College of Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

University Of Hargeisa

A Thesis In Design and Assessment Of Water Supply

System

By,
Mubarik Abdiaziz
Ridwan Mostafa
Abdirahman Ibrahim

Advisor: Eng Mohamed Moh’ed Yousuf

July, 2024
Hargeisa

iiii
 Design and Assessment Of Water supply System Of
Salahley: A Case Study.
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement of bachelor’s

degree of science in civil engineering.

University Of Hargeisa

2024

By;
Mubarik Abdiaziz 1920465
Ridwan Mostafa 1920518
Abdirahman Ibrahim 1920538

Approved by;

Eng Mohamed Mohumed (Boss), MSc.

Signature

i
 Declaration

We solemnly declare that the thesis dissertation titled “Design and Assessment of
Water Supply System of Salahley: A case study” presented here is the result of our
own scholarly work. We affirm that this work has not been previously submitted for
any other academic qualification. Throughout this dissertation, all sources of
information and materials used have been appropriately acknowledged through proper
citations and references. Any borrowed text, data, or ideas from other sources have
been duly credited and referenced. This dissertation does not contain any material that
infringes upon copyright or any other rights of others. We understand that failure to
acknowledge sources properly may constitute academic misconduct and could lead to
disciplinary measures.

July, 2024.

ii
 Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to all those who have supported and guided us throughout
this journey. To our families, whose unwavering love, encouragement, and
sacrifices have been our foundation and strength, always believing in us and
pushing us to achieve our dreams. To our friends, for their constant support,
laughter, and understanding, for being there in times of stress and joy, and for
believing in us even when we doubted ourselves.
To our advisors and mentors, whose expertise, guidance, and patience have been
invaluable, providing us with the knowledge and direction necessary to complete
this work. To our colleagues and peers, for the stimulating discussions,
collaboration, and camaraderie that have enriched our academic experience,
offering new perspectives and insights. And finally, to all those who have inspired
us along the way, thank you for being part of this incredible journey, for your
inspiration, and for helping us grow both personally and professionally.

iii
 Acknowledgement

First and foremost, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to our advisor, Eng.
Mohamed Mohumed (Boss), for his invaluable guidance, support, and
encouragement throughout the duration of this research. His expertise and insight
were crucial in shaping the direction and outcome of this work. We extend our
heartfelt thanks to our families, whose unwavering love and support have been a
constant source of strength and motivation. Their sacrifices and understanding have
made this journey possible.

Our sincere appreciation goes to our friends and colleagues for their constant support,
encouragement, and for being a source of inspiration. Their fellowship and shared
experiences have enriched our academic journey in countless ways. We are also
grateful to the faculty and staff of the University of Hargeisa, Department of Civil
Engineering, for providing a conducive environment for research and learning.

Finally, we thank all the participants and contributors to this study, whose input and
cooperation were essential to the success of this research. Your contributions are
deeply valued and appreciated.

Thank you all for your invaluable support and encouragement.

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 Abstract

This thesis presents a comprehensive design and assessment of the water supply
system for the town of Salahley. The study begins with a detailed of the current
water supply system, including source identification, distribution network, storage
facilities, and water quality management. Data was collected through field surveys,
interviews with local authorities, and examination of historical records. This data was
then used to model the existing system's hydraulic performance using EPANET,
identifying critical areas of inefficiency and insufficiency, particularly in terms of
maximum pressure, minimum pressure, and velocity.

Based on the assessment, a new design framework is proposed, incorporating modern

engineering practices and sustainable solutions. The proposed design includes the
development of additional water sources, expansion and optimization of the
distribution network.

The findings of this research provide a robust framework for improving the water
supply system in Salahley, ensuring reliable access to clean water for all residents.
This study serves as a valuable resource for local policymakers, engineers, and
stakeholders involved in the development and management of water supply systems in
similar contexts.

Keywords: Water Distribution System, Modeling, EPANET, Hydraulic Performance,

Water Demand, Maximum Pressure, Minimum Pressure, Velocity, Source, Salahley.

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Table of contents
Declaration ..................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication ..................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................ iv
Abstract .......................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................. ix
List of figures ................................................................................................................. x
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One ................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement .......................................................................................... 4
1.3 Research objectives ......................................................................................... 5
1.3.1 General Objective ......................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Specific objectives ........................................................................................ 5
1.4 Research questions .......................................................................................... 6
1.5 Scope of the study ........................................................................................... 6
1.6 Significance of the study ................................................................................. 7
1.7 Operational definition of terms ....................................................................... 9
Chapter Two ................................................................................................................. 11
2. Literature review ................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Water and civilization .................................................................................... 13
2.3 The global situation with water supply and demand ..................................... 13
2.4 State of water in Somaliland ......................................................................... 15
2.5 Rainfall .............................................................................................................. 18
2.6 Groundwater Resources of Somaliland ............................................................. 20
Chapter Three ............................................................................................................... 24
3. Materials and methods .......................................................................................... 24
3.1 . Description of the Study Area ..................................................................... 24
3.1.1 Location ....................................................................................................... 24
3.1.2 Topography ................................................................................................ 24
3.1.2 Climate........................................................................................................ 25

vi
 3.2 Description of Existing Water Supply System .............................................. 25
3.3. Components of Water Distribution systems ...................................................... 26
3.3.1. Transmission Main ..................................................................................... 26
3.3.2 Pressure in the Distribution Main ............................................................... 27
3.4. Research design ................................................................................................. 27
3.4.1. Type and source of data .............................................................................. 28
3.5. Sampling and sample size determination .......................................................... 28
3.5.1. Target population ........................................................................................ 28
3.5.2. Sample size ................................................................................................. 29
3.5.3. Sample procedure ....................................................................................... 29
3.6. Methods of data collection ................................................................................ 30
Chapter Four ................................................................................................................ 31
4. Water Demand And Design ..................................................................................... 31
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 31
4.2 Population forecasting ........................................................................................ 33
4.2.1. Arithmetic increase method ........................................................................ 33
4.2.2 Incremental increase method ...................................................................... 34
4.2.3 Geometric increase method ........................................................................ 35
4.3 Water demand ..................................................................................................... 37
4.3.1 Minimum water requirements...................................................................... 37
4.3.2 Domestic Water Demand: ............................................................................ 38
4.3.3 Institutional and Commercial Water Demand: ............................................ 40
4.3.4 Industrial Water Demand: ............................................................................ 42
4.3.5 Firefighting and Losses: .............................................................................. 42
4.3.6 Total water requirement ............................................................................... 43
4.4 Design: Methods of distribution ........................................................................ 43
4.4.1 Layout of distribution networks.................................................................. 44
4.4.2 Design demands .......................................................................................... 45
4.5 Building Data Base for Modelling Water Supply Systems ............................... 48
4.5.1 Water Demand Data ..................................................................................... 48
4.5.2 Water Supply Sources data .......................................................................... 49
4.5.3 Transmission and distribution network........................................................ 49
4.5.4 Pumping Stations ........................................................................................ 49

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 4.5.5 Reservoirs .................................................................................................... 49
4.5.6 Valves ........................................................................................................... 50
4.5.7 Model calibration and validation ................................................................ 50
4.5.8 EPANET ..................................................................................................... 50
Bill of quantity of Salaxley water supply system .................................................... 57
Chapter Five ................................................................................................................. 53
5. Conclusions and recommendations ......................................................................... 53
5.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 53
5.2 Recommendations .............................................................................................. 63
References .................................................................................................................... 65
Appendices ................................................................................................................... 67

viii
 List of Tables

Table 1. Water resources in Somaliland ....................................................................... 16

Table 2. Recommended Operating Pressure in the Distribution Network ................... 27
Table 3. Design Period of Different Components of a Water Supply Scheme ............ 32
Table 4. Population growth of Salahley in the past 30 years ....................................... 33
Table 5. Computed population in Salahley town. ........................................................ 33
Table 6. Arithmetic increase method............................................................................ 33
Table 7. Projected populations over the design period ................................................ 34
Table 8. Population increase. ....................................................................................... 34
Table 9. Geometric population increase growth table.................................................. 35
Table 10. Typical use of domestic water use ................................................................ 38
Table 11. Institutional and commercial water demand ................................................ 40
Table 12. Pipe Roughness for Different Pipe Material. ............................................... 48

ix
 List of figures

Figure 1. Somaliland mean annual rainfall spatial distribution. .................................. 19

Figure 2. Climatic characteristics of Plateau (Semi-arid) landscape .......................... 20
Figure 3. Borehole distribution and variation of depths in different landforms map .. 22
Figure 4. Salaxley town map........................................................................................ 24
Figure 5. Elevation map of Somaliland and Study area(Salaxley district) .................. 25
Figure 6. (aerial photo of Salahley in 2024) ................................................................ 36
Figure 7. Demand pattern at different hours in EPANET ............................................ 47
Figure 8. Water distribution network of Salahley in Epanet (dead-end system) ......... 51
Figure 9. Elevation(node) vs Length(pipe) distribution .............................................. 52
Figure 10. Velocity vs Pressure distribution ................................................................ 52
Figure 11. Base demand vs flow distribution............................................................... 53
Figure 12. Elevation vs diameter distribution .............................................................. 53
Figure 13. Head vs unit head loss ................................................................................ 54
Figure 14. Contour plot of Elevation ........................................................................... 54
Figure 15. Contour plot of pressure ............................................................................. 55
Figure 16. Profile of pressure at nodes 3, 4 and 11 ...................................................... 55
Figure 17. Distribution of pressure at the nodes .......................................................... 56
Figure 18. Distribution of Velocity of pipes at 0:00 hours........................................... 56

x
 Abbreviations

ADD Average Daily Demand

MDD Maximum Daily Demand
PHD Peak Hour Demand
PRV Pressure Reducing Valves
ARV Automatic recirculation control valve
WHO World health organization
LCPD Litres per capita per day
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
UFW Unaccounted For Water
FCV Flow Control Valve
FOV Field Of View
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
UN United Nations
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
MDG Millenium Development Goal
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
WDS Water Distribution System
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
JMP Joint Monitoring Program

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 Chapter One

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

A safe, reliable, affordable, and easily accessible water is essential for good health.

Yet, for several decades, about a billion people in developing countries have not had a

safe and sustainable water supply. It has been estimated that a minimum of 7.5 litres of

water per person per day is required in the home for drinking, preparing food, and

personal hygiene, the most basic requirements for water; at least 50 litres per person

per day is needed to ensure all personal hygiene, food hygiene, domestic cleaning, and

laundry needs (Howard G, Bartram J., 2003). This domestic water consumption is

dwarfed by the demands of agriculture and ecosystems, even in wealthy countries

where per capita domestic water consumption greatly exceeds these figures (360,

Data, 2010). To cover all these requirements and to avoid water stress, experts

generally agree that about 1,000 cubic metres of freshwater per capita per year is

needed (FR, Rijsberman, 2006).

A key target of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, which made sure that the

proportion of the global population with access to safe drinking water and safe

sanitation services has increased since 2000. However, achieving universal access to

even basic sanitation services by 2030 will require a doubling of the current annual

progress rate to ensure environmental sustainability, is ‘‘to reduce by half the

proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic

1
sanitation’’ (Nations, United, 2007). This water supply target underpins several other

SDGs, including those relating to poverty (SDG1), education (SDG4), and gender

equality (SDG5). Also, the Millenium Development goal (MDG) 4, underpins the

reduction of child mortality, because many deaths in young children in developing

countries are due to diarrhoeal disease, and unsafe water is a key risk factor for

diarrhoeal disease in this age group (Prüss A, 2001). The WHO/UNICEF Joint

Monitoring Programme for Water-supply and Sanitation (JMP), which monitors

progress on the MDG water supply target, identifies three categories of drinking water

supply: (a) water piped into the dwelling, plot, or yard; (b) other improved sources

including;- public taps, protected springs, hand pumps, and rainwater harvesting); and

(c) unimproved sources open water, unprotected from contamination (JMP, 2010).

JMP assumes that “improved” water should be available not only for drinking but also

for food preparation and personal and home hygiene, but it provides no official

definition of how near a water source should be to a dwelling to be called improved.

However, a distance of <1,000 m has been suggested as an appropriate distance for

meeting the MDG targets (Nations, 2003).

In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), only 35% of the urban population has access to a piped

water connection on their premises, and this percentage has decreased by 3% over the

past 3 years. Municipal governments are struggling to overcome the financial,

institutional and technical constraints to providing water supply services to rapidly

growing populations, many of whom live in unplanned settlements. The urban

population of SSA has more than doubled in 2 decades, from 135 million in 1990 to

308 million today, and another 122 million people are expected to be added to the

2
cities of SSA in the next 10 years. Unlike other regions, urbanization in Africa has not

been accompanied by increases in wealth. Indeed, as of 2010, SSA had the highest

percentage (61%) of urban residents living in slums among all world regions

(Valentina Zuin, Leonard Ortolano et al., 2011).

The Somali urban water supply sector has suffered severe deterioration due to

ignorance and lack of resources that have resulted from the civil war the country is

currently facing. Donor support and interventions almost proved fruitless and

unsuccessful. Numerous water supply system assessments and interventions

implemented by United Nation (UN) agencies and International Nongovernmental

Organizations (NGOs) in the region, which have yet to attain the millennium

development goals (MDG) target of reducing by half the proportion of people without

sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015. One of the most important

assessments, the water and sanitation sub-cluster recently conducted by the Joint

Needs Assessment (JNA) through the UN and The World Bank, provides a through

situation analysis and Somali priorities for international support. (Dr.Mahesh,

Abdirasak, 2018).

Water supply refers to the process of providing clean, safe, and potable water for

various purposes, including drinking, cooking, sanitation, hygiene, industrial

processes, and agriculture. It encompasses the entire system of sourcing, treating,

storing, and distributing water to meet the needs of individuals, communities, and

industries. This includes the construction and operation of infrastructure such as wells,

reservoirs, treatment plants, pipelines, pumps, and distribution networks, as well as the

implementation of regulations and policies to ensure water quality, accessibility, and

sustainability (AC Twort, DD Ratnayaka et al., 2000).

3
The ideal status of water supply entails ensuring universal access to clean, safe, and

reliable water for all individuals, communities, and industries. In an ideal scenario,

water supply systems would be designed and managed to meet the basic human needs

for drinking, cooking, sanitation, and hygiene, as well as to support sustainable

economic activities and environmental conservation. Key aspects of an ideal water

supply system include universal access, water quality assurance, reliability and

continuity of service, sustainability in resource management, and affordability for all

users. However, the actual status of water supply often falls short of these ideals in

many parts of the world.

1.2 Problem Statement

Water comprises the most basic and critical component of all aspects of human life

and is an indispensable component of the global life support system. The original man

satisfied his need of water from sources that nature provided for him in the form of

rivers, lakes, streams. Springs and water distribution system.

The wide expansion and accelerated development of Salahley district had led to an

increase in amount of water consumption for domestic, public and irrigation uses. The

average consumption of water in the village for all purposes does not exceed 22 cubic

meters per year (60 litres per capita per day) due to limited quantities of water and the

lack of water distribution system. This water demand was mostly met by cisterns,

water tanking and underground water.

In the view of this bad condition, the need for water supply scheme that will supply

the entire area of Salahley district with water requirements become pressing and

subsequently this work was conducted to study and evaluate the present situation and

design a water distribution system for the town of Salaley. In a view of this bad

4
condition, and since there is no water distribution system exist, along with the fast

increase in the environmental and health problems, an evaluation and design of water

distribution system study became a pressing necessity so as to solve all the problems

that were mentioned above.

The present study includes evaluation and design considered the annual population

growth and their water demand for the coming 20 years that will be the design period,

along these plans the water supply system should be able to supply water to all areas

of the town.

1.3 Research objectives

1.3.1 General Objective

The overall objective of this study is to produce feasible planning scheme for the eater

supply of Salahley district. Achievement of this objective requires the water resources

potential of the town; estimation of the district population, water requirement for

different purposes, location of the water source and topography of the district.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

➢ Estimate the annual amount of water required per capita for all purposes up to

the planning horizon of 2050, taking into consideration the present and future

population.

➢ Study and evaluate the proposed water network in Salahley district, and

display the difficulties that we encounter.

➢ Investigation and discussion of the appropriate water system proposed and

presentation of the proposed water supply network, which meet the present

and future water demand for all purposes and around 24-hour water supply.

5
 ➢ Development of several plans for the construction of the proposed water

supply scheme and prepare bill of quantities.

➢ Finally, providing suggestions and recommendations regarding Salahley

district water supply.

1.4 Research questions

1. What are the current water supply challenges facing Salahley in terms of

access, quality, and reliability?

2. What are the projected water demand trends for Salahley considering factors

such as population growth, urbanization, and economic development?

3. What are the most suitable water sources for Salahley, and how can they be

effectively managed and protected to ensure sustainability?

4. How should the distribution network be designed to efficiently transport

treated water from the source to consumers while minimizing losses and

ensuring equitable access?

5. What storage and pumping infrastructure are needed to maintain adequate

water pressure and supply during peak demand periods and emergencies in

Salahley?

1.5 Scope of the study

The design of the Salahley water supply system aims to provide clean, safe, and

reliable water to the residents of Salahley and surrounding areas. The scope of the

design includes;

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 • Assessment of Water Demand: Determining the current and projected water

demand based on population growth, household consumption patterns, and

economic activities in Salahley.

• Source Identification and Assessment: Evaluating potential water sources, such

as surface water bodies, groundwater aquifers, and rainwater harvesting, to

identify sustainable and reliable water supply options.

• Distribution Network: Designing an efficient and resilient distribution network

to transport treated water from the source to consumers, considering factors

such as pipeline materials, diameter, and layout.

• Storage Facilities: Designing storage reservoirs and tanks to store treated water

and provide adequate pressure to meet demand during peak hours and

emergencies.

1.6 Significance of the study

This research contributes to the advancement of knowledge and practices in water

supply system design and analysis not only in Salahley but it can be useful throughout

Somaliland. By addressing current challenges and proposing innovative solutions, the

findings of this study can inform policymakers, engineers, and stakeholders involved

in water resource management and infrastructure development. Ultimately, this

research aims to support the goal of ensuring equitable access to clean and safe water

for present and future generations.

Designing the water supply system for Salahley holds immense significance for

several reasons;

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 i. Public Health: Access to clean and safe water is essential for preventing

waterborne diseases and promoting public health in Salahley. A well-designed

water supply system will ensure that residents have access to potable water for

drinking, cooking, and sanitation, thereby improving overall health outcomes.

ii. Economic Development: Reliable access to water is crucial for supporting

economic activities such as agriculture, industry, and commerce in Salahley. A

robust water supply system will facilitate economic growth by providing water

for irrigation, manufacturing processes, and commercial enterprises, thereby

stimulating local development and prosperity.

iii. Social Equity: Designing an inclusive water supply system that reaches all

residents of Salahley, including marginalized communities, promotes social

equity and ensures that everyone has access to this essential resource

regardless of socioeconomic status or geographical location.

iv. Environmental Sustainability: A well-designed water supply system will

prioritize environmental sustainability by protecting water sources, minimizing

water wastage, and reducing pollution. This helps preserve the natural

environment and ensures the long-term availability of water resources for

current and future generations in Salahley.

v. Climate Resilience: Considering climate change impacts in the design of the

water supply system will enhance Salahley's resilience to climate-related

challenges such as changing precipitation patterns, droughts, and floods.

Implementing adaptive measures and incorporating climate-resilient

infrastructure will help mitigate risks and ensure the system's reliability under

changing climatic conditions.

8
1.7 Operational definition of terms

Water Supply System: A network of infrastructure, including sources, treatment

facilities, distribution pipelines, storage reservoirs, and pumping stations, designed

to provide clean, safe, and reliable water to meet the needs of communities for

drinking, sanitation, hygiene, and other purposes.

Potable Water: Water that is safe for human consumption and meets regulatory

standards for quality, free from harmful contaminants and pathogens.

Population Growth: The increase in the number of individuals living in a

particular area over a specified period, typically measured as a percentage increase

in the population size.

Urbanization: The process of population concentration in urban areas, resulting

from rural-to-urban migration and natural population growth, leading to the

expansion and development of cities and towns.

Climate Change: Long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and

other climatic parameters caused by human activities, such as greenhouse gas

emissions, as well as natural factors, leading to environmental impacts and

disruptions.

Water Scarcity: The condition in which water availability is insufficient to meet

the demands of human activities and ecosystems, resulting from factors such as

population growth, overuse, pollution, and climate variability.

9
Infrastructure: Physical structures and facilities, such as pipelines, treatment

plants, reservoirs, and pumping stations, used to provide essential services and

support economic activities within a community or region.

Sustainability: The ability to meet the needs of the present generation without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, achieved

through responsible management of natural resources, environmental protection,

and social equity.

Resilience: The capacity of a system to withstand and recover from external

disturbances, shocks, or stressors, such as natural disasters, climate change

impacts, or infrastructure failures, while maintaining essential functions and

services.

Equity: Fairness and justice in the distribution of resources, opportunities, and

benefits among different groups within society, ensuring that all individuals have

access to essential services and opportunities regardless of their socioeconomic

status, ethnicity, or other characteristics.

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 Chapter Two

2. Literature review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter examined the literature on safe domestic water supply design. The study

focused on domestic sources of water, access methods, challenges faced by local

community in methods of getting safe domestic water supply in Salahley district.

Water resource systems planning and management issues are rarely simple. Demands

for reliable supplies of clean water to satisfy the energy, food, and industrial demands

of an increasing population and to maintain viable natural ecosystems are growing.

This is happening at the same time changes in our climate are increasing the risks of

having to deal with too little or too much water in many river basins, watersheds, and

urban areas. Societies are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of water and

its management and use; their governing institutions are becoming increasingly

involved in water resources development and management decision-making

processes. To gain a better understanding of the complex interactions among all the

hydrologic, ecologic, economic, engineering and social components of water resource

systems, analyses based on systems perspectives are useful. While analyses of such

complex systems can be challenging, integrated systems approaches are fundamental

for identifying and evaluating options for improving system performance and security

for the benefit of all of us. (Loucks, 2017)

11
In the world everyone whatever their stage of growth and social and economic

condition, have the right to have access safe drinking-water in quantities and of a

quality equal to their basic needs’ (WHO, 1997). Water supply and distribution is a

complex system and that exists to satisfy the various needs of peoples. Whereby, it

consists of various components of physical assets including reservoirs, pipes, pumps,

and different hydraulic controlling accessories that make up the water distribution

system. It is generally desired that water should be supplied continuously in the

required quantities with adequate pressure and flow from sources to all customers. On

the other hand, the intermittent supply due to failures of their supply components and

variation of demands may occur over the service period (Jalal, 2008).

The Water Distribution System (WDS) is responsible for supplying water to its

customers at serviceable pressures and speeds from the source or treatment plant

(Walski, 2003). It is made up of tubes, pumps, junctions, valves, fittings and tanks for

storage. Healthy drinking water is as much a birthright as clean air for all human

beings (SDSWE, 2016), while access to clean water can be considered as one of a

human being's fundamental needs and rights. Access to clean water is the foundation

for the protection of individuals and dignified lives. The demand for water is the

amount of water requested by consumers to fulfil their needs.

Water is basic need and human right of people. People need water for various

domestic purposes like drinking, cooking, sanitation, irrigation and generating of an

Electrical power. Besides domestic use people also need water for other diversified

livelihood including livestock, the water in our bodies is essential for life. Water is the

most essential nutrient for livestock production and is needed for numerous processes,

such as the regulation of body, temperature, growth, etc. There are many of water

12
sources in this global world and these water sources are the rain water, seas, rivers and

wells. Generally, Somalia situated in the Horn of Africa, and has a total area of

637657 km2.

2.2 Water and civilization

Water has been an important factor to the development and survival of civilization.

The first great civilization arose in the valleys of great rivers, the Nile river, valley of

Egypt, the Tigris Euphrates valley of Mesopotamia, the Indus valley of India and

Pakistan and Huang he valley of China. Through the ages people have been compelled

to settle in region where water is not deficient in quantity and inferior in quality. Only

when supplies failed or made useless by unbearable salt or pollution before them were

centres habitation abandoned. So, man’s endeavours to achieve a more desirable

relationship with the water of the earth have helped them mould his character and his

outlook towards the world around him. So, people have applied their creative

imagination and utilized their skills and released heroic energy. The ancient well

aqueducts and reservoirs of the old world, some still serviceable after thousands of

years, at least the capacity for constructive thinking and corporative ventures which

had a part in human advancement. These aqueducts, canals, and reservoirs built by the

ancient romans turned regions along the coast of northern Africa to be civilized.

(Nault, William H., 1984)

2.3The global situation with water supply and demand

Our planet today is at the eve of accepting 7.355 billion peoples which brings

historically unprecedented pressure to the natural resource of the globe (UNPD.WPP,

Eurostat: Demographic Statistics, UNSD. Population and Vital Statistics Report

(various years), S. Census Bureau: International Database and Secretariat of the

13
Pacific Community: SDP). In this case Water, which is among the basic natural

resource to the livelihood of the rural poor, is exposed to deterioration from time to

time. As a result, today bringing immediate remedy to the global water crisis became

an agenda to achieve the target of the millennium development goals of halving the

proportion of people without access to improved water. Recently thought the global

use of improved water sources showed progress from time to time but still 605 million

people don't have access to safe drinking water which clearly shows the pressure of

the population growth (WHO, 2012).

Besides the population pressure of the globe, the water supply and demand gap are

exacerbated by various factors of inequitable distribution of water rights, economic

resources and uneven resource availabilities (White ford, 2005, cites in Wutich, and

Ragsdale, 2008).

Improved drinking water sources should, but do not always, provide safe drinking

water, and include:

• Piped household water connection

• Public standpipe

• Borehole

• Protected dug well

• Protected spring

• Rainwater collection

Unimproved drinking water sources include:

• Unprotected dug well

• Unprotected spring

14
 • Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, irrigation channel)

• Vendor-provided water (cart with small tank/drum, tanker truck)

• Tanker truck water

2.4 State of water in Somaliland

Water resources are generally scarce in Somaliland and there is no river with perennial

flows in Somaliland. Groundwater is the main source of water for the majority of the

people in Somaliland to meet their water needs, groundwater from dug wells, bore

holes and springs are the primary sources of water for the population in the most of

the country. Groundwater is harnessed by the rural and urban population to meet

domestic and livestock water needs as well as for small scale irrigation.

According to FAO-SWALIM, 2012 a total of 1,037 water sources are found in

Somaliland. More than half of the water sources are shallow wells. Dams are

restricted basically to the region west and south of Hargeisa, while springs are found

in the mountainous regions, particularly in Awdal, between Hargeisa and Berbera and

around Erigavo. The water crisis in Somaliland is a complex issue deeply rooted in its harsh

climatic conditions, limited infrastructure, and socioeconomic challenges. Somaliland's

climate is predominantly arid to semi-arid, with highly erratic and insufficient rainfall.

15
Table 1. Water resources in Somaliland

Region Dams Boreholes Dug wells Springs Others Total

Awdal 14 25 104 37 - 180

Sanaag 2 32 107 30 1 172

Sool 2 18 86 3 - 109

Togdheer 19 40 86 20 31 196

Woqooyi
87 43 212 34 4 380
galbeed

Total 124 158 595 124 36 1037

Source: (SWALIM (2012): Somalia Water and Land Information Management Figure
0-3: Water resources in Somaliland.)

On average, the region receives about 300 mm of rain annually, but high evaporation

rates, often exceeding 2,000 mm, lead to significant water loss. This imbalance creates

frequent and severe water scarcity and droughts, impacting both urban and rural areas.

Droughts are a recurrent issue in Somaliland, exacerbated by climate variations such

as El Niño, which has resulted in below-average rainfall in recent years. These

conditions have severely affected water availability, compounding the challenges of

providing consistent and adequate water supplies to the population. Rapid urban

population growth, at about 4.1% annually, further strains the limited water resources,

increasing the demand for water in urban centres (MoWRD Somaliland).

16
Access to improved drinking water source

In 2012, 89% of the world’s population had access to an improved source, up from 76

% in 1990. This indicates that, since 1990 over 2.3 billion people have gained access

to improved sources of drinking water. More than half the world’s populations, almost

4 billion people, now enjoy the highest level of water access: a piped water connection

at their homes. But there were 748 million people still relying on unsafe drinking

water sources in 2012, of which 173 million obtained their drinking water straight

from rivers, streams or ponds. The remaining population relied on unprotected, open

wells or poorly protected natural springs. Nearly half of the populations who lack

ready access to improved sources of drinking water are in Sub-Saharan Africa

(Debela, Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes:The Case of Tulu- Bolo town and

surrounding villages inSouth West Shewa Zone of the Oromia Regional State, 2015).

The 2015 assessment report by the UNICEF/WHO indicated that Ethiopia has met the

MDG target 7c by halving the number of people without access to safe water since

1990 i.e. 57% of the population have access to improved drinking water source

(UNICEF Ethiopia, 2015). The coverage stood at 22% in 1990 and 24 % in 2000.

Although there has been a major leap in providing safe drinking water to the nation in

the last two decades, it’s evident that there is much more to be done. There are still 42

million Ethiopians without access to improved water supply. Lack of access to potable

water coupled with high population and urbanization growth rate; availing water is

still a major challenge for the nation. In addition to lack of access, the ability to

sustain the progress is in danger due to high level of non-functional schemes that are

prevalent (WSP, 2011). (Debela, Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes:The Case of

17
Tulu- Bolo town and surrounding villages in South West Shewa Zone of the Oromia

Regional State, Jun/2015)

Affected population
While exact numbers vary, it is estimated that a significant portion of Somaliland's

population faces water insecurity. For instance, according to a UNICEF report, over

30% of the population in some regions lacks access to safe drinking water. The

European Union's investment in urban water projects, totalling over $28 million in

recent years, highlights the scale of the challenge and the efforts needed to address it.

(UN Partner Portal).

2.5 Rainfall

The use of rainwater is a common technique in many countries. The rainwater is

collected on an equipped surface (generally the roof of a house) and is brought by

gutters in a storage reservoir. This technique of water supply can prove to be

interesting in certain areas, either where it rains a lot, either very dry when the water

resources are very scarce and any source of water should be used.

Because of the great storage volumes required, this technique is used as a temporary

resource in complement to others. In all cases, the main disadvantage of this water

resource comes from the quality of water, polluted and charged with sediment during

the filling (roof dusty or covered with animal excrements for example), and

contaminated after a long period of storage. Moreover, the lack of minerals makes

rainwater. (often acid) corrosive. towards metals -(because no limestone is present to

neutralize acidity), and if the rainwater is the only source of drinking water for the

population, it might be necessary to add minerals to the food (iodine for example ... )

to compensate their absence in the drinking water (Ainab, 2013 ).

18
Figure 1. Somaliland mean annual rainfall spatial distribution.

Source: (Somaliland diagnostic report Final,2016)

Plateau (Semi-Arid) landscape

The Plateau (Semi-arid) landscape is south of the Mountain and Highland (Moist)

landscape and to the West by Valley landform. This landscape includes the areas

around Wajale, Gebiley and Hargeisa. It has an altitude of between 1200 and 1500

MASL. This landscape is similar to the Semi-Arid Mountain and Highland landscape

presented in Fig. 4 above but has a slightly drier climate although the average

temperature remains between 20 – 24 ⁰C. The landscape has a total annual rainfall of

between 500 and 600 mm which is distributed across two rain seasons which almost

join together to provide a conducive crop and vegetation growing condition. The

landscape Potential Evapotranspiration is one and half times the rainfall and therefore

good potential for crop and vegetation growth. The landscape comes second to the

Semi-Arid Mountain landscape in terms of the land production potential.

19
Figure 2. Climatic characteristics of Plateau (Semi-arid) landscape

2.6 Groundwater Resources of Somaliland

Groundwater is the primary source of water supply in Somaliland, mainly from

boreholes, springs and dug wells. Surface water resources in the region are limited to

seasonal rivers (togga) and small water catchments which hold water only during

rainy season. Potential groundwater aquifers occur extensively throughout Somaliland

with varying characteristics regarding depths, yields and quality aspects. Recharge to

the aquifers is limited by limited rainfall, high evaporation and short runoff events. A

study by SWALIM (Hydrogeological Assessment of Somaliland and Puntland, 2012)

classified areas with groundwater potential in Somaliland into two categories,

considering the water quality and aquifer depth:

20
 • Areas of shallow to moderate deep well and fair to good water quality located

along the coastal belt, along streams in the mountainous areas and sloping

escarpment of Somaliland.

• Areas of very deep wells with poor quality water along the plateaus and

valleys in Togdheer and Sool regions.

Within the dry river beds there are often shallow perched aquifers of 2 – 20m depth

found in the alluvial sediments and within the flood plains. The depth of boreholes in

Somaliland varies from less than 30m up to almost 400m, with yield from as low as

0.5l/s to over 17l/s. Very deep low yielding aquifers compounded by high salinity are

the major challenges facing development of groundwater resources in Somaliland.

Map 1 shows the spatial distribution and variation of borehole depths across the four

major landforms in Somaliland.

Somaliland has a vast area of land under plateau. Accordingly, there are many

boreholes established along the plateaus, with varying depths. According to the water

sources database in SWALIM, the borehole depths along the plateau range from 37 –

370m. Majority of these boreholes are very deep, 61% over 150m deep. Only 14% of

the 164 boreholes are less than 100m deep. The water quality of majority of boreholes

drilled in the plateau is poor, mainly due to elevated levels of salinity.

21
Figure 3. Borehole distribution and variation of depths in different landforms map

Source : (Ullah, 2016)

In the mountains and highlands areas of Somaliland boreholes are generally shallow

compared to other landforms. There are 41 boreholes (52%) with depths less than

100m, and only 17% are more than 150m deep. Along the valleys 42% of boreholes

are within 100m depth; 33% are between 100 – 149m deep while 26% are deeper than

150m. Water quality along the mountains is generally fair but gets poor in the valleys,

again due to high salinity levels. The area classified under coastal plain in Somaliland

is small compared to the other three classes. Only 18 boreholes fall under this

landform, out of which 8 (44%) are shallow with 46 depths less than 100m, and 17%

deeper than 150m. Water coming out of the boreholes established along the coastal

plain is of mixed quality. (Ullah, S. (2016). Territorial diagnostic report of the land

resources of Somaliland. FAO-SWALIM, Nairobi, Kenya.

22
 Chapter Three

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Description of the Study Area

Figure 4. Salaxley town map

3.1.1 Location

Salahley, is a town located in the MarodiJeh region of Somaliland, about 60

kilometres southeast of Hargeisa, the capital of Somaliland. The Town is near the

border with Ethiopia's Somali region, approximately 15 kilometres away. Salahley is

24
positioned approximately between the coordinates 9.6278° N latitude and 44.0419° E

longitude. Its geographical location positions it as an important agricultural and

commercial centre within the broader region, facilitating trade and economic activity

with nearby areas.

3.1.2 Topography

Salahley is characterized by a varied topography that includes flat plains, rolling hills,

and dry riverbeds. The flat plains dominate the landscape, featuring sandy and infertile

soils with sparse vegetation, primarily drought-resistant shrubs and grasses. These

plains are essential for pastoralism, the main livelihood in the region. Despite the arid

conditions, the plains support the grazing of livestock such as goats, sheep, and

camels.

The rolling hills scattered throughout the area provide a modest elevation change in

the otherwise flat terrain. These hills are covered with thorny bushes and acacia trees,

typical of the semi-arid environment. The dry riverbeds, which only flow during the

rainy seasons, are crucial for the local ecosystem, providing temporary water sources

that support both agriculture and livestock.

24
Figure 5. Elevation map of Somaliland and Study area(Salaxley district)
3.1.2 Climate

Salahley District experiences a semi-arid climate typical of the Horn of Africa region.

The climate is characterized by hot and dry conditions for much of the year, with a

short rainy season. Salahley experiences high temperatures throughout the year, with

average daytime temperatures often exceeding 30°C (86°F). The hottest months

typically occur between June and September. The district receives minimal rainfall

outside of the short rainy season. The dry season, which lasts for several months,

contributes to the arid nature of the landscape. Salahley receives most of its

precipitation during a short rainy season, typically occurring between April and June.

During this time, sporadic rainfall can occur, supporting agricultural activities in the

region.

3.2 Description of Existing Water Supply System

Salahley, a region characterized by its arid climate and limited rainfall, relies on a

combination of traditional and modern water supply systems to meet the needs of its

inhabitants. The primary source of water in Salahley is groundwater, accessed through

a network of deep wells and boreholes. These wells are often fitted with motorized

pumps powered by diesel generators, providing a steady supply of water to the

community. In addition to these wells, Salahley utilizes hand-dug wells, which are

shallower and rely on manual labour for water extraction. These traditional wells are

crucial for households located in remote areas, where access to motorized pumps is

limited.

25
To supplement the groundwater sources, Salahley has also implemented rainwater

harvesting systems. These systems capture and store rainwater during the brief rainy

season, ensuring a supplementary supply of water during the dry months. Water

storage tanks and cisterns are strategically placed throughout the region to maximize

the collection and distribution of rainwater. Additionally, the community has

constructed small-scale dams, sand dams, and plastic sheeting dams to enhance water

retention and recharge groundwater levels. These measures help to bolster the water

supply, but the community still faces significant challenges in maintaining a consistent

and sufficient water source.

Despite these efforts, Salahley continues to face challenges related to water scarcity

and infrastructure maintenance. The town has not had any house connections, which

limits the direct distribution of water to individual homes. Instead, residents rely on 8

kiosks and one central tank with a capacity of 16 cubic meters to access water. This

centralized system necessitates continuous improvements and investments in both

infrastructure and water management practices to ensure a reliable and adequate water

supply for Salahley's population. Addressing these challenges is crucial for the well-

being and development of the community.

3.3. Components of Water Distribution systems

3.3.1. Transmission Main

The transmission main, although it may have a small number of service connections

on it, it is used to convey the majority of flow from the source, treatment plant, and/or

storage facilities to the distribution system where the majority of service connections

are located. It is designed to transport the maximum day demand of water to service

reservoirs and for peak hour demand from reservoir to distribution network. It should

26
also be designed for peak hour demands where direct pumping is required from source

and/or treatment plant to distribution system.

3.3.2 Pressure in the Distribution Main

Gravity supply from the service reservoir at lowest water level condition. As a rule, a

minimum manometric head of 15m is considered as adequate during Peak Hour

Demands. However, in exceptional cases, depending on the topography of the area,

lower pressure levels may be permitted, but not less than 10 m. A maximum of 80m

manometric head, to avoid risking leaks and bursts in the distribution system,

particularly during minimum flow conditions and when the static pressure would be

dominant. Pipe pressure classes are chosen for the maximum pressure head that may

occur under no or minimum consumption condition which is set at nil or 10 percent of

the average day demand and the service reservoir at maximum water level. The

operating pressures in the distribution network shall be as follows:

Table 2. Recommended Operating Pressure in the Distribution Network

Normal conditions Exceptional conditions

Minimum 15m water head 10m water head

Maximum 60m water head Water head

Source: (Merga, 2019)

3.4. Research design

The research took the form of a descriptive method designs, and the reason for this is

because it is aimed at describing the current situation so that it could be understood

clearly in order for the gaps identified to be addressed. It also adopted a case study

approach to investigate the current development and promotion practices of urban

water. Since it would be impossible to carry out research in the whole country, the

27
research used a case study of Salahley district, and the information obtained from

there would be treated as representative of the entire country at large. The design was

appropriate because it involved drawing small samples in order for in depth analysis

to be made.

The study was both qualitative and quantitative. The quantitative data was obtained

using structured questionnaires from different residents, civil servants and non-

government organizations workers both dealing in water related issues and non-water

related issues since water affects all, while the qualitative data was obtained from key

informants, through interviews and observations.

3.4.1. Type and source of data

The type of a data we will use in our research is primary data. So, we apply our study

in both quantitative and qualitative type of data. We will make quantitative data by

using structured observation, also we will make a qualitative data by using closed

questionnaire form.

3.5. Sampling and sample size determination

3.5.1. Target population

In the study, the target population were residents and both private and government

owned organizations dealing in water related issues. These three categories of

respondents were considered because they had adequate information on the aspects

considered in the study. The population of the study in this research was comprised of

9000 people.

28
3.5.2. Sample size

The sample for this study consisted of 33 respondents chosen from among the

residents, civil servants and non-government organizations workers both dealing in

water related issues in Salahley district. The population was divided into strata of

residents, government and non-government organizations. Through stratified random,

sampling was determined the extent to which each stratum in the population would be

represented in the sample and it guaranteed representation for all the population.

3.5.3. Sample procedure

Stratified random sampling was used in order to get a representative sample of the

study population. This technique ensured representation of significant sub-groups of

the population. After putting the target population into strata, simple random sampling

was used in selecting the civil servants, non-government organization workers and

residents from the study area. A sample had to be carefully selected if there was to be

confidence that the findings from the sample are similar to those that would be found

among the rest of the category under investigation. In this study, a sample of 33

respondents was used. These were selected using both simple random sampling and

purposive techniques. Purposive techniques were used more in order to attract

respondents who are capable of providing the most appropriate information on the

subject matter. In determining the sample, the research was guided by Sloven's sample

selection formula as follows; Where;

N n = Sample
n=
1 + N(e2 )
N = population

e = Margin of error

29
3.6. Methods of data collection

To achieve the objectives of this study, the researcher used a quantitative research

method through a structured observation, to measure surface water availability,

including flow rates and volumes of rivers, streams, and ponds, also Topographic

surveys and geological investigations will be conducted to identify suitable dam sites.

River width and depth will also be measured.

30
 Chapter Four

4. Water Demand And Design

4.1 Introduction

Design of water supply and sanitation scheme is based on the projected population of

a particular city, estimated for the design period. Any underestimated value will make

system inadequate for the purpose intended; similarly overestimated value will make

it costly. Change in the population of the city over the years occurs, and the system

should be designed taking into account of the population at the end of the design

period. Factors affecting changes in population are:

o increase due to births

o decrease due to deaths

o increase/ decrease due to migration

o increase due to annexation.

The present and past population record for the city can be obtained from the census

population records. After collecting these population figures, the population at the end

of design period is predicted using various methods as suitable for that city

considering the growth pattern followed by the city.

The design period of a water supply scheme can be limited by the following factors;

o Funds available for the completion of the project

31
 o Life of the pipe and other structural materials used in the water supply

scheme.

o Interest rate for loans taken out to finish the project.

o the town's anticipated rate of growth.

Table 3. Design Period of Different Components of a Water Supply Scheme

St. no Components Design period (years)

1. Storage dams 50

2. Infiltration 30

3. Pumping sets

i. Prime movers except electric 30

ii. Electric motors and pumps 15

4. Water treatment units 15

5. Pipe connections to several treatment 30

units

6. Raw water and clear water conveying 30

mains

7. Clear water reservoirs at head works, 15

balancing tanks 15 & service reservoirs

8. Distribution system 30

(Urban Water Supply Design Criteria, 2006)

32
4.2 Population forecasting

4.2.1. Arithmetic increase method

This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable development. If it is

used for small, average or comparatively new cities, it will give low result than actual

value. In this method the average increase in population per decade is calculated from

the past census reports. This increase is added to the present population to find out the

population of the next decade. Thus, it is assumed that the population is increasing at

constant rate.

Table 4. Population growth of Salahley in the past 30 years

Year 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019 2024

Household 75 115 195 370 800 1500

Table 5. Computed population in Salahley town.

Year 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019 2024

Population 450 690 1170 2220 4800 9000

Average household size taken as 6 people.(source: The Somaliland Health and

Demographic Survey 2020)

Table 6. Arithmetic increase method

Years Population Population increase

1999 450 −

2004 690 240

2009 1170 480

2014 2220 1050

2019 4800 2580

33
2024 9000 4200

𝑋 − = 1740

Table 7. Projected populations over the design period

Years 2024 2029 2034 2039 2044 2049 2054

Population 9000 10740 12480 14220 15960 17700 19440

Pn = Po + nx̄ ,

where,

Po - last known population

Pn - population (predicted) after 'n' number of decades,

n - number of decades between Po and Pn and,

x̄ - the rate of population growth.

P2054 = 9000 + (3 ∗ 3480) = 19440

4.2.2 Incremental increase method

Table 8. Population increase.

Years Population Population Incremental

increase increase

1994 450 _____ ______

2004 1170 720 ______

2014 4800 3630 2910

2024 9000 4200 570

X= 8550 Y=3480

34
 ∑𝑋 8550 3480
𝑋− = = = 2850 𝑌− = = 1740
𝑁 3 2
𝑛(𝑛+1) 3∗4
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃 + 𝑛 ∗ 𝑋 + { }∗𝑦 = 𝑃3 = 9000 + (3 ∗ 2850) + ( ) ∗ 1740 =
2 2

27,990 people

4.2.3 Geometric increase method

This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population

remains constant. It also known as uniform increase method. The increase is

compounded over the existing population. This method is mostly applicable for

growing towns and cities having vast scope of expansion.

r n
Pn = Po [1 + ( )]
100

Po - last known population,

Pn - population (predicted) after 'n' number of decades,

n - number of decades between Po and Pn and,

r - growth rate = (increase in population/initial population) * 100 (%).

Table 9. Geometric population increase growth table

Years Population Population Growth rate

increase

1994 450 _____ ______

2004 1170 720 160%

2014 2220 3630 310%

2024 9000 6780 305%

X= 8550

35
 4
Growth rate (r)= √160 ∗ 310 ∗ 305 = 62.36%

Number of decades= 2024 – 2054 = 30 years (3decades)

62.36 3 62.36 3
P2054 = P2054 [1 + ( )] = P2054 = 9000 [1 + ( )]
100 100

P2054 = 9000[4.28] = 𝟑𝟖, 𝟓𝟐𝟎 people

Here is the summary of the three methods of the population forecasting in one table;

Method Current population(2024) Projected population(2054)

Arithmetic 9000 19,440

Incremental 9000 27,990

Geometric 9000 38,520

Figure 6. (aerial photo of Salahley in 2024)

Source: (Google Earth. (n.d.). https://earth.google.com)

36
The Geometric increase method is advantageous for forecasting the population of a

small town because it assumes a constant percentage growth rate, which aligns well

with how populations tend to grow naturally. Unlike the linear growth model that adds

a fixed number of people each year, the geometric model accounts for compounding

growth, where the population increase builds on itself over time. This makes the

model more accurate for reflecting real-world growth patterns, especially in small

towns where growth is more likely to be proportional to the current population.

Another advantage of the geometric growth model over the exponential growth model

is its simplicity and ease of use. While the exponential model involves more complex

calculations with the natural logarithm base e, the geometric model can be easily

implemented with basic spreadsheet tools. This simplicity makes it accessible for

planners and analysts who may not have advanced statistical training. Moreover, for

moderate growth rates commonly seen in small towns, the geometric model provides

reliable projections without the need for the intricate computations required by the

exponential model.

4.3 Water demand

4.3.1 Minimum water requirements

Humans have the right to ‘sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and

affordable water for personal and domestic uses’ (United Nations Committee on

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 2003). A minimum quantity of water should be

available for drinking, food preparation, basic hygiene, bathing and sanitation to

ensure sustainable, healthy urban living. The most basic water requirement is

stipulated by the World Health Organization (WHO) and varies between 20 and 50

litres per capita per day (LPCD). The basic water requirement determined by WHO is

37
limited to access at an offsite tap and does not include consideration of homes with

piped water (WHO 2003). For this study, water use is viewed from the perspective of

sustainable, healthy urban living which implies a higher level of service than the

minimum required to survive, that is a full household connection to continuously

supplied, piped, pressurised, potable water. Water quality considerations were beyond

the scope of this study.

4.3.2 Domestic Water Demand:

Domestic water demand covers the essential water needs of households, including

drinking, cooking, bathing, personal hygiene, cleaning, and toilet flushing. It

represents the everyday use of water within homes, sustaining health, cleanliness, and

sanitation for individuals and families.

Table 10. Typical use of domestic water use

Type of use Consumption in litres per capita per day

(Lcpd)

Drinking 5

Cooking 10

Bathing 10

Washing of clothes 20

Washing of utensils 10

Total* 55Lcpd

For instance, the current domestic water demand of Salahley can be calculated as;

38
 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 9000 𝑥 55 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔/𝒅𝒂𝒚

𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝟒𝟗𝟓 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒂𝒚.

Therefore, Our average daily demand we can calculate the maximum daily demand by

As for the water demand the amount of domestic requirement may vary depending on

size and location of a city or town. Depending upon location of a place living habits

and condition vary. In a more civilized country per capita requirement of water is

more. Similarly, for a big city per capita water requirement will be more than a small

town. Per capita demand for a place may be as low as 55 lpcd to as high as 500 to 600

lcpd. Factors, which affect per capita requirement, are summarized below :

a) Climatic Condition

In dried regions more water is required than colder places because of frequent

bathing, more cleaning and more requirement of water for gardening etc. In hot and

dry climate more consumption of drinking water is also there.

b) Status and Habits of Residents

For affluent class of people, more water is required because of their present habits and

more sophisticated lively style. For example, a house of rich people may have bathing

tubs for their bath where excessive amount of water may be required per capita. In

some of the Asian countries, toilets are cleaned after using it by pouring buckets of

water. In addition, for their personal cleaning people use water. They do not use toilet

papers and in such practice, more water is consumed. In some religion people, wash

39
themselves before every prayer and due to such habits also consumption of water

varies.

C) Size and Type of the City

For large city per capita, water requirement is more than a small town. For bigger city

where population density is high, special arrangement has to be done for firefighting

also. Although this type of demand may be taken up separately, it enhances per capita

water demand. Large city has sewer system for waste water disposal and for this case

water requirement may go as high as three times than open drain system. A town may

be a smaller one but if it is an industrial town then per capita demand may be

composed with a big city because of indirect use of water. Although an average value

of 135 lcpd is taken for an Indian town but the total demand may go as high as 240 to

260 lcpd for a big or an industrial city. The values vary from 55 lcpd to 260 lcpd

depending upon size and location of a town or city

4.3.3 Institutional and Commercial Water Demand:

Commercial water demand refers to the water consumed by businesses and service

sectors such as restaurants, hotels, office buildings, and retail establishments. It

includes water used for various purposes like cooking, cleaning, restroom facilities,

and other operational needs essential for commercial activities.

Table 11. Institutional and commercial water demand

Type Purpose Litre per capita Salahley

per day(Lcpd)

Schools Drinking and cooking 5-10 3 schools

40
 (750 students)

Toilet flushing 10-15

Total* 15 - 20 𝟗, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒍/𝒅𝒂𝒚

Boarding Total water demand 75-150 (including No boardings

schools residential needs)

Hospitals Patients (general) 200-300 Assume 10 staffs plus

visitors = 60 each day

Total* 300-450 = 𝟑, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒍/𝒅𝒂𝒚

Offices Drinking and cooking 5-10

Total* 20-30

Prisons Inmates 120

Total* 150 =3,000litres/day

Hotels Guests 150-200

Total* 180-250 =2,500litres/day

Restaurants Total water demand 50-70 per seat =7,000litres/day

Religious places Total water demand 15-20per person 10000litres/day

Railway stations Total water demand 10-20 per person

Airports Total water demand 50-100 per

passenger

In total, the institutional or commercial demand of Salahley therefore is;

49,500litres/day or simply 10% of our domestic water demand.

41
4.3.4 Industrial Water Demand:

Industrial water demand encompasses water utilized in manufacturing and industrial

processes, playing a vital role in production, cleaning, cooling, and as an ingredient in

final products. It represents the significant usage of water in industries to support

various economic activities and goods production.

As there is no industries in Salahley this part would be zero.

4.3.5 Firefighting and Losses:

This category covers water used for firefighting purposes by fire departments to

extinguish fires and protect property and lives. It also includes water losses due to

leaks, pipe bursts, and inefficiencies in distribution systems, highlighting the

challenges in maintaining water infrastructure and managing water resources

effectively.

In this part we would use 5% of the total domestic water demand of salahley to be the

firefighting and losses, so that is; 0.05𝑥495,000 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝒍⁄𝒅 𝑜𝑟 𝟐𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝒎𝟑

Public Water Demand:

Public and institutional water demand includes water used by public services and

institutions such as municipal services, parks and recreation facilities, hospitals,

healthcare facilities, and government buildings. It serves diverse purposes like

firefighting, sanitation, and operational needs crucial for maintaining public health,

safety, and community services.

42
4.3.6 Total water requirement

The total demand investigated from investigation is the total potential demand

assuming all persons receive and adequate supply, but this may not be possible if the

source works are inadequate or distribution mains are not large enough, some people

may not receive as much water as they need. Therefore, there may be some unsatisfied

demand term can drop out but where the supply is inadequate or pressures are too low

for consumers to obtain what they want, a high unsatisfied demand can exist at the

time as there are high distribution losses.

The average daily per capita demand (lcpd) can be written as;

Actual Supply = Total potential demand

+ Consumer wastage

+ Distribution losses- unsatisfied demand

+_ Metering errors

Thus the current total water required is = Domestic water demand +

Commercial/institutional water demand + firefighting and losses

= 495,000l/d + 49,500l/d + 24,750l/d = 569,250litres/day or 𝟓𝟔𝟗. 𝟐𝟓𝐦𝟑

The projected water demand after 30 years would be = 38,852 x 55lcpd =

2,118,600litres per day or 2118.6𝒎𝟑

4.4 Design: Methods of distribution

Three methods or systems are outlined below:

• Gravity system

• Pumping system

43
 • Combined gravity and pumping system

4.4.1 Layout of distribution networks

There are four principal methods of layout for distribution systems:

a. Dead end or tree system

b. Gridiron system

c. Circular or ring system

d. Radial system

A dead-end water distribution system has been chosen for the design of Salahley's

water supply primarily due to its cost-effectiveness and simplicity, which are

particularly advantageous for small towns with limited budgets and straightforward

geographical layouts. In a dead-end system, water flows from the source or main trunk

line to the endpoints, creating distinct branches that serve different sections of the

town. This type of system is easier to design and construct, requiring fewer pipes and

less complex network analysis compared to looped systems. Additionally, dead-end

systems allow for more straightforward control and maintenance, as specific sections

of the network can be isolated without disrupting the entire supply. For a small town

like Salahley, where the population density is relatively low and the water demand can

be easily managed, a dead-end system provides an efficient and practical solution that

meets the community's needs while minimizing infrastructure costs and operational

complexity.

Also, the water distribution network of Salahley will be used both gravity and

pumping methods to bring water to their destined places.

44
4.4.2 Design demands

The consumption patterns of different users of water supply services vary on hourly,

daily and annual basis. Keeping records of these variations can help in developing

standard peak factors for a given locality, which is the basis for the design of different

water supply components. Poor estimation of these factors can lead to under or over

design of water supply systems. To evaluate the different elements of a water supply

scheme, the following design demands will be considered.

Average day demand

The average daily demand(ADD) is the total annual (average) water demand

distributed over 365 days. It obtained by simply summing up the domestic and non-

domestic demands as well as unaccounted for water (UFW). These form the basis to

estimate the maximum day and the peak hour demand. For an average day demand, 20

to 24 hrs of pumping are recommended. The most common means of forecasting

future water demand is estimating current per-capital water consumption, and multiply

this by the projected population.

Maximum day demand/seasonal peak factor

The maximum day water demand (MDD) is considered to meet water consumption

changes with seasons and days of the week. It also represents the changes in demand

with season and some special events happening in any specified year. The maximum

day demand is obtained by multiplying the average day demand with the maximum

day factor. In other words, the maximum day demands can be obtained by multiplying

the average-day demands to the peaking factor applied to the node’ (Venkateswara,

2005). Qmax = PF ∗ Q,avg

45
Where,

Qmax = Maximum day demand (cfs, m3/s)

PF = Peaking factor between maximum day and average day demand

Qavg = Average day demand (cfs, m3/s)

Peak hour demand (PHD)

This occurs when particularly all the water taps are opened at a particular rush hour.

Such event happens during morning hours when most people use water for bathing,

cooking and could also occur towards the end of the day due to peoples’ need for

water for the same purpose after working hours. The peak hour demand is the highest

demand of any one hour over the maximum day. It represents the diurnal variations in

water demand resulting from the behavioural patterns of the local population. The

peak hour demand is obtained by multiplying the maximum day demand with the peak

hour factor.

Demand Patterns

Water demand in a distribution system fluctuates over time. For example, residential

water use on a typical weekday is higher than average in the morning before people go

to work, and is usually highest in the evening when residents are preparing dinner,

washing clothes, etc. This variation in demand over time can be modelled using

demand patterns.

46
Figure 7. Demand pattern at different hours in EPANET

Roughness coefficients for pipeline

The Hazen-Williams equation was developed for the action of friction at the pipe wall,

because its formula uses a pipe carrying capacity factor. Higher C-factors represent

smoother pipes (with higher carrying capacities) and lower C-factors describe rougher

pipes (Tomas, et al., 2003). The value of roughness coefficient, C-factor is depending

on pipe materials and its age (Tomas, et al., 2003). Typical pipe roughness values are

shown below. These values may vary depending on the manufacturer, workmanship,

age, and many other factors. In designing the distribution network, we use the Hazen

William formula with C value of UPVC, Steel DCI/GI as follow by taking the average

of each material. For UPVC take 105, Steel 100 and DCI/GI take 105. Because we

have no the exact year in which each pipe is installed.

47
Table 12. Pipe Roughness for Different Pipe Material.

4.5 Building Data Base for Modelling Water Supply Systems

The purpose of creating data base for a water supply system is to export and import

data elements between the EPANET model and date base files so as efficiently

perform the analysis of the system and produce the required out puts. There are four

ways to input the data required to build network which mainly depends on the format

in which the data being stored, the complexity of the project and personal experience

of designers. In case of this project Microsoft Excel Spread Sheets are used for

establishing the data bases of the network as a starting point and other methods will be

employed as required. The arrangement of basic project data and corresponding

modelling elements have been outlined as follows.

4.5.1 Water Demand Data

The water demand data and respective supply points are represented as junction nodes

in EPANET as mentioned earlier. The water demands data and their respective points

of locations have been spatially distributed in accordance with the master plan of the

town and density of population or other water user customers. Either the average or

maximum day demand of those areas could be used when modelling demand points.

48
4.5.2 Water Supply Sources data

All selected alternative water supply sources such as Boreholes, Dam and Storage,

River Intakes and springs, and their respective locations, and sources quantities are

modelled as reservoirs and arranged in Microsoft Excel Spread Sheets.

4.5.3 Transmission and distribution network

Knowing the locations of possible water supply sources and locations of Demand

points, the next question is how to convey the required water from supply sources to

demand points. Depending on the topographic conditions, the logical starts at this

stage are the selection of best routes, laying out of transmission and distribution mains

and definition of data elements required to build the network. The transmission mains

are designed for a capacity of maximum daily water demands while distribution

networks are for peak hourly demands of the project.

4.5.4 Pumping Stations

Pumping stations are designed for maximum daily water demands. Arrangement of

appropriate locations for pumping stations, installation of wet wells and pumps are the

modelling components of pumping stations.

4.5.5 Reservoirs

Service reservoirs (Tanks) are designed to balance the hourly fluctuations of water

demands. Capacities are determined by either the storage requirements of one third

maximum day demand or mass curve analysis of the inflow verses outflow systems.

Service reservoirs are located at higher ground elevations where water will be

distributed to target communities with flow of gravity.

49
4.5.6 Valves

Installation of Valves such as Pressure reducing valves (PRV) Air releasing Valves

(ARV), Flow Control Valves (FCV), Flush out Valves (FOV), etc, at the required

locations and data elements.

4.5.7 Model calibration and validation

The computed parameters of a model and actual field observation are not always

having the same value. Therefore, before discussion about the simulated model

results, the entire model data quality must be analysed by calibration and validation

technique. Calibration is a process of adjusting the model input data until its results

become closely approximate to the measured field data. Whereby, it used to obtain

approach, realistic and acceptable results. Therefore, in this study the model data

quality analysis was done by comparing and calibrating the computed pressure data

with the observed one.

4.5.8 EPANET

EPANET is a software application developed by the United States Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) to simulate the hydraulic and water quality behaviour of

water distribution systems. It is widely used by engineers and water utility managers

to model the movement and concentration of water constituents within a network of

pipes, pumps, valves, and storage tanks. The software is essential for understanding

and managing the complex interactions within water distribution systems, ensuring

efficient and safe water delivery.

EPANET's primary features include hydraulic modelling, which simulates the flow of

water in each pipe and calculates the pressure at each junction, and water quality

modelling, which tracks the movement and concentration of substances like chlorine

50
throughout the system. Additionally, EPANET allows for extended period simulations,

enabling the analysis of water distribution systems over extended periods to

understand how systems respond to changes over time. These capabilities make

EPANET an invaluable tool for designing and optimizing water distribution networks,

ensuring they operate efficiently and meet safety standards.

Evaluation of Distribution System

Analysis of the existing distribution network has been conducted for two conditions of

the peak and minimum demands of the system, as described in the evaluation criteria.

The peak hour demand was about 807.1 l/s. It occurs from 6-7 AM in the morning

when most people get up for daily business. The existing minimum consumption is 97

l/s. It occurs from 11PM to 3AM hours in the night.

Figure 8. Water distribution network of Salahley in Epanet (dead-end system)

51
Figure 9. Elevation(node) vs Length(pipe) distribution

Figure 10. Velocity vs Pressure distribution

52
Figure 11. Base demand vs flow distribution

Figure 12. Elevation vs diameter distribution

53
Figure 13. Head vs unit head loss

Figure 14. Contour plot of Elevation

54
Figure 15. Contour plot of pressure

Figure 16. Profile of pressure at junctions 3, 4 and 11

55
Figure 17. Distribution of pressure at the junctions

Figure 18. Distribution of Velocity of pipes at 0:00 hours

56
Bill of quantity of Salaxley water supply system

BOQ FOR SALAHLEY WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

SALAHLEY PROJECT
Scope of Work: Construction of 1600 meters Transmission/distribution pipe
lines + kioosks to SALAHLEY Village
Transmissoin of pipe lines from elevated water tank
No Description Unit QTY Rates ($) Amount ($)

Site Clearance: cut ,clear and dump away all

the trees,debris and unnecessary materials,
1
150 mm top soil, use hydraulic excavators for
site clearing
SQM 23 $ 300 $ 6,900.00
Excavation and back filling of pipelines
:Excavate all pipe lines 0.4m wide and 0.6m
deep and 7950m from the well upto the
2 junctions in the Center of the village, for the
small valleys excavation should be 1.1m deep,
give the necessry compaction ( use hydraulic
excavators where necessary) CUM 1908 $ 5 $ 9,540.00
Pipe work: provide and install a 8" inch
diameter of 3150m GI class B from the spring
with neccesary valves. Construct concrete
columns to parts crossing the valleys. The
3
system should include all fittings(Tees,
Sockets , gate valves,cap +
unions+reducer+and adaptors ,elbows and
non return valves) LM 3150 $ 11 $ 34,650.00
Pipe work: Supply all materials and install a 4"
and 3'' Diameter of a total of 4100m long
Hdpe ( part of the pipe especially in the valleys
should be G.I) class B pipe with necessary
valves, the pipe is from the elevated concrete
4
water tank to a Water point in the center of
the town . The system should include all
fittings(Tees, Sockets , gate valves,cap +
unions+reducer+and adaptors ,elbows and
non return valves). LM 4100 $ 9 $ 36,900.00
5 Subtotal of pipeline transmission $ 87,990.00
57
6 Distribution pipelines to Water points or
kiosks (600 Meters)
Excavation and back filling of pipelines
:Excavate all pipe lines 0.4m wide and 0.6m
7 deep and 7350m length from central water
point kiosk in the village to two other water
points in the corners of the village. Cum 7350 $ 5 $ 36,750.00
Pipe work : Supply & Install of 2" and 3''
Diameter Hdpe distribution branch pipe line
8 of 7350 meters to water points with necessary
fittings((Tees, Sockets , gate valves,cap +
unions+reducer+and adaptors ,elbows and).
LM 7350 $ 7 $ 51,450.00
9 Subtotal of Distribution pipe line $ 88,200.00
Construction of 2 Community water point for
10
Water Distribution
Water points (kiosks) :Construction of 4
Community water points (This is consist of
11 2.5x2.5meters Rooms with 1 Door ,1 window ,
soak pit, catchment pit.) as per the attached
Typical drawing LS 4 $ 1,500 $ 6,000.00
Fittings :Provision and installation of all
required fittings for the Community water
12
points including 3/4 inch pipes, tees , valves
and elbows LS 1 $ 1,500 $ 1,500.00
Subtotal $ 7,500.00
GRAND TOTAL 183,690.00

There is no need for the design and also the BOQ of the elevated water tank as there is

two water tanks in Salahley and they are in good shape same for the kiosks, but we

added four additional kiosks and that makes a total of 12 kiosks to meet the demand of

the people.

58
 Total Amount
SL Description of Items Qty Unit Unit Price
USD
A. Equipment and Accessories
Supply and fix Submersible
Compact submersible Solar
Borehole pump Type SQ 2-35 ,
1.4 KW with its pump controller
1 .A running current with throw 1 No $2,500.00 $2,500.00
head over 50m and 20m3 /h
discharge with rud dry protection
sensor fitted .110-415VDC out of
1X 220-240VAC.

Provide and Install GI rising pipes

3 3 NO 40 $120.00
2 inch with complete fittings

Mono crystalline solar modules:

4 390W, 45V, 72 cells arrangement 6 No 200 $1,200.00
with manufacturer’s datasheet.

5 Well probe sensor with plugs 1 No 150 $150.00

1.5 sqmm 2-core cable for well

6 1 roll 50 $50.00
probes

Solar Mounting Structure: steel

7 ground mount structure as 1 No 800 $800.00
instructed by the Engineer

8 PV disconnect Switch 1000 V/40A 1 No 80 $80.00

pump cable 4 core 6mm2 pure

9 100 LM 6 $600.00
copper

10 Water level sensor 1 pc 100 $100.00

Water level sensor cable 1.5mm2

11 1 roll 50 $50.00
2core pure copper

12 Surge Protector 1 No 80 $80.00

13 63A Manual Change-over Switch 1 No 100 $100.00

14 Wire 10mm 100 LM 1.5 $150.00

15 Accessories lumpsum 1 100 $100.00

16 Installation cost 1 No 1000 $1,000.00

Subtotal $7,080.00

59
fencing
Cast and contruct plain concrete
base for the each panel. The
1 dimension of base will cum 1.5 200 $300.00
0.3mx0.3mx0.5. excavation for
this base includes the price
Fencing: 1.Supply and install
8m*18m area ) mesh wire fence
wall with 2inch angle bar spacing
2meters c/c and hieght of
3m(50cm shall go beneath earth )
The angle bars shall be fixed with
a mass concrete footing having
dimension of 0.3mx0.3mx0.5m
2. provide and
1 lumpsum 1 800 $800.00
fix Steel box gate of 1 meter wide
and 2.5 m high fabricated from
complete with all iron mongery
and locking devices: including one
coat of primer and two coats of
approved paint. and Price to be
included all nessecary tools and
accessories for installing the
fence wall.
Subtotal $1,100.00
Total $8,180.00

Grand total of this project adds to; 191,870 US Dollars

60
 Chapter Five

5. Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

The main aim of this study was to design a water supply system that efficiently meets

the needs of the target community while ensuring reliability, sustainability, and high-

water quality. Through a detailed analysis and application of modern engineering tools

such as EPANET, this thesis has demonstrated a systematic approach to creating a

robust water distribution network. The hydraulic modelling provided accurate

simulations of flow rates and pressures, ensuring that the system can meet varying

demand scenarios effectively. The integration of water quality modelling further

ensured that the water remains safe and potable from source to tap, addressing public

health concerns comprehensively.

Incorporating redundancy and sustainability into the design, the study highlights the

importance of a resilient water supply system capable of withstanding operational

challenges and environmental impacts. The findings of this study serve as a valuable

resource for future water supply system projects, offering insights into best practices

and innovative solutions for modern water distribution network design.

The key achievements of this study are;

 Accurate Hydraulic Modelling: Successfully utilized EPANET to simulate

and optimize the hydraulic performance of the water distribution network,

53
 ensuring that all areas within the system receive adequate pressure and flow

rates under various demand conditions.

 Enhanced Water Quality Management: Integrated water quality modelling

into the design process, allowing for effective monitoring and management of

chlorine levels and other water quality parameters. This ensures the delivery of

safe and potable water throughout the distribution system.

 System Reliability and Redundancy: Designed a water supply system with

multiple redundancy measures, including backup pumps, alternative supply

routes, and emergency storage, to ensure continuous and reliable water supply

even during peak demand periods and in case of system failures.

 Sustainability and Environmental Considerations: Prioritized sustainability

by selecting energy-efficient pumps, implementing leak detection systems, and

using environmentally friendly materials. These measures help reduce the

environmental footprint of the water supply system.

 Comprehensive Data Analysis and Calibration: Collected and analysed

extensive field data to calibrate the EPANET model, ensuring that the simulated

results closely match real-world observations. This calibration process

enhanced the accuracy and reliability of the design.

 Community-Oriented: Design Focused on the specific needs and

characteristics of the target community, ensuring that the water supply system is

tailored to meet local requirements effectively. This includes accommodating

future population growth and potential changes in water demand.

62
5.2 Recommendations

Designing a sustainable and resilient water supply system is crucial for ensuring

reliable access to safe water, especially amidst growing global challenges like

population growth and climate change. This thesis thoroughly explores different facets

of water supply system design, aiming to optimize efficiency, enhance sustainability,

and ensure water quality management. The recommendations presented here are

distilled from comprehensive research encompassing technological innovations,

stakeholder engagement, regulatory compliance, and cost-effectiveness analysis. Here

are the recommendations for a better water supply system;

 Integration of Sustainable Practices: Emphasize sustainable principles

throughout the design process, including efficient water usage, renewable

energy adoption, and low-impact materials.

 Resilience and Reliability: Address system resilience against climate change

impacts and natural disasters by incorporating redundancy measures and robust

emergency response protocols.

 Water Quality Management: Implement advanced treatment technologies and

rigorous monitoring to ensure consistent, high-quality water supply from source

to consumer.

 Community Engagement and Stakeholder Involvement: Engage local

communities and stakeholders to incorporate their needs and preferences into

the system design, enhancing acceptance and sustainability.

 Technological Innovations: Explore cutting-edge technologies such as smart

meters and predictive analytics to improve operational efficiency and

responsiveness.

63
 Cost-effectiveness and Affordability: Conduct lifecycle cost analyses to

ensure economic feasibility while maintaining system reliability and

sustainability.

 Regulatory Compliance: Ensure compliance with relevant regulations and

standards to safeguard public health and environmental sustainability.

 Future Expansion and Adaptability: Design systems with scalability and

flexibility to accommodate future growth and evolving water demand.

 Case Studies and Comparative Analysis: Provide case studies and

comparative analyses to illustrate effective strategies and lessons learned from

similar water supply systems.

 Conclusion and Implementation: Summarize key findings and provide

actionable recommendations for policymakers and practitioners to apply in

designing and improving water supply systems globally.

64
References
[1] 360, Data. (2010). Average water use per person per day. Retrieved from
http://www.data360.org/dsg.aspx?Data_Set_Group_Id=757

[2] AC Twort, DD Ratnayaka et al. (2000). Water supply.

[3] Ainab, M. W. (2013 ). MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY WATER SOURCES

AND THE SUPPLY OF SAFE DOMESTIC WATER USE IN GARDO
DISTRICT, SOMALIA . Ugandha.

[4] BC Punmia, Ashok Kumar et al. (2010). Water Supply Engineering.

[5] Debela, E. (2015). Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes:The Case of Tulu- Bolo
town and surrounding villages inSouth West Shewa Zone of the Oromia
Regional State. Addis Ababa.

[6] Debela, E. (Jun/2015). Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes:The Case of Tulu-

Bolo town and surrounding villages in South West Shewa Zone of the Oromia
Regional State. Addis Ababa.

[7] Dr.Mahesh, Abdirasak. (2018). AN ASSESSMENT STUDY OF THE

CHALLENGES OF URBAN WATER SUPPLY IN CASE OF GALKAYO
TOWN, PUNTLAND, SOMALIA.

[8] FR, Rijsberman. (2006). Water scarcity: Fact or fiction? Agriculture Water
Management.

[8] Google Earth. (n.d.). https://earth.google.com. (n.d.).

[9] Howard G, Bartram J. (2003). Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health.
Geneva: World Health Organisation.

[10] https://ncrpb.nic.in/NCRBP%20ADB-TA%207055/watersupply/design-
Criteria.html, W. t. (n.d.).

[11] JMP, W. (2010). Progress on sanitation and drinking-water. Geneva and New
york.

[12] Loucks, D. P. (2017). Water Resource Systems Planning and management .

Switzerland: Deltares and UNESCO-IHE.

65
[13] Merga, D. L. (2019). . Assessment of the Water Distribution Network of Adama
City Water Supply System.

[14] Merga, D. L. (2019). Assessment of the Water Distribution Network of Adama

City Water Supply System.

[15] Nations, U. (2003). Indicators for monitoring the Millennium Development

Goals: definitions, rationale, concepts and sources.

[16] Nations, United. (2007). The Millennium Development Goals Report. New York:
United Nations. Retrieved from
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/mdg2007

[17] Nault, William H. (1984). The World Book.

[18] Prüss A, H. A.-r. (2001). The Global Burden of Disease study and applications in
water, sanitation and hygiene. London: IWA Publishing.

[19] Ullah, S. (2016). Territorial diagnostic report of the land resources of Somaliland.
FAO-SWALIM, Nairobi, Kenya.

[20] Urban Water Supply Design Criteria. (2006).

[21] Valentina Zuin, Leonard Ortolano et al. (2011). Water supply services for Africa’s
urban poor: the role of resale.

[22] Welcome to Toolkits Master Plan Preparation. (n.d.).

https://ncrpb.nic.in/NCRBP%20ADB-TA%207055/watersupply/design-
Criteria.html. (n.d.).

66
Appendices
Page 1 06/07/2024
20:30:53

*********************************************************************
*
* E P A N E T
*
* Hydraulic and Water Quality
*
* Analysis for Pipe Networks
*
* Version 2.2
*

*********************************************************************
*

Input File: Salahley1.net

Link - Node Table:

-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Link Start End Length Diameter
ID Node Node m mm
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
15 4 16 300 75
16 16 17 400 50
19 3 9 400 100
23 10 11 400 75
24 11 29 470 25
25 11 43 400 25
28 11 30 700 75
30 31 40 200 75
32 41 40 150 25
38 6 25 300 75
39 25 26 400 75
42 6 23 200 75
43 23 37 300 25
46 10 46 320 50
47 10 47 250 50
50 6 7 400 25
51 40 50 160 25
52 40 51 230 50
59 4 10 300 125
60 3 4 450 200
62 9 33 450 50
63 21 54 420 50
8 28 15 200 75
9 28 2 100 50
3 25 49 200 25
4 26 27 150 50
5 45 31 100 75
6 5 4 500 200
10 5 6 400 200

67
 11 5 28 800 75
12 5 54 500 75
13 3 42 200 50
14 8 42 90 25
17 9 45 500 100
18 53 16 60 50
20 17 52 90 25
21 12 23 80 50

Page 2
Link - Node Table: (continued)
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Link Start End Length Diameter
ID Node Node m mm
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
22 23 13 150 50
26 30 19 90 50
27 20 19 100 25
29 30 22 100 25
31 24 46 50 50
33 18 46 50 25
34 53 32 90 50
35 53 34 100 50
36 47 35 100 25
37 47 36 100 25
40 44 16 90 25
41 44 39 90 25
44 44 38 90 25
45 54 48 70 25
7 14 3 800 200
PI1 2 J1 80 50
PI2 15 J2 100 50
PI3 J2 J3 90 50
PI4 J2 J4 85 25
PI5 43 J5 100 50
PI6 9 J6 70 50
PI7 46 J7 55 50
PI10 22 J10 100 50
PI13 2 J11 100 25
PI11 J6 J13 120 50
PI12 J6 J12 120 50
PI14 13 J18 110 25
PI15 12 J14 120 50
PI16 12 J15 120 50
PI17 48 J16 120 50
PI18 J17 48 120 25
PI19 54 J19 80 25
1 1 14 #N/A #N/A
Pump
V1 3 4 #N/A 200
Valve
V2 3 9 #N/A 12
Valve

Energy Usage:
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---

68
 Usage Avg. Kw-hr Avg. Peak
Cost
Pump Factor Effic. /m3 Kw Kw
/day
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
1 100.00 75.00 0.32 38.89 38.97
0.00
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Demand Charge:
0.00
Total Cost:
0.00

Page 3
Node Results at 0:00 Hrs:
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Node Demand Head Pressure Quality
ID LPS m m hours
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
3 1.20 1230.78 38.82 0.00
4 1.20 1229.35 13.75 0.00
6 1.20 1228.85 12.95 0.00
7 0.10 1226.75 10.75 0.00
9 1.20 1227.22 29.02 0.00
10 0.70 1228.51 16.61 0.00
11 0.50 1225.11 9.91 0.00
16 2.00 1225.03 11.03 0.00
17 0.20 1224.48 15.58 0.00
21 0.40 1226.07 14.07 0.00
23 0.32 1228.08 14.48 0.00
25 0.30 1228.32 6.82 0.00
26 0.30 1228.04 3.34 0.00
27 0.30 1227.84 8.04 0.00
28 0.30 1223.44 3.44 0.00
29 0.18 1217.58 0.08 0.00
30 0.50 1222.95 4.35 0.00
31 0.90 1225.07 15.77 0.00
33 0.30 1226.60 22.60 0.00
37 0.10 1226.51 16.61 0.00
40 0.60 1224.72 14.92 0.00
41 0.20 1221.88 11.88 0.00
42 0.20 1230.50 36.30 0.00
43 0.00 1209.06 -7.14 0.00
45 1.00 1225.65 18.75 0.00
46 0.56 1221.30 10.50 0.00
47 0.26 1227.56 15.06 0.00
49 0.10 1227.27 10.07 0.00
50 0.00 1224.71 13.41 0.00
51 0.20 1224.57 16.27 0.00
52 0.10 1224.01 8.11 0.00
53 0.10 1224.82 13.82 0.00
54 0.30 1227.05 19.05 0.00
2 0.30 1222.87 1.87 0.00
15 0.03 1223.00 0.00 0.00
5 1.50 1228.92 12.92 0.00

69
 8 0.10 1230.03 34.03 0.00
12 0.30 1227.55 12.55 0.00
13 0.20 1227.73 17.73 0.00
18 0.25 1219.87 7.87 0.00
19 0.20 1222.74 4.74 0.00
20 0.20 1220.85 1.85 0.00
22 0.15 1214.45 3.45 0.00
24 0.25 1221.25 8.25 0.00
32 0.20 1224.76 14.76 0.00
34 0.20 1224.76 13.26 0.00
35 0.12 1226.82 21.82 0.00

Page 4
Node Results at 0:00 Hrs: (continued)
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Node Demand Head Pressure Quality
ID LPS m m hours
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
36 0.14 1226.58 20.58 0.00
38 0.10 1220.95 12.95 0.00
39 0.10 1220.95 13.95 0.00
44 0.10 1221.42 13.42 0.00
48 0.20 1216.91 8.91 0.00
J1 0.20 1222.82 17.82 0.00
J2 0.50 1221.48 5.78 0.00
J3 0.30 1221.36 7.26 0.00
J4 0.30 1218.07 1.07 0.00
J5 0.30 1208.93 7.93 0.00
J6 0.20 1226.76 27.56 0.00
J7 0.30 1221.22 17.22 0.00
J10 0.30 1214.31 4.31 0.00
J11 0.15 1221.76 5.56 0.00
J12 0.30 1226.59 25.69 0.00
J13 0.20 1226.68 25.18 0.00
J14 0.20 1227.48 10.88 0.00
J15 0.20 1227.48 12.98 0.00
J16 0.20 1216.83 9.83 0.00
J17 0.20 1214.64 3.64 0.00
J18 0.20 1225.65 5.65 0.00
J19 0.20 1225.53 15.03 0.00
1 -33.88 1150.00 0.00 0.00 Reservoir
14 9.17 1235.30 0.30 0.00 Tank

Link Results at 0:00 Hrs:

-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Link Flow VelocityUnit Headloss Status
ID LPS m/s m/km
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
15 3.10 0.70 14.38 Open
16 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
19 5.10 0.65 8.90 Open
23 2.33 0.53 8.49 Open
24 0.18 0.37 16.01 Open
25 0.30 0.61 40.11 Open
28 1.35 0.31 3.08 Open
30 1.00 0.23 1.77 Open

70
 32 -0.20 0.41 18.92 Open
38 1.00 0.23 1.77 Open
39 0.60 0.14 0.69 Open
42 1.52 0.34 3.84 Open
43 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
46 1.36 0.69 22.53 Open
47 0.52 0.26 3.80 Open
50 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
51 0.00 0.00 0.03 Open

Page 5
Link Results at 0:00 Hrs: (continued)
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Link Flow VelocityUnit Headloss Status
ID LPS m/s m/km
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
52 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
59 4.91 0.40 2.80 Open
60 18.11 0.58 3.18 Open
62 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
63 -0.40 0.20 2.34 Open
8 1.13 0.26 2.21 Open
9 0.65 0.33 5.74 Open
3 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
4 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
5 1.90 0.43 5.81 Open
6 -8.90 0.28 0.85 Open
10 3.82 0.12 0.18 Open
11 2.08 0.47 6.85 Open
12 1.50 0.34 3.75 Open
13 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
14 -0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
17 2.90 0.37 3.13 Open
18 -0.50 0.25 3.53 Open
20 0.10 0.20 5.24 Open
21 -0.70 0.36 6.58 Open
22 0.40 0.20 2.34 Open
26 0.40 0.20 2.34 Open
27 -0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
29 0.45 0.92 85.00 Open
31 -0.25 0.13 0.98 Open
33 -0.25 0.51 28.62 Open
34 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
35 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
36 0.12 0.24 7.35 Open
37 0.14 0.29 9.78 Open
40 -0.30 0.61 40.12 Open
41 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
44 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
45 0.60 1.22 144.82 Open
7 24.71 0.79 5.65 Open
PI1 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI2 1.10 0.56 15.21 Open
PI3 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI4 0.30 0.61 40.11 Open
PI5 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI6 0.70 0.36 6.59 Open
PI7 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open

71
 PI10 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI13 0.15 0.31 11.11 Open
PI11 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI12 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI14 0.20 0.41 18.93 Open

Page 6
Link Results at 0:00 Hrs: (continued)
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Link Flow VelocityUnit Headloss Status
ID LPS m/s m/km
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
PI15 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI16 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI17 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI18 -0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
PI19 0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
1 33.88 0.00 -85.30 Open Pump
V1 0.00 0.00 1.43 Active Valve
V2 0.00 0.00 0.00 Closed Valve

Node Results at 1:00 Hrs:

-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Node Demand Head Pressure Quality
ID LPS m m hours
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
3 1.20 1233.31 41.35 0.41
4 1.20 1231.84 16.24 0.57
6 1.20 1231.31 15.41 1.00
7 0.10 1229.22 13.22 1.00
9 1.20 1229.49 31.29 0.50
10 0.70 1230.99 19.09 0.73
11 0.50 1227.55 12.35 0.90
16 2.00 1227.52 13.52 0.67
17 0.20 1226.97 18.07 1.00
21 0.40 1228.53 16.53 1.00
23 0.32 1230.55 16.95 1.00
25 0.30 1230.78 9.28 1.00
26 0.30 1230.51 5.81 1.00
27 0.30 1230.30 10.50 1.00
28 0.30 1224.50 4.50 1.00
29 0.20 1218.65 1.15 1.00
30 0.50 1225.39 6.79 1.00
31 0.90 1227.02 17.72 0.85
33 0.30 1228.87 24.87 1.00
37 0.10 1228.97 19.07 1.00
40 0.60 1226.52 16.72 1.00
41 0.20 1223.68 13.68 1.00
42 0.20 1233.04 38.84 0.70
43 0.00 1211.50 -4.70 1.00
45 1.00 1227.72 20.82 0.83
46 0.56 1223.78 12.98 0.83
47 0.26 1230.04 17.54 0.96
49 0.10 1229.73 12.53 1.00
50 0.20 1223.49 12.19 1.00
51 0.20 1226.37 18.07 1.00

72
 52 0.10 1226.50 10.60 1.00
53 0.10 1227.31 16.31 0.70
54 0.30 1229.51 21.51 1.00

Page 7
Node Results at 1:00 Hrs: (continued)
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Node Demand Head Pressure Quality
ID LPS m m hours
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
2 0.30 1223.93 2.93 1.00
15 0.30 1223.84 0.84 1.00
5 1.50 1231.38 15.38 0.93
8 0.10 1232.56 36.56 0.79
12 0.30 1230.02 15.02 1.00
13 0.20 1230.20 20.20 1.00
18 0.25 1222.35 10.35 0.87
19 0.20 1225.18 7.18 1.00
20 0.20 1223.29 4.29 1.00
22 0.15 1216.89 5.89 1.00
24 0.25 1223.73 10.73 0.93
32 0.20 1227.25 17.25 0.88
34 0.20 1227.25 15.75 0.94
35 0.12 1229.31 24.31 1.00
36 0.14 1229.06 23.06 1.00
38 0.10 1223.44 15.44 0.80
39 0.10 1223.44 16.44 0.80
44 0.10 1223.91 15.91 0.70
48 0.20 1219.37 11.37 1.00
J1 0.20 1223.87 18.87 1.00
J2 0.50 1222.32 6.62 1.00
J3 0.30 1222.20 8.10 1.00
J4 0.30 1218.91 1.91 1.00
J5 0.30 1211.36 10.36 1.00
J6 0.20 1229.02 29.82 0.56
J7 0.30 1223.71 19.71 0.93
J10 0.30 1216.75 6.75 1.00
J11 0.15 1222.81 6.61 1.00
J12 0.30 1228.86 27.96 0.74
J13 0.20 1228.95 27.45 0.81
J14 0.20 1229.94 13.34 1.00
J15 0.20 1229.94 15.44 1.00
J16 0.20 1219.30 12.30 1.00
J17 0.20 1217.10 6.10 1.00
J18 0.20 1228.11 8.11 1.00
J19 0.20 1228.00 17.50 1.00
1 -33.81 1150.00 0.00 0.00 Reservoir
14 8.61 1238.00 3.00 0.21 Tank

73
 Page 8
Link Results at 1:00 Hrs:
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Link Flow VelocityUnit Headloss Status
ID LPS m/s m/km
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
15 3.10 0.70 14.38 Open
16 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
19 5.30 0.67 9.56 Open
23 2.35 0.53 8.61 Open
24 0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
25 0.30 0.61 40.11 Open
28 1.35 0.31 3.08 Open
30 1.20 0.27 2.48 Open
32 -0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
38 1.00 0.23 1.77 Open
39 0.60 0.14 0.69 Open
42 1.52 0.34 3.84 Open
43 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
46 1.36 0.69 22.53 Open
47 0.52 0.26 3.80 Open
50 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
51 0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
52 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
59 4.93 0.40 2.82 Open
60 18.40 0.59 3.27 Open
62 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
63 -0.40 0.20 2.34 Open
8 1.40 0.32 3.30 Open
9 0.65 0.33 5.74 Open
3 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
4 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
5 2.10 0.48 6.99 Open
6 -9.17 0.29 0.90 Open
10 3.82 0.12 0.18 Open
11 2.35 0.53 8.61 Open
12 1.50 0.34 3.75 Open
13 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
14 -0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
17 3.10 0.39 3.54 Open
18 -0.50 0.25 3.53 Open
20 0.10 0.20 5.24 Open
21 -0.70 0.36 6.58 Open
22 0.40 0.20 2.34 Open
26 0.40 0.20 2.33 Open
27 -0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
29 0.45 0.92 85.00 Open
31 -0.25 0.13 0.98 Open
33 -0.25 0.51 28.62 Open
34 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
35 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
36 0.12 0.24 7.35 Open
37 0.14 0.29 9.78 Open

74
 Page 9
Link Results at 1:00 Hrs: (continued)
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
Link Flow VelocityUnit Headloss Status
ID LPS m/s m/km
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
40 -0.30 0.61 40.12 Open
41 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
44 0.10 0.20 5.25 Open
45 0.60 1.22 144.82 Open
7 25.20 0.80 5.86 Open
PI1 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI2 1.10 0.56 15.21 Open
PI3 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI4 0.30 0.61 40.11 Open
PI5 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI6 0.70 0.36 6.59 Open
PI7 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI10 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI13 0.15 0.31 11.11 Open
PI11 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI12 0.30 0.15 1.37 Open
PI14 0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
PI15 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI16 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI17 0.20 0.10 0.65 Open
PI18 -0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
PI19 0.20 0.41 18.93 Open
1 33.81 0.00 -88.00 Open Pump
V1 0.00 0.00 1.47 Active Valve
V2 0.00 0.00 0.00 Closed Valve

75