vietnam has grown dramatically, with the national gross enrollment
ratio (college enrollment as a percentage of the total college-age po-
pulation) rising from 10 percent in 2000 to 16 percent in 2005, and 25
percent in 2013 (Clark, 2014). This dramatic enrolment is evident in
the expansion from 101 public Higher Education Institution’s (HEIs),
zero private institutions, and 133,000 students in 1987 to 357 public
universities and colleges, 88 private HEIs and approximately 2.12
million students in 2015 (Trines, 2017).
Majority of these higher educational institutions are located in big
cities such as Hanoi, Chi Minh City (HCMC) and Danang. These cities
are known for their booming economy, high population density, better
health care services and good transportation system. With the presence
of these good facilities, and the government’s goal to internationalize

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: richard.amoh-gyimah@monash.edu (R. Amoh-Gyimah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2018.05.003
Received 2 June 2016; Received in revised form 18 May 2018; Accepted 24 May 2018
Available online 30 May 2018
2214-367X/ © 2018 Hong Kong Society for Transportation Studies. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al.
Vietnam’s higher education system, by trying to expand English-lan-
guage education in Vietnam, more students are likely to pour into these
cities. The concentration of higher education institutions plays an im-
portant role in shaping the urban landscape and the transportation
systems of such cities. Exploring and understanding the travel beha-
viour and safety situation of students in the university environment is
important for making transportation strategies, policies and planning.
The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between
the university student’s modal choice of transport to school in Danang,
Vietnam and to understand various factors that might impact their
mode choices. Data for the study was based on field survey conducted
in five universities and one college in Danang, Vietnam. Four alter-
native travel modes, walking, cycling, motorcycle and public transport,
were provided for the students to choose their dominating mode choice
under the given conditions. The study used a conditional logit model to
estimate various factors that influence student’s mode of transport.
Given the above, this study aims to provide a better understanding of
travel behavior of Vietnamese higher education (university and college)
students to and from their university campuses. This will help to inform
a number of measures that could be considered to reduce the use of
motorcycles and encourage mode shift to other sustainable transport
modes such as walking, cycling or public transport. In doing so, the
level of traffic congestion around university campuses and the number
of traffic accidents involving students can be reduced.
The paper proceeds with a literature review, brief description of the
study area followed by a discussion of the methodology. Model esti-
mation results are then presented, together with a discussion of the
findings. The last section provides conclusions and recommendations.
2. Literature review
Although studies investigating travel mode choice is very common
in the literature, there are only a handful of studies investigating the
factors influencing travel mode choice of university students to school
(Whalen et al., 2013), especially in developing countries.
Previous research has investigated how individual features such as
socio-economic, demographic and psychological factors influence stu-
dents travel behaviour. Akar et al. (2013) found that female university
students’ bike usage could be more sensitive to the proximity to biking
facilities. Male students were more likely to walk or cycle relative to
female students, and graduate students were more likely to walk or
cycle compared with the undergraduate students (Delmelle and
Delmelle, 2012). Although the work by Zhou (2016) also found that
male students are more likely to bike or walk to the campus than female
students, he found that undergraduate students are more likely to bike
or walk to campus than other students, which contradicts the work of
Delmelle and Delmelle (2012). Similar to the findings of Delmelle and
Delmelle (2012) and Zhou (2012) found that male students were more
likely to walk or cycle relative to females. In regard to undergraduates
and graduate students, Eom et al. (2009) found that undergraduate
students and on-campus residents were engaged in more travel activ-
ities than graduate students and off- campus students. Bicycle owner-
ship was found to be a significant influencing factor for student mode
choice Zhan et al. (2016), whereas in a study from rural Thailand,
Limanond et al. (2011) found that vehicle ownership is the most im-
portant factor associated with student’s mode choice decisions. Finally,
the work by Kerr et al. (2010), investigated the psychological factors
influencing students’ travel choice and found that, behavioural inten-
tion to travel by car was the strongest predictor of car commuting be-
haviour.
Environment, cost and time of travel are also found in previous
studies to have the ability to influence mode choice of university stu-
dents. University students are very much sensitive to cost and time of
travel (Shannon et al., 2006; Danaf et al., 2014). Shannon et al. (2006)
found that travel time is the most important barrier for students to shift
the travel mode from cars to cycling or walking modes. Danaf et al.
2
Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10
(2014) on the other hand examined the differences between the mode
choice patterns of students of the American University of Beirut (AUB)
and the general population of the Greater Beirut Area. They found that
decreasing bus travel time through the provision of shuttle services or
taxi sharing could be promising strategies for mode switching from car
to public transport for AUB students. Although Whalen et al. (2013)
found university students in McMaster University, Canada, to be very
sensitive to cost of travel, they found that the sensitivity could vary
across modes of travel. They also found that modal choices are influ-
enced by environmental factors such as street and sidewalk density.
Rodrı́guez and Joo (2004) found that local topography and sidewalk
availability were significantly associated with the attractiveness of non-
motorized modes among student and staff in the University of North
Carolina-Chapel Hill.
Other studies found factors such as availability and cost of parking
permit, residential location, presence of travel demand management
(TDM) programs, culture, weather condition and students’ class activ-
ities to have influence on student’s model choice. Travel demand
management (TDM) policies such as free or concession transit passes,
timely provision of transit information, availability of parking, and
convenience of fare payment, influence university students’ mode
choice (Boyd et al., 2003; Delmelle and Delmelle, 2012). Delmelle and
Delmelle (2012) found that during the winter season, the availability of
lower-cost parking permits enables shorter distance car commutes than
higher-cost parking permits. In a study at Virginia, Wang et al. (2013)
investigated the travel behaviour of Old Dominion University students
and found that students living on or near campus were significantly
more likely to walk and bicycle and less likely to drive automobiles.
Khattak et al. (2011), also found differences in travel behaviour be-
tween students attending urban campuses and those attending sub-
urban campuses.
Finally, other studies found that, a number of factors jointly de-
termines student’s model choice. Lavery et al. (2013) examined the
modality of students in McMaster University, Canada and their results
indicate that student’s mode choice is influenced by a combination of
factors including attitudinal and spatial/land use variables. In relation
to active travellers, their result indicates that active travellers, unlike
those who use motorized modes, tend to have a higher modality and
therefore are not captive to a single mode. Investigating students in
Ruhr-University Bochum, Klöckner and Friedrichsmeier (2011) found
that students mode choice decisions were jointly determined by situa-
tional factors (availability of infrastructure, transit accessibility, trip
characteristics and cost) and psychological factors (individuals’ inten-
tions, belief, norms and attributes).
Based on the above literature review, it is evident that there is no
relevant study focused on university and college students’ travel be-
haviour in Vietnam. Again, most of the studies reviewed are related to
students in developed countries with very limited studies from devel-
oping countries where in most cases motorcycle volumes are high. It is
upon this basis that this study is necessary, as it will explore the travel
behaviour of university students in a developing country context. Since
the travel behaviour of university students is complex and unique
(Limanond et al., 2011), a better understanding of students’ mode
choice can help universities and stakeholders to develop and improve
policies, programs and infrastructure that aim to encourage a sustain-
able travel mode such as public transport and non-motorized transport
(Shannon et al., 2006). Implementing these strategies can reduce the
number of private vehicles using the road networks. As a result, the
level of congestion, the number of traffic accidents as well as the en-
vironmental impact would decrease. On the other hand, encouraging
the use of active modes can result in health benefits for students
(McCormack et al., 2004; Salmon et al., 2003). Active transport such as
walking and cycling has been identified as one means of achieving
Australia’s public health goal of increasing physical activity (Pikora and
Miller, 2001).
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al.
3. Location and characteristics of the study area
This section provides a brief description of Danang which is used as
the study area for this research. Danang is a major harbor city and the
largest urban centre in central Vietnam with a land area of 1,255 km
square and a population of 951,700 (GSO, 2015b). Motorcycles and
bicycles are the dominant transport modes in Danang. In 2012, more
than 90% of the road transport was composed of two-wheel vehicles:
78% were motorbikes and 12% were bicycles (Kutani et al., 2015). The
major public transport mode is bus services. However, Danang City’s
modal share of buses is only 0.9 percent due to the limited bus service
coverage. Danang is also one of the three largest educational training
cities in Vietnam with 15 universities and 18 colleges with a combined
student population of about 60,000, which nearly accounts for 7% of
the Danang total population (GSO, 2015a).
In recent years, many universities have been built and some already
established universities are planning to build new campuses to ac-
commodate the increasing number of students. These campuses will
become huge traffic attraction centres in the neighbourhood. With the
plan to become a sustainable developed urban centre, Danang intends
to build a new inner-city bus system including Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
and a normal bus service system (JICA, 2012). Thus, better planning
and coordination is necessary to reduce the impact of student travel on
the local road network and the related safety issues. Fig. 1 shows the
location of Danang and universities and college selected for this study.
4. Data and methodology
The data of students’ travel mode choice to school was gathered
from a cross-sectional survey conducted in the Danang metropolis in
January 2016. A structured questionnaire was administered in five
large universities and one college. They were University of Science and
Technology (UST), University of Economics (UOE), University of
Foreign Language Studies (UOFLS), University of Education (UOE), Duy
Fig. 1. Danang and universities used in the study.
3
Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10
Tan University (DTU) and Danang College of Technology (DCOT).
These academic institutions were chosen for the survey as a consider-
able number of students were studying in these institutions. Motorcycle
was the most popular transport mean for school trip, followed by
walking and cycling. Public transport was rarely used by the university
students.
The survey required the respondents to complete a structured
questionnaire including both revealed and stated preference questions.
A pilot survey was conducted in December 2015 and the questionnaire
was revised before the full scale survey was carried out in January
2016. The questionnaire is divided into 2 major sections: socio-eco-
nomic characteristics and travel characteristics of students. The first
section of the questionnaire collected information on gender, year of
student, family income, living status, motorcycle rider license, motor-
cycle ownership, the number of motorcycles in a household and bicycle
ownership. Students were also asked to give the name of their schools,
campus location and their usual place of residence. Based on this in-
formation (place of residence and university campus), the researchers
determined whether a campus is inside or outside the Central Business
District (CBD). The same information was used to determine the dis-
tance between a place of residence and a university campus using
Google map.
In the second section of the questionnaire, information on travel
behaviour such as the main mode of travel used as well as the travel
time to the university was collected. The students were also asked to
indicate the major reasons for choosing a particular transport mode. At
the end of the questionnaire, students were given a chance to show their
attitudes toward the existing bus system and whether they were willing
to shift to a new efficient and reliable bus system.
4.1. Sampling
There are over 30 universities and colleges in the Danang me-
tropolis. Some of these universities have many students (over 20,000
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al.
students) while others have a student population of less than 2000.
Given the number of universities and the variation of student numbers,
it was necessary to identify the size of sample that would meaningfully
represent the population. The sampling was done in two different
stages: (1) selection of universities and colleges to participate in the
survey and (2) selection of students (respondents) from the selected
universities to participate in the survey.
In the first stage, five universities and one college were selected as a
sample to participate in the survey. Four of these universities are public
universities (University of Science and Technology (UST), University of
Economics (UOE), University of Foreign Language Studies (UOFLS) and
University of Education (UOE)) which account for a high number of
students in Danang and the other is a private university (Duy Tan
University (DTU)). The college selected to be part of the sample is
Danang College of Technology (DCOT) which has more than 10,000
students. These institutions were selected as they are located in dif-
ferent parts of Danang Metropolis. This therefore gives a broader view
of students in Danang and not only a small portion of the city. Students
travelling to institutions located inside the Central Business District
(CBD) often contribute to traffic congestion on adjacent streets during
peak hours. In contrast, universities and colleges located outside CBD
do not significantly impact congestion. However, students in uni-
versities outside the CBD are highly exposed to road traffic crashes, as
these universities are located on national highways with very high
speed limits.
The second stage of the sampling process was the selection of re-
spondents. From the sampling determination table, for a ± 5% error
margin and 95% confidence level, the minimum sample required is 383
for a population of more than 10,000 (Parker and Rea, 1997). A pur-
posive sampling technique was used to select students from selected
institutions to participate in the survey. A screening question was used
to determine if students live on campus or outside campus. If a student
lives on campus, the interview was terminated, thus only students who
live outside the university campus were selected to complete the
questionnaire. Based on the student population in each university/
college, a percentage of the total sample was assigned to be selected for
the interview. In the end, 29.8% of the sample was selected from UST
(represented by 150 students); 15.9% from UOE (80 students); 13.5%
from UOFLS (68 students); 15.3% from UOE (77 students); 9.1% from
DTU (46 students) and 16.3% from DCOT (82 students). After the data
was checked for errors and cleaned, there were 503 student respondents
remaining which were used in this study.
4.2. Conditional logit model
Binomial logit and probit techniques are two of the statistical
techniques used for the analysis of discrete choices, specifically for
binary choice problems. However, for problems involving the choice
among three or more categories, the multinomial logit technique is
most often employed. An extension to the multinomial logit model
which is virtually unused thus far is a technique called conditional logit,
a model that is well suited for behavioural modeling of polychotomous
choice situations (Hoffman and Duncan, 1988). The conditional logit
model is particularly appropriate in models of choice behaviour, where
the explanatory variables may include attributes of the choice alter-
natives (for example, time or cost) as well as characteristics of the in-
dividuals making these choices (such as income or age).
In this paper, a conditional logit (CL) model is used to explore
university students’ choice of transport mode to school in Danang,
Vietnam. In disaggregate models, the assumption is made that travellers
would choose the travel mode that gives the greatest utility under
certain conditions. In such a case, the utility function is composed of
both fixed term and random term. Based on random utility theory
(Domencich and McFadden, 1975), the utility associated with each
mode of transport is a function that depends on mode characteristics (Z)
and the individual’s characteristics (X) and an additive error term. The
4
Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10
utility function is formulated as follows:
Uij = Xi αj + Zij β + εij (1)
where Uij is utility value of the jth travel mode chosen by the ith tra-
veller; Xi is the vector of regressors describing the characteristics of the
individual and Zij is the vector of regressors describing the character-
istics of the jth alternative for individual i, with the corresponding
parameter vectors denoted by α and β respectively and εij is the error
term. The CL model extends the multinomial logit (MNL) model to in-
clude the attributes of the choice variables (such as travel time and
travel cost) as well as the attributes of the individuals (such as gender,
family income, vehicle ownership).
The probability Pij of the jth travel mode chosen by the ith traveller
is given by the following formula:
e Xi αj + Zij β
Pij = Prob (Personichoosesalternativej ) = J
∑k = 1 e Xi αj + Zij β (2)
where: Pij:the probability that a person i chooses a particular mode j, J is
the total number of alternatives.
In this research the total choice set included five options (car as
driver, car as passenger, taxi, walking and cycling). The parameters in
the CL model can be estimated using the maximum likelihood ap-
proach. For J categories, J − 1 coefficient will be estimated, where the
other category is used as the reference level. The estimated coefficients
describe how the effect of X and Z variables on the probability of
choosing each alternative relative to the reference category variable.
5. Results
5.1. Data characteristics
The total number of respondents obtained at the end of the field
survey was 503 (211 females and 292 males) (Table 1). In relation to
the year of studies, the majority (40.8%) of respondents were in the
third year of their studies, this was followed by those in the final
(fourth) year of studies with 30.6%. The first year students only ac-
counted for 7% of respondents. A student’s family income level was
divided into two categories: low-income and middle & high-income,
which reflects the students’ economic status. At the time of the survey,
nearly 34% of students taking part in the survey came from a low-in-
come family (the income of entire family was less than 5 million VND
per month). Students studying in the universities and college located in
CBD account for 41.4%. The majority of students (approximately 80%)
were living in rented accommodation, whereas nearly 20% were living
with their families in family owned houses. Over 37% of students
owned a bicycle. From the sample, 80% of students have acquired an
official licence which allowed them to ride a motorcycle, however only
42.1% owned a motorcycle. Respondents were also requested to pro-
vide the number of motorcycles in their household. The result show that
nearly 40% of students reported there were more than two motorcycles
in their households, 31.8% had two and 23.3% had only one motor-
cycle. There were only 5 students (representing 1%) who had no mo-
torcycle in their homes.
Regarding the state and ability to access sidewalks, about 50% of
the students were of the view that the sidewalks from their homes to
their school were clear and easy to access. The remaining 50% however
reported the sidewalks between their homes and school were very
difficult to access as they were occupied in part by street vendors,
parking lots, or stores. Approximately 70% of students said that streets
from their homes to schools have clear markings separating motor lanes
from motorcycle lanes. About 30% of students travel to school on
roads/streets without any markings separating motor vehicles from
other transport modes. With respect to travel distance, more than 50%
of students travelled less than 2 km daily to get to school.
Table 2 shows the distribution of transport modes and average
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al. Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10

Table 1 Table 3
Characteristics of survey sample. Sample characteristics by mode of transport to work.
Variable Category Frequency Percentage (%) Variable Transport mode (%) Total sample
size (n)
Gender Male 292 58.1 Walking Bicycle Motorcycle Public
Female 211 41.9 transport
Year of studies First year 35 7.0
Gender
Second year 109 21.7
Male 36.0 17.5 43.1 3.3 211
Third year 205 40.8
Female 30.8 6.2 57.5 5.5 292
Final year 154 30.6
Year Student
Family income (million VNDa/ Below 5 170 33.8
First year 28.6 25.7 31.4 14.3 35
month) 5 and over 333 66.2
Second year 38.5 19.3 41.3 0.9 109
School location In CBD 208 41.4 Third year 37.6 7.3 49.8 5.4 205
Out CBD 295 58.6 Final year 24.0 6.5 65.6 3.9 154

Living status Live with 103 20.5 Family income (million VND/month)
family Below 5 38.8 17.1 40.0 4.1 170
Rent house 400 79.5 5 and over 30.0 7.8 57.4 4.8 333

Rider license Yes 414 82.3 School location

No 89 17.7 In CBD 36.1 9.6 47.6 6.7 208
Out CBD 30.8 11.9 54.2 3.1 295
Motorcycle ownership Yes 212 42.1
No 291 57.9 Living status
Rent house 40.5 13.3 43.3 3.0 400
Number of motorcycles in a None 5 1.0
Live with 3.9 1.9 83.5 10.7 103
household One 117 23.3
family
Two 160 31.8
More than two 221 43.9 Motorcycle rider license
No 42.7 30.3 21.3 5.6 89
Bicycle ownership Yes 187 37.2
Yes 30.9 6.8 58.0 4.3 414
No 316 62.8
Motorcycle ownership
Clear sidewalk Yes 252 50.1
No 53.3 23.1 17.0 6.6 212
No 251 49.9
Yes 18.2 2.1 76.6 3.1 291
Car lane separation Yes 356 70.8
Number of motorcycle in a household
No 147 29.2
None 40.0 60.0 0.0 0.0 5
Travel distance Above 2 km 243 48.3 One 39.3 14.5 41.0 5.1 117
Less than 2 km 260 51.7 Two 41.9 12.5 42.5 3.1 160
More than 23.1 6.8 64.3 5.9 221
a two
As at the time of this study, $1 was equivalent to 22,000 VND.
Bicycle ownership
Table 2 No 37.3 1.9 55.7 5.1 316
Mode of transport distribution and travel time. Yes 25.7 26.2 44.4 3.7 187

Clear sidewalk
Transport mode Transport No. of Percentage Average travel
No 32.1 12.4 50.0 5.5 218
type respondent time (min)
Yes 33.3 9.8 53.0 3.9 285
Walking Non- 166 33.0 8.3 Car lane separation
motorized No 59.2 10.2 28.6 2.0 147
Bicycle Non- 55 10.9 10.8 Yes 22.2 11.2 61.0 5.6 356
motorized
Motorcycle Personal 259 51.5 13.4 Travel distance
means Above 2 km 7.0 7.4 75.7 9.9 243
Tuktuk Public 10 2.0 17.9 Less than 56.5 14.6 28.8 0.0 260
transport 2 km
Bus Public 13 2.6 20.5 Reason for mode choice
transport Safety 71.7 7.5 17.0 3.8 53
Total 503 100 Comfort 29.6 5.1 60.6 4.7 274
Price/Fare 37.7 41.0 16.4 4.9 61
Reliability 8.6 1.7 87.9 1.7 58
travel times taken by students to travel to their university campuses. It Easy-to-access 71.7 7.5 17.0 3.8 57
can be seen clearly that more than 50% of university students travelled Willingness to join the new bus system
to school by motorcycles. 33% of students walked to school while ap- Yes 12.9 10.0 67.1 10.0 210
No 47.4 11.6 40.3 0.7 293
proximately 10% used bicycles. Tuktuk and bus are two less popular
means used by university students as they accounted for only 2% and
2.6% respectively. Due to the low frequencies recorded for Tuktuks and
female university students (57.5% and 43.1% respectively). Within the
buses, these modes were combined to one transport mode; public
sample studied, the majority of first year students choose active modes
transport. Walking had the lowest average travel time of 8.3 min. This is
(walking, bicycle and public transport) to get to school whilst only
followed by cycling (10.8 min) and riding a motorcycle (13.4 min).
31.4% travel by motorcycles. As students’ progress academically from
Travelling by bus has the longest average travel time (20.5 min).
first year to final year, their interest in active modes of transport falls.
Table 3 presents descriptive statistics on the proportions of walking,
On the other hand, their use of motorcycles increases. The likely reason
cycling, riding a motorcycle and travelling by bus to school by a
for this interesting trend might be that, most new non-local students are
number of individual characteristics. Motorcycle has been a dominant
not familiar with the university environment and therefore tend to rent
mean of transport in developing countries, so it is not surprising that it
houses closer to their university campuses, even though these houses
is also the most common mode for travelling to school by both male and

5
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al. Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10

Table 4
Estimates of conditional logit model.a
Variable Walking Cycling Public transport

Coefficient Odds ratio Coefficient Odds ratio Coefficient Odds ratio

Individual-specific variables
Gender
Male Ref – Ref – Ref –
Female 0.962 (0.42)** 2.618 1.44 (0.61)** 4.220 −0.607 (0.66) 0.545

Year Student
First year Ref – Ref – Ref –
Second year 1.397 (0.90) 4.043 1.796 (1.00)* 6.028 −3.008 (0.95)*** 0.049
Third year 1.506 (0.86)* 4.508 0.852 (0.98) 2.344 −3.817 (1.00)*** 0.022
Final year 0.575 (0.88) 1.776 1.236 (1.05) 3.443 −5.822 (1.46)*** 0.003

Monthly family income (million VND)

Below 5 Ref – Ref – Ref –
5 and over −0.212 (0.35) 0.809 −0.853 (0.48)* 0.426 −0.005 (0.71) 0.995

Living status
Rent house Ref – Ref – Ref –
Live with family −1.825 (0.69)*** 0.161 −1.568 (1.03) 0.208 −0.508 (0.68) 0.602

Rider license
No Ref – Ref – Ref –
Yes −0.979 (0.58)* 0.376 −2.119 (0.67)*** 0.120 1.56 (1.02) 4.761

Motorcycle ownership
No Ref – Ref – Ref –
Yes −2.646 (0.40)*** 0.071 −2.633 (0.60)*** 0.072 −2.154 (0.66)*** 0.116

Bicycle ownership
No Ref – Ref – Ref –
Yes −0.672 (0.39)* 0.511 2.383 (0.60)*** 10.83 −0.422 (0.63) 0.656

Car lane separation

No Ref – Ref – Ref –
Yes −1.019 (0.37)*** 0.361 −0.999 (0.54)* 0.368 0.776 (1.19) 2.172

Travel distance
Above 2 km Ref – Ref – Ref –
Less than 2 km 1.818 (0.66)*** 6.162 1.656 (0.70)** 5.24 −16.54 (65.93)

Reason for mode choice

Safety Ref – Ref – Ref –
Comfort −1.779 (0.68)*** 0.169 −1.446 (0.90) 0.235 0.916 (1.21) 2.499
Price/Fare 0.018 (0.86) 1.018 1.658 (1.02) 5.248 1.049 (1.44) 2.853
Reliability −4.727 (0.92)*** 0.009 −4.705 (1.54)*** 0.009 0.361 (1.61) 1.435
Easy to access −2.105 (0.80)*** 0.122 −0.237 (0.99) 0.789 1.728 (1.44) 5.631

Intercept 2.257 (1.16)** 9.550 −0.788 (1.32) 0.455 −0.127 (1.67) 0.880

Choice-specific variables
Travel time (min) −0.105 (0.03)*** 0.901
Travel cost (VND) −0.0001 (0.90) 0.999

Sample size 503

AIC 578.55
Log-likelihood −239.27
Wald X2(46) 180.29
Prob > X2 0.000

a
Motorcycle is used as reference level. The figure in the parenthesis is the standard error of the estimated parameters.
* 10% Significant level.
** 5% Significant level.
*** 1% Significant level.

have high rental fees.
Regarding the students’ family income, the percentage of students
from middle & high-income families travelling to their university
campuses using motorcycles is higher than those from low-income fa-
milies (57% compared to 40%). More than 80% of the students living
with their families travel by motorcycle and only about 4% choose to
walk to their university campuses. In contrast, students who rent houses
often choose houses which are closer to their universities, so they can
walk or cycle to their university campuses. With respect to motorcycle
rider license and ownership, it is clear that students who own a mo-
torcycle and have a rider’s license tend to use a motorcycle to school,
even though non-motorized modes or public transport could be a better
option. Over 53% of students walk, whereas, 23.1% cycle to their
universities because they cannot access a motorcycle. Similarly, stu-
dents who have their own bicycles are more inclined to use them as the
mode of transport to the university more often than those without a
bicycle. In the case of a clear and accessible sidewalk, the difference in
the choice of travel mode to the university is not significantly different
in the two scenarios. That is there is no difference between students’
choice of mode when there is clear, accessible sidewalk and when the
sidewalks are occupied and less accessible. With respect to car lane
separation, the majority of students (59.2%) decide to walk as most of
the roads to their universities do not have a separate four-wheeled
vehicle lane and two-wheeled vehicle lane. When lanes on roads are

6
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al.
separated, students seem to be more confident when travelling by
motorcycle (61%).
Table 3 shows that the majority of students who currently walk and
cycle to school live within a two kilometre radius of their university
campuses. Out of the 260 students who travel less than 2 km, 56.5%
walk, 14.6% use bicycle and no student use public transport. Interest-
ingly, there are many students (28.8%) who still use a motorcycle to get
to school within this short distance. This figure proves the reliance on a
motorcycle by university students in developing countries. With longer
distance trips (more than 2 km), students often choose a motorized
mode or public transport.
When students were asked about the new bus system which will be
more reliable, comfortable and easy to access, more than 40% of the
students are willing to shift from their current modes to the new bus
system. These students who are willing to shift to this new bus system
are mostly motorcycle users who account for about 67.1%. Nearly 50%
of the students and over 10% of the students who are walking and
cycling to school would not switch to the new bus system because their
travel distance is short and non-motorized modes can save them travel
time and travel cost.
5.2. Conditional logit model specification
The conditional logit model uses the motorcycle as the reference
category for the dependent variable. The model comprises two types of
independent variables: (1) individual specific variables such as gender,
year student, family income, living status, motorcycle rider license,
motorcycle ownership, bicycle ownership, car lane separation and
travel distance and (2) alternative specific variable such as travel time
and travel cost Since the survey does not contain the direct data on the
travel time for non-chosen transport mode for each respondent, these
values were estimated based on the idea of Hole and FitzRoy (2005)
and have been applied by other researchers such as Commins and Nolan
(2011) and Amoh-Gyimah and Aidoo (2013). Following their work,
time was regressed on distance for each alternative mode and the re-
sulting values were used to predict average travel time for an alter-
native mode for each individual.
Cost information for a particular travel mode used by students was
obtained from the survey. Students were asked to give an estimate of
the cost for their transport mode used to go to schools. Travel cost in-
cludes fuel cost and parking cost for motorcycle, parking cost for bi-
cycle and fare for public transport users (bus/Tuktuk). We assume zero
costs for walking (Hole and FitzRoy, 2005) and 1000 VND as the
parking cost for cycling. The cost of using a motorcycle was made up of
the parking cost (2000 VND) and the operating cost (fuel cost) which
were estimated based on travel distance and fuel cost per kilometre
(8000 VND/km). Bus fare for public transport users was estimated
based on the average fare for trips with a distance less than 5 km
(5000 VND) and trips with a distance greater than 5 km (8000 VND). It
was found that the highest monetary cost was for the most popular
mode (motorcycle).
The final model was selected using backwards elimination and
Akaike Information Critertion (AIC) techniques. Table 4 displays the
estimated parameters for the fitted conditional logit models. The di-
agnostic results of the fitted model suggest a good fit.
Although the alternative-specific travel cost was negative, it was not
significant in the model (p = 0.900). The possible explanation for this
result could be that the majority of students who were interviewed for
this study were highly dependent on motorcycle. They used motor-
cycles even for short distance trips which can be undertaken by other
alternative modes with lower cost such as walking or cycling. In addi-
tion, the cost of operating this type of private transport is not sig-
nificantly high, thereby making it possible for many students to acquire
motorcycles. This might explain why travel cost is not a significant
variable in the conditional logit model.
Travel time is commonly found in previous studies to be a major
7
Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10
predictor of travel mode choice (Beirao and Cabral, 2007; Frank et al.,
2008). Results from the estimated conditional logit model shows that
travel time has a higher significant impact on students’ mode choice of
transport to school. The estimated odds ratio (OR = 0.901, p < 0.001)
indicates that students are less likely to choose a transport mode with a
longer travelling time. The finding is supported by the results of pre-
vious studies on students’ mode choice in Hamilton (Whalen et al.,
2013), and in Beirut (Danaf et al., 2014) where students were found to
be less likely to choose transport modes with longer journey time.
However, our findings contradict other studies where travel time was
found to have a positive and significant relationship with mode choice
(Basmajian, 2010; Diana, 2008; Ory and Mokhtarian, 2005). This
contradictory finding appears to reflect the context where those studies
were conducted. The significance of a negative coefficient for travel
time indicates that, the reliability of a transport mode is very important
and it is a major factor for choosing a travel mode. Currently, students
have been relying on motorcycles because of the flexibility and relia-
bility of this transport mode.
On the other hand, in Vietnam the travel time for public transport
services is often long mainly because of the extremely long waiting and
transferring times. Thus, in order to attract students, a PT system has to
be improved in terms of quality, frequency, reliability and accessibility.
This can be achieved by expanding and extending the PT system to all
universities and colleges as well as increasing the service frequency at
institutions with high demand. Loader and Stanley (2009) assessed the
improvement of extending PT routes to outer, lower-income suburbs in
Melbourne, Australia. They found that improved accessibility en-
couraged increased ridership and in some cases led to users selling their
private vehicles as PT services fulfilled their mobility needs. In terms of
frequency, Wall and McDonald (2007) stated that the increase in the
frequency of bus routes in Winchester, UK from four to six buses per
hour led to an increase in ridership by approximately 20% in the first
year. Table 3 shows that one major reason influencing the choice of a
mode by university students is reliability. It is therefore not surprising
that most students rely heavily on motorcycle. A policy to develop an
effective and reliable PT system will encourage students to shift from
the motorcycle to PT, which will reduce the reliance on private vehicles
and motorcycles.
In terms of gender, female students are likely to travel to school by
walking (OR = 2.618, p = 0.022) or cycling (OR = 4.220, p = 0.018)
rather than by using motorcycles. In contrast, male students are more
likely to travel by motorcycle. This finding is consistent with previous
studies on students’ mode choice. In his work, Zhou (2012), found that
the coefficient on gender shows that female significantly choose biking
or walking as their mode of transport to school.
The probability of using PT to go to school is highly significant
depending on the year of student. The model indicates that first year
students are more likely to travel to school by PT than second, third or
fourth year students (OR = 0.049, OR = 0.022 and OR = 0.003 re-
spectively). PT are used mostly by first year students as this group is not
familiar with the new university environment and most of them come
from rural areas. However, as they become familiar with the university
environment, they would prefer to get a motorcycle license, purchase a
motorcycle and move to a new house further from the university but
with high quality facilities and cheaper rental fees. Particularly, for
third year and final year students, they are required to take up in-
ternships in various organizations located inside and outside the
Danang metropolis as part of their studies to gain some experience
before they graduate from the university. Thus, owning a motorcycle is
necessary for these groups.
With respect to family income level, the model shows that students
from families with a total income per month of 5 million VND and
above are less likely to walk, cycle or use public transport to get to
school (OR = 0.809, OR = 0.426 and OR = 0.995 respectively). The
coefficient for the case of the bicycle mode is marginally significant
(p = 0.074). This result is consistent with previous studies which
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al.
revealed that individuals with a high income tend to use motorcycles
rather than other transport modes (Leong and Mohd Sadullah, 2007;
Wedagama, 2009)
Local students living with their families are more likely to travel to
school by motorcycle than to use non-motorized vehicles. In contrast,
students who are living in a rent house tend to walk or cycle to school.
This is true as non-local students often rent a house that are nearby
their universities to mitigate travel time and travel cost. This finding
concurs with the results of prior studies (Shannon et al., 2006). In
contrast, families in urban areas like Danang are often within the
middle or high income level so students from these families often rely
on motorcycles for travelling to school.
As expected, motorcycle ownership as well as having the license to
ride are both highly significant. Students with a license to ride are more
likely to travel by motorcycle rather than walking and cycling to school
(OR = 0.376 and OR = 0.120 respectively). It is not surprising that the
probability of using private transport is highly significant for students
owning a motorcycle. In fact, in developing countries many people rely
heavily on motorcycles due to their mobility, survivability, and acces-
sibility (Tuan and Mateo-Babiano, 2013; Xie et al., 2004).
The provision of car lane separation on roads leading to university
was found to be another factor that influenced the mode choice of
students. Students are more likely to walk or cycling to school rather
than use a motorcycle if most of roads to school are not lane separated
for four-wheeled and two-wheeled vehicles (OR = 0.361 and
OR = 0.368). In developing countries, if there is no separate car lanes,
motorcycles and motor vehicles are usually mixed up in traffic, with
motorcycles trying to manoeuvre their way between vehicles. This is a
major cause of traffic accidents involving motorcyclists. Therefore,
motorcyclists feel safer and more comfortable when they travel on
roads with car lane separation.
The study also explored the reasons that motivates students in
Danang to choose a particular mode of transport to school. The findings
show that students walking to school consider comfort, reliability and
ease of access as their main reasons for choosing to walk to school. In
relation to cyclists, they consider reliability as the most important
reason for their choice.
Table 5 shows the estimation results of the conditional logit model
for students with different travel distance. The results are largely si-
milar to those of the model presented in Table 4. However, while fe-
males with travel distance less than 2 km are significantly more likely to
travel by cycling rather than riding a motorcycle, those with travel
distance over 2 km are significantly less likely to cycle. The reason for
this result could be that females are more likely to cycle just for short
distance than long distance trips. Students in universities located out-
side CBD, who are living around the university (within 2 km), are found
more likely to walk to school. These universities are located on high-
ways with high speed limits and traffic volumes. Thus, students in these
universities are less like to ride a motorcycle to school due to safety
reasons.
Fig. 2 shows the reasons why students who ride motorcycles to
school do not use the existing PT in Danang. It was reported by nearly
30% of students that their main reason for not using the current PT is
because they cannot access the PT system. In fact, the coverage of
Danang’s bus system is very limited with a small number of bus routes
and very limited PT modes to connect with buses in the city. Thus, a
large proportion of the students cannot access the PT system for daily
commuting purposes. The second and the third reasons are “inflex-
ibility” and “uncomfortability” which constituted about 18% and 16%
of the student’s reasons respectively. Low operation frequency of the
bus services makes it hard for the passengers to use the buses at the time
of their convenience. This is because most of the buses are too old, dirty
and uncomfortable (The Seoul Institute, 2015).
The local authorities have not invested money to improve the cur-
rent bus system for a long time due to a number of reasons. Firstly,
almost all households and individuals in Danang can access a
8
Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10
motorcycle for their daily activities and it is considered to be the most
flexible and reliable mode of transport in Danang. Thus, encouraging
mode shift from motorcycle to bus seems to be a challenging task.
Secondary, congestion has not been a serious issue in this city compared
to other larger cities like Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh. The existing road
facility can deal with the current travel demand. Thirdly, there has been
no studies showing that an improved public transport system can have a
significant impact on relieving traffic congestion in Vietnam. Hence, the
local authorities have no strong argument for using taxpayer money to
improve the current PT service.
6. Discussion and conclusion
Educational institutions are considered to be large trip attractions.
They are well positioned to provide leadership in the field of sustain-
able transportation (Balsas, 2003). However, studies on students’ mode
choice to school are very limited, particularly in developing countries
where motorcycle is the dominant mode of transport. Understanding
students’ travel patterns can help universities and stakeholders to de-
velop and improve policies, programs and infrastructure that aim to
encourage sustainable transport modes such as public transport,
walking or cycling. The decrease in the use of private vehicles will lead
to the mitigation of the level of traffic congestion as well as environ-
mental impacts on university campuses.
This research investigates university students’ transport mode
choice to school in Danang, Vietnam. A conditional logit regression
model was developed to explore individual and alternative specific
variables affecting students’ mode choice. The results show that travel
time, gender, year of student, school location, living status, family in-
come, motorcycle rider license ownership, motorcycle ownership, bi-
cycle ownership, car lane separation and travel distance are all im-
portant factors influencing the transport mode choice made by students.
The year of student and car lane separation are recognised as two
new factors that influence students’ travel mode choice. First year
students were found to be significantly more likely to travel to school
by PT than second, third or final year students. Thus, a university
campus with more first year students should be considered to be a large
attraction when developing a PT system. The provision of car lane se-
paration on roads leading to the university was found to be a factor that
influenced the mode choice of students. Students are more likely to
travel by walking or cycling rather than by riding a motorcycle if most
of roads to school are not lanes separated for four-wheeled and two-
wheeled vehicles. By using the conditional logit model for students with
different travel distances, it is found that female students who are living
nearby their universities (within 2 km) are more likely to cycle to
school. Those with travel distance over 2 km are significantly less likely
to cycle. The findings of the research show that an effective strategy to
encourage the use of active modes by university students might be to
provide more student apartments on or near university campuses.
The model also shows that travel cost, the number of motorcycles in
a household and clear sidewalk do not influence the students’ mode
choice. Travel cost is recognised to be an important factor that has
found to significant affect travel mode choice (Danaf et al., 2014;
Whalen et al., 2013). However, in this study it was found to have no
impact on students’ mode choice. In Danang city, motorcycle is a
dominated transport mode due to the flexibility and reliability of this
transport mode. With the low operation cost of motorcycle, it is com-
monly used even for short distance trips which can be undertaken by
other alternative modes with lower cost such as walking or cycling. This
might explain why travel cost is not a significant variable in this study.
Another interesting finding is that sidewalks between students’ homes
and schools, which are mostly occupied by traders, do not affect their
travel mode choice. Students seem to accept this as normal. Walking on
such roads exposes students to a higher risk of traffic accident. Thus,
Danang should take a cue from other cities, where food vendors must
apply for permission to occupy public sidewalks to ensure they are not
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al. Travel Behaviour and Society 13 (2018) 1–10

Table 5
Conditional logit estimates (odds ratios) for students with different travel distance.
Students with travel distance less than 2 km Students with travel distance more than 2 km

Walking Bicycle Public transport Walking Bicycle Public transport

Individual-specific variables
Gender
Male Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref
Female 2.334** 2.728** 1.756 2.343 0.841* 0.958

School location
In CBD Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref
Out CBD 2.511** 1.791 1.324 6.172 1.009 0.342*

Living status
Rent house Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref
Live with family 0.201** 0.001 0.318 0.001 0.256 0.968

Motorcycle rider license

No Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref
Yes 0.525 0.153*** 0.442 0.092* 0.544 0.915

Motorcycle ownership
No Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref
Yes 0.082*** 0.050*** 0.315 0.001 0.028*** 0.098***

Bicycle ownership
No Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref Ref
Yes 0.515* 9.509*** 1.542 0.224 10.847* 0.814

Car lane separation

No Ref Ref Ref
Yes 0.361*** 0.451 0.602

Intercept 13.619*** 1.595 0.000 1.308 0.205 1.545

Alternative-specific variables
Travel time 0.803 1.055
Travel cost 1.000 1.000
Number of Observations 1280 572

Sample size 320 183

AIC 444.22 202.05
Log-likelihood −196.11 −78.02
Wald X2(46) 123.15 43.71
Prob > X2 0.000 0.002

* 10% Significant level.

** 5% Significant level.
*** 1% Significant level.

located in areas that would obstruct pedestrians. Providing a clear side
walk for pedestrians and cyclists can attract more students to switch
from motorcycle to non-motorised modes, particularly for short dis-
tance trips.
Danang is one of the three biggest educational cities in Vietnam,
therefore there is a concentration of many universities and colleges.
However, the existing PT service (bus) is very poor in terms of quantity
as well as quality. The local authorities have not financially invested
into the existing bus system for a long time. With the rapid development
of Danang, it is expected that traffic congestion will be a serious issue in
the near future if the local authorities have no plan to reduce private
vehicle use. In order to encourage and attract majority of students to
shift to PT, priority should be given to expand the city’s internal bus
network, which connects universities with residential quarters and
public destinations. Also, the quality of buses needs to be improved to
make passengers comfortable. Bus features such as air conditioner and

Can not access PT

Inflexibility
Uncomfortable
Travel short distance
Unreliability
Low frequency
Car sickness
Others

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Fig. 2. Reasons why students using motorcycles to school do not choose the existing bus system.

9
D.Q. Nguyen-Phuoc et al.
security cameras should be installed. The interior design of the buses
should also be improved with more leg space as well as keeping the
buses clean at all times. An efficient PT service will benefit not only the
students but also the residents in Danang. A reduction in the use of
private vehicles as a result of efficient PT services would contribute to
the “Danang Sustainable City Development Project” which is led by the
World Bank.
This study can be expanded in several aspects. Firstly, the policy-
related factors such as travel demand management measures can have
an impact on students’ mode choice. Understanding these factors can
help authorities to manage the motorcycle dominance in developing
countries. Secondly, the survey was conducted during spring. Ideally,
the survey should be carried out in different seasons so that the effect of
weather on travel mode choice can be understood more clearly. Further
research in these areas will help in developing a richer understanding of
the mode choice of students.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2018.05.003.
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